Artículos de revistas: "Air-Sea CO2 exchanges"

1

Asselot, Rémy, Frank Lunkeit, Philip B. Holden y Inga Hense. "Climate pathways behind phytoplankton-induced atmospheric warming". Biogeosciences 19, n.º 1 (14 de enero de 2022): 223–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-223-2022.

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Abstract. We investigate the ways in which marine biologically mediated heating increases the surface atmospheric temperature. While the effects of phytoplankton light absorption on the ocean have gained attention over the past years, the impact of this biogeophysical mechanism on the atmosphere is still unclear. Phytoplankton light absorption warms the surface of the ocean, which in turn affects the air–sea heat and CO2 exchanges. However, the contribution of air–sea heat versus CO2 fluxes in the phytoplankton-induced atmospheric warming has not been yet determined. Different so-called climate pathways are involved. We distinguish heat exchange, CO2 exchange, dissolved CO2, solubility of CO2 and sea-ice-covered area. To shed more light on this subject, we employ the EcoGEnIE Earth system model that includes a new light penetration scheme and isolate the effects of individual fluxes. Our results indicate that phytoplankton-induced changes in air–sea CO2 exchange warm the atmosphere by 0.71 ∘C due to higher greenhouse gas concentrations. The phytoplankton-induced changes in air–sea heat exchange cool the atmosphere by 0.02 ∘C due to a larger amount of outgoing longwave radiation. Overall, the enhanced air–sea CO2 exchange due to phytoplankton light absorption is the main driver in the biologically induced atmospheric heating.

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2

Valsala, Vinu y Raghu Murtugudde. "Mesoscale and intraseasonal air–sea CO2 exchanges in the western Arabian Sea during boreal summer". Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 103 (septiembre de 2015): 101–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2015.06.001.

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3

Bates, N. R. y J. T. Mathis. "The Arctic Ocean marine carbon cycle: evaluation of air-sea CO2 exchanges, ocean acidification impacts and potential feedbacks". Biogeosciences 6, n.º 11 (5 de noviembre de 2009): 2433–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-6-2433-2009.

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Abstract. At present, although seasonal sea-ice cover mitigates atmosphere-ocean gas exchange, the Arctic Ocean takes up carbon dioxide (CO2) on the order of −66 to −199 Tg C year−1 (1012 g C), contributing 5–14% to the global balance of CO2 sinks and sources. Because of this, the Arctic Ocean has an important influence on the global carbon cycle, with the marine carbon cycle and atmosphere-ocean CO2 exchanges sensitive to Arctic Ocean and global climate change feedbacks. In the near-term, further sea-ice loss and increases in phytoplankton growth rates are expected to increase the uptake of CO2 by Arctic Ocean surface waters, although mitigated somewhat by surface warming in the Arctic. Thus, the capacity of the Arctic Ocean to uptake CO2 is expected to alter in response to environmental changes driven largely by climate. These changes are likely to continue to modify the physics, biogeochemistry, and ecology of the Arctic Ocean in ways that are not yet fully understood. In surface waters, sea-ice melt, river runoff, cooling and uptake of CO2 through air-sea gas exchange combine to decrease the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) mineral saturation states (Ω) of seawater while seasonal phytoplankton primary production (PP) mitigates this effect. Biological amplification of ocean acidification effects in subsurface waters, due to the remineralization of organic matter, is likely to reduce the ability of many species to produce CaCO3 shells or tests with profound implications for Arctic marine ecosystems

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4

Stolle, Christian, Mariana Ribas-Ribas, Thomas H. Badewien, Jonathan Barnes, Lucy J. Carpenter, Rosie Chance, Lars Riis Damgaard et al. "The MILAN Campaign: Studying Diel Light Effects on the Air–Sea Interface". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 101, n.º 2 (1 de febrero de 2020): E146—E166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-17-0329.1.

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Abstract The sea surface microlayer (SML) at the air–sea interface is <1 mm thick, but it is physically, chemically, and biologically distinct from the underlying water and the atmosphere above. Wind-driven turbulence and solar radiation are important drivers of SML physical and biogeochemical properties. Given that the SML is involved in all air–sea exchanges of mass and energy, its response to solar radiation, especially in relation to how it regulates the air–sea exchange of climate-relevant gases and aerosols, is surprisingly poorly characterized. MILAN (Sea Surface Microlayer at Night) was an international, multidisciplinary campaign designed to specifically address this issue. In spring 2017, we deployed diverse sampling platforms (research vessels, radio-controlled catamaran, free-drifting buoy) to study full diel cycles in the coastal North Sea SML and in underlying water, and installed a land-based aerosol sampler. We also carried out concurrent ex situ experiments using several microsensors, a laboratory gas exchange tank, a solar simulator, and a sea spray simulation chamber. In this paper we outline the diversity of approaches employed and some initial results obtained during MILAN. Our observations of diel SML variability show, for example, an influence of (i) changing solar radiation on the quantity and quality of organic material and (ii) diel changes in wind intensity primarily forcing air–sea CO2 exchange. Thus, MILAN underlines the value and the need of multidiciplinary campaigns for integrating SML complexity into the context of air–sea interaction.

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5

Chen, C. T. A., T. H. Huang, Y. C. Chen, Y. Bai, X. He y Y. Kang. "Air–sea exchanges of CO2 in the world's coastal seas". Biogeosciences 10, n.º 10 (15 de octubre de 2013): 6509–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-6509-2013.

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Abstract. The air–sea exchanges of CO2 in the world's 165 estuaries and 87 continental shelves are evaluated. Generally and in all seasons, upper estuaries with salinities of less than two are strong sources of CO2 (39 ± 56 mol C m−2 yr−1, positive flux indicates that the water is losing CO2 to the atmosphere); mid-estuaries with salinities of between 2 and 25 are moderate sources (17.5 ± 34 mol C m−2 yr−1) and lower estuaries with salinities of more than 25 are weak sources (8.4 ± 14 mol C m−2 yr−1). With respect to latitude, estuaries between 23.5 and 50° N have the largest flux per unit area (63 ± 101 mmol C m−2 d−1); these are followed by lower-latitude estuaries (23.5–0° S: 44 ± 29 mmol C m−2 d−1; 0–23.5° N: 39 ± 55 mmol C m−2 d−1), and then regions north of 50° N (36 ± 91 mmol C m−2 d−1). Estuaries south of 50° S have the smallest flux per unit area (9.5 ± 12 mmol C m−2 d−1). Mixing with low-pCO2 shelf waters, water temperature, residence time and the complexity of the biogeochemistry are major factors that govern the pCO2 in estuaries, but wind speed, seldom discussed, is critical to controlling the air–water exchanges of CO2. The total annual release of CO2 from the world's estuaries is now estimated to be 0.10 Pg C yr−1, which is much lower than published values mainly because of the contribution of a considerable amount of heretofore unpublished or new data from Asia and the Arctic. The Asian data, although indicating high pCO2, are low in sea-to-air fluxes because of low wind speeds. Previously determined flux values rely heavily on data from Europe and North America, where pCO2 is lower but wind speeds are much higher, such that the CO2 fluxes are higher than in Asia. Newly emerged CO2 flux data in the Arctic reveal that estuaries there mostly absorb rather than release CO2. Most continental shelves, and especially those at high latitude, are undersaturated in terms of CO2 and absorb CO2 from the atmosphere in all seasons. Shelves between 0 and 23.5° S are on average a weak source and have a small flux per unit area of CO2 to the atmosphere. Water temperature, the spreading of river plumes, upwelling, and biological production seem to be the main factors in determining pCO2 in the shelves. Wind speed, again, is critical because at high latitudes, the winds tend to be strong. Since the surface water pCO2 values are low, the air-to-sea fluxes are high in regions above 50° N and below 50° S. At low latitudes, the winds tend to be weak, so the sea-to-air CO2 flux is small. Overall, the world's continental shelves absorb 0.4 Pg C yr−1 from the atmosphere.

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6

Bates, N. R. y J. T. Mathis. "The Arctic Ocean marine carbon cycle: evaluation of air-sea CO2 exchanges, ocean acidification impacts and potential feedbacks". Biogeosciences Discussions 6, n.º 4 (9 de julio de 2009): 6695–747. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-6-6695-2009.

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Abstract. At present, although seasonal sea-ice cover mitigates atmosphere-ocean gas exchange, the Arctic Ocean takes up carbon dioxide (CO2) on the order of −65 to −175 Tg C year−1, contributing 5–14% to the global balance of CO2 sinks and sources. Because of this, the Arctic Ocean is an important influence on the global carbon cycle, with the marine carbon cycle and atmosphere-ocean CO2 exchanges sensitive to Arctic Ocean and global climate change feedbacks. In the near-term, further sea-ice loss and increases in phytoplankton growth rates are expected to increase the uptake of CO2 by Arctic surface waters, although mitigated somewhat by surface warming in the Arctic. Thus, the capacity of the Arctic Ocean to uptake CO2 is expected to alter in response to environmental changes driven largely by climate. These changes are likely to continue to modify the physics, biogeochemistry, and ecology of the Arctic Ocean in ways that are not yet fully understood. In surface waters, sea-ice melt, river runoff, cooling and uptake of CO2 through air-sea gas exchange combine to decrease the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) mineral saturation states (Ω) of seawater that is counteracted by seasonal phytoplankton primary production (PP). Biological processes drive divergent trajectories for Ω in surface and subsurface waters of Arctic shelves with subsurface water experiencing undersaturation with respect to aragonite and calcite. Thus, in response to increased sea-ice loss, warming and enhanced phytoplankton PP, the benthic ecosystem of the Arctic shelves are expected to be negatively impacted by the biological amplification of ocean acidification. This in turn reduces the ability of many species to produce CaCO3 shells or tests with profound implications for Arctic marine ecosystems.

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7

Uglietti, C., M. Leuenberger y D. Brunner. "Large-scale European source and flow patterns retrieved from back-trajectory interpretations of CO2 at the high alpine research station Jungfraujoch". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 11, n.º 1 (11 de enero de 2011): 813–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-11-813-2011.

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Abstract. The University of Bern monitors carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) at the High Altitude Research Station Jungfraujoch since the year 2000 by means of flasks sampling and since 2005 using a continuous in situ measurement system. This study investigates the transport of CO2 and O2 towards Jungfraujoch using backward trajectories to classify the air masses with respect to their CO2 and O2 signatures. By investigating trajectories associated with distinct CO2 concentrations it is possible to decipher different source and sink areas over Europe. The highest CO2 concentrations, for example, were observed in winter during pollution episodes when air was transported from Northeastern Europe towards the Alps, or during south Foehn events with rapid uplift of polluted air from Northern Italy, as demonstrated in two case studies. To study the importance of air-sea exchange for variations in O2 concentrations at Jungfraujoch the correlation between CO2 and APO (Atmospheric Potential Oxygen) deviations from a seasonally varying background was analyzed. Anomalously high APO concentrations were clearly associated with air masses originating from the Atlantic Ocean, whereas low APO concentrations were found in air masses advected either from the east from the Eurasian continent in summer, or from the Eastern Mediterranean in winter. Those air masses with low APO in summer were also strongly depleted in CO2 suggesting a combination of CO2 uptake by vegetation and O2 uptake by dry summer soils. Other clusters of points in the APO–CO2 scatter plot investigated with respect to air mass origin included CO2 and APO background values and points with regular APO but anomalous CO2 concentrations. Background values were associated with free tropospheric air masses with little contact with the boundary layer during the last few days, while high or low CO2 concentrations reflect the various levels of influence of anthropogenic emissions and the biosphere. The pronounced cycles of CO2 and O2 exchanges with the biosphere and the ocean cause clusters of points and lead to a seasonal pattern.

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8

Uglietti, C., M. Leuenberger y D. Brunner. "European source and sink areas of CO2 retrieved from Lagrangian transport model interpretation of combined O2 and CO2 measurements at the high alpine research station Jungfraujoch". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 11, n.º 15 (8 de agosto de 2011): 8017–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-8017-2011.

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Abstract. The University of Bern monitors carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) at the High Altitude Research Station Jungfraujoch since the year 2000 by means of flasks sampling and since 2005 using a continuous in situ measurement system. This study investigates the transport of CO2 and O2 towards Jungfraujoch using backward Lagrangian Particle Dispersion Model (LPDM) simulations and utilizes CO2 and O2 signatures to classify air masses. By investigating the simulated transport patterns associated with distinct CO2 concentrations it is possible to decipher different source and sink areas over Europe. The highest CO2 concentrations, for example, were observed in winter during pollution episodes when air was transported from Northeastern Europe towards the Alps, or during south Foehn events with rapid uplift of polluted air from Northern Italy, as demonstrated in two case studies. To study the importance of air-sea exchange for variations in O2 concentrations at Jungfraujoch the correlation between CO2 and APO (Atmospheric Potential Oxygen) deviations from a seasonally varying background was analyzed. Anomalously high APO concentrations were clearly associated with air masses originating from the Atlantic Ocean, whereas low APO concentrations were found in air masses advected either from the east from the Eurasian continent in summer, or from the Eastern Mediterranean in winter. Those air masses with low APO in summer were also strongly depleted in CO2 suggesting a combination of CO2 uptake by vegetation and O2 uptake by dry summer soils. Other subsets of points in the APO-CO2 scatter plot investigated with respect to air mass origin included CO2 and APO background values and points with regular APO but anomalous CO2 concentrations. Background values were associated with free tropospheric air masses with little contact with the boundary layer during the last few days, while high or low CO2 concentrations reflect the various levels of influence of anthropogenic emissions and the biosphere. The pronounced cycles of CO2 and O2 exchanges with the biosphere and the ocean cause clusters of points and lead to a seasonal pattern.

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9

Chen, C. T. A., T. H. Huang, Y. C. Chen, Y. Bai, X. He y Y. Kang. "Review article "Air-sea exchanges of CO2 in world's coastal seas"". Biogeosciences Discussions 10, n.º 3 (13 de marzo de 2013): 5041–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-10-5041-2013.

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Abstract. The air-sea exchanges of CO2 in the world's 165 estuaries and 87 continental shelves are evaluated. Generally and in all seasons, upper estuaries with salinities of less than two are strong sources of CO2 (39 &pm; 56 mol C m−2 yr−1, negative flux indicates that the water is losing CO2 to the atmosphere); mid-estuaries with salinities of between 2 and 25 are moderate sources (17.5 ± 34 mol C m−2 yr−1) and lower estuaries with salinities of more than 25 are weak sources (8.4 ± 14 mol C m−2 yr−1). With respect to latitude, estuaries between 23.5 and 50° N have the largest flux per unit area (63 ± 101 mmol C m−2 d−1); these are followed by mid-latitude estuaries (23.5–0° S: 44 ± 29 mmol C m−2 d−1; 0–23.5° N: 39 ± 55 mmol C m−2 d−1), and then regions north of 50° N (36 ± 91 mmol C m−2 d−1). Estuaries south of 50° S have the smallest flux per unit area (9.5 ± 12 molC m−2 d−1). Mixing with low-pCO2 shelf waters, water temperature, residence time and the complexity of the biogeochemistry are major factors that govern the pCO2 in estuaries but wind speed, seldom discussed, is critical to controlling the air-water exchanges of CO2. The total annual release of CO2 from the world's estuaries is now estimated to be 0.10 PgC yr−1, which is much lower than published values mainly because of the contribution of a considerable amount of heretofore unpublished or new data from Asia and the Arctic. The Asian data, although indicating high in pCO2, are low in sea-to-air fluxes because the wind speeds are lower than previously determined values, which rely heavily on data from Europe and North America, where pCO2 is lower but wind speeds are much higher, such that the CO2 fluxes are higher than in Asia. Newly emerged CO2 flux data in the Arctic reveal that estuaries there mostly absorb, rather than release CO2. Most continental shelves, and especially those at high latitude, are under-saturated in terms of CO2 and absorb CO2 from the atmosphere in all seasons. Shelves between 0° and 23.5° S are on average a weak source and have a small flux per unit area of CO2 to the atmosphere. Water temperature, the spreading of river plumes, upwelling, and biological production seem to be the main factors in determining pCO2 in the shelves. Wind speed, again, is critical because at high latitudes, the winds tend to be strong. Since the surface water pCO2 values are low, the air-to-sea fluxes are high in regions above 50° N and below 50° S. At low latitudes, the winds tend to be weak, so the sea-to-air CO2 flux is small. Overall, the world's continental shelves absorb 0.4 PgC yr−1 from the atmosphere.

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10

Yu, Shujie, Zhixuan Wang, Zhiting Jiang, Teng Li, Xiaosong Ding, Xiaodao Wei y Dong Liu. "Marine Heatwave and Terrestrial Drought Reduced CO2 Uptake in the East China Sea in 2022". Remote Sensing 16, n.º 5 (29 de febrero de 2024): 849. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs16050849.

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Against the background of climate warming, marine heatwaves (MHWs) and terrestrial drought events have become increasingly frequent in recent decades. However, the combined effects of MHWs and terrestrial drought on CO2 uptake in marginal seas are still unclear. The East China Sea (ECS) experienced an intense and long-lasting MHW accompanied by an extreme terrestrial drought in the Changjiang basin in the summer of 2022. In this study, we employed multi-source satellite remote sensing products to reveal the patterns, magnitude, and potential drivers of CO2 flux changes in the ECS resulting from the compounding MHW and terrestrial drought extremes. The CO2 uptake of the ECS reduced by 17.0% (1.06 Tg C) in the latter half of 2022 and the Changjiang River plume region shifted from a CO2 sink to a source (releasing 0.11 Tg C) in July-September. In the majority of the ECS, the positive sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly during the MHW diminished the solubility of CO2 in seawater, thereby reducing CO2 uptake. Moreover, the reduction in nutrient input associated with terrestrial drought, which is unfavorable to phytoplankton growth, further reduced the capacity of CO2 uptake. Meanwhile, the CO2 sink doubled for the offshore waters of the ECS continental shelf in July-September 2022, indicating the complexity and heterogeneity of the impacts of extreme climatic events in marginal seas. This study is of great significance in improving the estimation results of CO2 fluxes in marginal seas and understanding sea–air CO2 exchanges against the background of global climate change.

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11

Gypens, N., C. Lancelot y A. V. Borges. "Carbon dynamics and CO2 air-sea exchanges in the eutrophied coastal waters of the southern bight of the North Sea: a modelling study". Biogeosciences Discussions 1, n.º 1 (7 de septiembre de 2004): 561–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-1-561-2004.

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Abstract. A description of the carbonate system has been incorporated in the MIRO biogeochemical model to investigate the contribution of diatom and Phaeocystis blooms to the seasonal dynamics of air-sea CO2 exchanges in the Eastern Channel and Southern Bight of the North Sea with focus on the eutrophied Belgian coastal waters. For this application the model was implemented in a simplified three-box representation of the hydrodynamics including the open ocean boundary box ‘Western English Channel’ (WCH) and the ‘French Coastal Zone’ (FCZ) and ‘Belgian Coastal Zone’ (BCZ) boxes receiving carbon and nutrients from the rivers Seine and Scheldt, respectively. Results were obtained by running the model for the 1996–1999 period. The predicted partial pressures of CO2 (pCO2) were successfully compared with data recorded over the same period in the central BCZ at station 330 (51°26.05′ N; 002°48.50′ E). Budget calculations based on model simulations of carbon flow rates indicated for BCZ a low annual sink of atmospheric CO2 (−0.17 mol C m−2 y−1). On the opposite surface water pCO2 in WCH was estimated in annual equilibrium with respect to atmospheric CO2. The relative contribution of biological, chemical and physical processes to the modelled pCO2 seasonal variability in BCZ was further explored by running model scenarios with separate closures of biological activities and carbon rivers inputs. The suppression of biological processes reversed direction of the CO2 flux in BCZ that became, on an annual scale, a significant source for atmospheric CO2 (+0.58 mol C m−2 y−1). Overall biological activity had a stronger influence on the modelled seasonal cycle of pCO2 than temperature. Especially Phaeocystis colonies which spring growth was associated with an important sink of atmospheric CO2 that counteracted the temperature-driven increase of pCO2 in spring. On the other hand, river inputs of organic and inorganic carbon were shown to increasing water pCO2 and hence emission of CO2 to the atmosphere. Same calculations conducted in WCH, showed that temperature was the main factor controlling the seasonal pCO2 cycle in these waters. The effect of interannual variations of fresh water discharge (and related nutrient and carbon inputs), temperature and wind speed was further explored by running scenarios with forcings typical of two contrasted years (1996 and 1999). Based on these simulations, the model predicts significant variations in the intensity and direction of the annual air-sea CO2 flux.

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12

Gypens, N., C. Lancelot y A. V. Borges. "Carbon dynamics and CO2 air-sea exchanges in the eutrophied coastal waters of the Southern Bight of the North Sea: a modelling study". Biogeosciences 1, n.º 2 (23 de diciembre de 2004): 147–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-1-147-2004.

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Abstract. A description of the carbonate system has been incorporated in the MIRO biogeochemical model to investigate the contribution of diatom and Phaeocystis blooms to the seasonal dynamics of air-sea CO2 exchanges in the Eastern Channel and Southern Bight of the North Sea, with focus on the eutrophied Belgian coastal waters. For this application, the model was implemented in a simplified three-box representation of the hydrodynamics with the open ocean boundary box ‘Western English Channel’ (WCH) and the ‘French Coastal Zone’ (FCZ) and ‘Belgian Coastal Zone’ (BCZ) boxes receiving carbon and nutrients from the rivers Seine and Scheldt, respectively. Results were obtained by running the model for the 1996–1999 period. The simulated partial pressures of CO2 (pCO2) were successfully compared with data recorded over the same period in the central BCZ at station 330 (51°26.05′ N; 002°48.50′ E). Budget calculations based on model simulations of carbon flow rates indicated for BCZ a low annual sink of atmospheric CO2 (−0.17 mol C m-2 y-1). On the opposite, surface water pCO2 in WCH was estimated to be at annual equilibrium with respect to atmospheric CO2. The relative contribution of biological, chemical and physical processes to the modelled seasonal variability of pCO2 in BCZ was further explored by running model scenarios with separate closures of biological activities and/or river inputs of carbon. The suppression of biological processes reversed direction of the CO2 flux in BCZ that became, on an annual scale, a significant source for atmospheric CO2 (+0.53 mol C m-2 y-1). Overall biological activity had a stronger influence on the modelled seasonal cycle of pCO2 than temperature. Especially Phaeocystis colonies which growth in spring were associated with an important sink of atmospheric CO2 that counteracted the temperature-driven increase of pCO2 at this period of the year. However, river inputs of organic and inorganic carbon were shown to increase the surface water pCO2 and hence the emission of CO2 to the atmosphere. Same calculations conducted in WCH, showed that temperature was the main factor controlling the seasonal pCO2 cycle in these open ocean waters. The effect of interannual variations of fresh water discharge (and related nutrient and carbon inputs), temperature and wind speed was further explored by running scenarios with forcing typical of two contrasted years (1996 and 1999). Based on these simulations, the model predicts significant variations in the intensity and direction of the annual air-sea CO2 flux.

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13

Ulses, Caroline, Claude Estournel, Patrick Marsaleix, Karline Soetaert, Marine Fourrier, Laurent Coppola, Dominique Lefèvre et al. "Seasonal dynamics and annual budget of dissolved inorganic carbon in the northwestern Mediterranean deep-convection region". Biogeosciences 20, n.º 22 (28 de noviembre de 2023): 4683–710. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-4683-2023.

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Abstract. Deep convection plays a key role in the circulation, thermodynamics, and biogeochemical cycles in the Mediterranean Sea, which is considered to be a hotspot of biodiversity and climate change. In the framework of the DEWEX (Dense Water Experiment) project, the seasonal and annual budgets of dissolved inorganic carbon in the deep-convection area of the northwestern Mediterranean Sea are investigated over the period September 2012–September 2013 using a 3D coupled physical–biogeochemical–chemical modeling approach. At the annual scale, we estimate that the northwestern Mediterranean Sea's deep-convection region was a moderate sink of 0.5 mol C m−2 yr−1 of CO2 for the atmosphere. The model results show the reduction of oceanic CO2 uptake during deep convection and its increase during the abrupt spring phytoplankton bloom following the deep-convection events. We highlight the major roles in the annual dissolved inorganic carbon budget of both the biogeochemical and physical fluxes, which amount to −3.7 and 3.3 mol C m−2 yr−1, respectively, and are 1 order of magnitude higher than the air–sea CO2 flux. The upper layer (from the surface to 150 m depth) of the northwestern deep-convection region gained dissolved inorganic carbon through vertical physical transport and, to a lesser extent, oceanic CO2 uptake, and it lost dissolved inorganic carbon through lateral transport and biogeochemical fluxes. The region, covering 2.5 % of the Mediterranean, acted as a source of dissolved inorganic carbon for the surface and intermediate water masses of the Balearic Sea and southwestern Mediterranean Sea and could represent up to 22 % and 11 %, respectively, of the CO2 exchanges with the Atlantic Ocean at the Strait of Gibraltar.

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14

Pascal, Robin W., Margaret J. Yelland, Meric A. Srokosz, Bengamin I. Moat, Edward M. Waugh, Daniel H. Comben, Alex G. Cansdale et al. "A Spar Buoy for High-Frequency Wave Measurements and Detection of Wave Breaking in the Open Ocean". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 28, n.º 4 (1 de abril de 2011): 590–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jtecho764.1.

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Abstract Waves and wave breaking play a significant role in the air–sea exchanges of momentum, sea spray aerosols, and trace gases such as CO2, but few direct measurements of wave breaking have been obtained in the open ocean (far from the coast). This paper describes the development and initial deployments on two research cruises of an autonomous spar buoy that was designed to obtain such open-ocean measurements. The buoy was equipped with capacitance wave wires and accelerometers to measure surface elevation and wave breaking, downward-looking still and video digital cameras to obtain images of the sea surface, and subsurface acoustic and optical sensors to detect bubble clouds from breaking waves. The buoy was free drifting and was designed to collect data autonomously for days at a time before being recovered. Therefore, on the two cruises during which the buoy was deployed, this allowed a variety of sea states to be sampled in mean wind speeds, which ranged from 5 to 18 m s−1.

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15

Cotrim da Cunha, L. y E. T. Buitenhuis. "Riverine influence on the tropical Atlantic Ocean biogeochemistry". Biogeosciences Discussions 9, n.º 2 (17 de febrero de 2012): 1945–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-9-1945-2012.

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Abstract. We assess the role of riverine inputs of N, Si, Fe, organic and inorganic C in the tropical Atlantic Ocean using a global ocean biogeochemistry model. We use two sensitivity tests to investigate the role of the western (South American Rivers) and eastern (African Rivers) riverine nutrient inputs on the tropical Atlantic Ocean biogeochemistry (between 20° S–20° N and 70° W–20°). Increased nutrient availability from river inputs in this area (compared to an extreme scenario with no river nutrients) leads to an increase in 14 % (0.7 Pg C a−1) in open ocean primary production (PP), and 21 % (0.2 Pg C a−1) in coastal ocean PP. We estimate very modest increases in open and coastal ocean export production and sea-air CO2 fluxes. Results suggest that in the tropical Atlantic Ocean, the large riverine nutrient inputs on the western side have a larger impact on primary production and sea-air CO2 exchanges. On the other hand, African river inputs, although smaller than South American inputs, have larger impact on the coastal and open tropical Atlantic Ocean export production. This is probably due to a combination of nutrient trapping in upwelling areas off the Congo River outflow, and differences in delivered nutrient ratios leading to alleviation in limitation conditions mainly for diatoms.

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16

Wimart-Rousseau, Cathy, Katixa Lajaunie-Salla, Pierre Marrec, Thibaut Wagener, Patrick Raimbault, Véronique Lagadec, Michel Lafont et al. "Temporal variability of the carbonate system and air-sea CO2 exchanges in a Mediterranean human-impacted coastal site". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 236 (mayo de 2020): 106641. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2020.106641.

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17

Frankignoulle, M., JP Gattuso, R. Biondo, I. Bourge, G. Copin-Montégut y M. Pichon. "Carbon fluxes in coral reefs. II. Eulerian study of inorganic carbon dynamics and measurement of air-sea CO2 exchanges". Marine Ecology Progress Series 145 (1996): 123–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps145123.

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18

Pérez, F. F., M. Vázquez-Rodríguez, H. Mercier, A. Velo, P. Lherminier y A. F. Ríos. "Trends of anthropogenic CO2 storage in North Atlantic water masses". Biogeosciences 7, n.º 5 (28 de mayo de 2010): 1789–807. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-1789-2010.

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Abstract. A high-quality inorganic carbon system database, spanning over three decades (1981–2006) and comprising of 13 cruises, has allowed the applying of the φC°T method and coming up with estimates of the anthropogenic CO2 (Cant) stored in the main water masses of the North Atlantic. In the studied region, strong convective processes convey surface properties, like Cant, into deeper ocean layers and grants this region an added oceanographic interest from the point of view of air-sea CO2 exchanges. Generally, a tendency for decreasing Cant storage rates towards the deep layers has been observed. In the Iberian Basin, the North Atlantic Deep Water has low Cant concentrations and negligible storage rates, while the North Atlantic Central Water in the upper layers shows the largest Cant values and the largest annual increase of its average concentration (1.13 ± 0.14 μmol kg−1 yr−1). This unmatched rate of change in the Cant concentration of the warm upper limb of the Meridional Overturning Circulation decreases towards the Irminger basin (0.68 ± 0.06 μmol kg−1 yr−1) due to the lowering of the buffering capacity. The mid and deep waters in the Irminger Sea show rather similar Cant concentration rates of increase (between 0.33 and 0.45 μmol kg−1 yr−1), whereas in the Iceland basin these layers seem to have been less affected by Cant. Overall, the Cant storage rates in the North Atlantic subpolar gyre during the first half of the 1990s, when a high North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) phase was dominant, are ~48% higher than during the 1997–2006 low NAO phase that followed. This result suggests that a net decrease in the strength of the North Atlantic sink of atmospheric CO2 has taken place during the present decade. The changes in deep-water ventilation are the main driving processes causing this weakening of the North Atlantic CO2 sink.

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Roobaert, Alizée, Laure Resplandy, Goulven G. Laruelle, Enhui Liao y Pierre Regnier. "A framework to evaluate and elucidate the driving mechanisms of coastal sea surface pCO2 seasonality using an ocean general circulation model (MOM6-COBALT)". Ocean Science 18, n.º 1 (10 de enero de 2022): 67–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-18-67-2022.

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Abstract. The temporal variability of the sea surface partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and the underlying processes driving this variability are poorly understood in the coastal ocean. In this study, we tailor an existing method that quantifies the effects of thermal changes, biological activity, ocean circulation and freshwater fluxes to examine seasonal pCO2 changes in highly variable coastal environments. We first use the Modular Ocean Model version 6 (MOM6) and biogeochemical module Carbon Ocean Biogeochemistry And Lower Trophics version 2 (COBALTv2) at a half-degree resolution to simulate coastal CO2 dynamics and evaluate them against pCO2 from the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas database (SOCAT) and from the continuous coastal pCO2 product generated from SOCAT by a two-step neuronal network interpolation method (coastal Self-Organizing Map Feed-Forward neural Network SOM-FFN, Laruelle et al., 2017). The MOM6-COBALT model reproduces the observed spatiotemporal variability not only in pCO2 but also in sea surface temperature, salinity and nutrients in most coastal environments, except in a few specific regions such as marginal seas. Based on this evaluation, we identify coastal regions of “high” and “medium” agreement between model and coastal SOM-FFN where the drivers of coastal pCO2 seasonal changes can be examined with reasonable confidence. Second, we apply our decomposition method in three contrasted coastal regions: an eastern (US East Coast) and a western (the Californian Current) boundary current and a polar coastal region (the Norwegian Basin). Results show that differences in pCO2 seasonality in the three regions are controlled by the balance between ocean circulation and biological and thermal changes. Circulation controls the pCO2 seasonality in the Californian Current; biological activity controls pCO2 in the Norwegian Basin; and the interplay between biological processes and thermal and circulation changes is key on the US East Coast. The refined approach presented here allows the attribution of pCO2 changes with small residual biases in the coastal ocean, allowing for future work on the mechanisms controlling coastal air–sea CO2 exchanges and how they are likely to be affected by future changes in sea surface temperature, hydrodynamics and biological dynamics.

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20

Cameron, James N. "Compensation of Hypercapnic Acidosis in the Aquatic Blue Crab, Callinectes Sapidus: The Predominance of External Sea Water Over Carapace Carbonate as the Proton Sink". Journal of Experimental Biology 114, n.º 1 (1 de enero de 1985): 197–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.114.1.197.

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Radioactive labelling of the CaCO3 in the crab's carapace was employed as a tool to study the contribution of the carapace carbonates to acute buffering of acid-base disturbances. Since Ca2+ uptake is extremely rapid during the post-moult period, crabs that moulted in the laboratory were incubated with 45Ca for 5 days immediately following the moult in order thoroughly to load the carapace carbonate pool with radiolabel. After a subsequent 2-week interval for feeding and completion of the post-moult carapace mineralization phase, these 45Ca-loaded crabs were subjected to a 24h control period and a 24h hypercapnic period (water equilibrated with 2 % CO2 in air) to induce an internal acidosis. Compared with the control period, a compensatory increase in [HCO3−] of 17 mequiv1−1 was observed in the blood, along with an apparent H+ excretion to the external sea water of 10.8 mequiv kg−1. A statistically significant increase in circulating [Ca2+] and in the specific radioactivity of the blood Ca2+ reached a maximum during the first 3 h of the compensatory phase. By measuring the radioactivity appearing in the water and the blood, and the specific radioactivity of the carapace carbonates, the contribution of the carapace carbonates was calculated to be 7.5% of the total compensatory H+ disposal. The rapid exchange of Ca2+ with the external medium, coupled with physiological regulation of blood [Ca2+] minimized changes in blood [Ca2+]. The total dissolution of carapace CaCO3 was approximately 0.9 mequiv kg−1, less than 0.1% of the quantity contained in the shell. The carapace carbonates, therefore, do contribute to acute buffering of hypercapnic acidosis, but their quantitative importance is small, with the gills serving to conduct most of the compensatory exchanges with the environment.

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21

Chen, Chen-Tung Arthur, Weidong Zhai y Minhan Dai. "Riverine input and air–sea CO2 exchanges near the Changjiang (Yangtze River) Estuary: Status quo and implication on possible future changes in metabolic status". Continental Shelf Research 28, n.º 12 (julio de 2008): 1476–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2007.10.013.

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22

Pérez, F. F., M. Vázquez-Rodríguez, H. Mercier, A. Velo, P. Lherminier y A. F. Ríos. "Trends of anthropogenic CO2 storage in North Atlantic water masses". Biogeosciences Discussions 7, n.º 1 (13 de enero de 2010): 165–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-7-165-2010.

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Abstract. A high-quality inorganic carbon system database spanning over three decades (1981–2006) and comprising 13 cruises has allowed applying the φCT° method and coming up with accurate estimates of the anthropogenic CO2 (Cant) stored in the main water masses of the North Atlantic. In the studied region, strong convective processes convey surface properties, like Cant, into deeper ocean layers and confer this region an added oceanographic interest from the point of view of air-sea CO2 exchanges. Commonly, a tendency for decreasing Cant storage rates towards the deep layers has been observed. In the Iberian Basin, the deep waters (North Atlantic Deep Water) have low Cant values and negligible Cant storage rates, while the North Atlantic Central Water in the upper layers shows the largest Cant concentrations and capacity to increase its storage on a yearly basis (1.13±0.14 μmol kg−1 yr−1). This unmatched Cant storage capacity of the warm upper limb of the Meridional Overturning Circulation weakens towards the Irminger basin (0.68±0.06 μmol kg−1 yr−1) due to the lowering of the buffering capacity. The mid and deep waters in the Irminger Sea show rather homogeneous Cant storage rates (between 0.33 and 0.45 μmol kg−1 yr−1), whereas in the Iceland basin these layers seem to have been less affected by Cant. The Cant storage rates in the study region during the 1991–1997 high NAO (North Atlantic Oscillation) phase are ~48% higher than during the 1997–2006 low NAO phase that followed. This result suggests that a net decrease in the strength of the North Atlantic sink of atmospheric CO2has taken place during the present decade. The changes in deep-water ventilation together with a detrimental renewal of the main water masses are likely the main driving processes causing this weakening of the North Atlantic CO2sink.

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23

Claustre, Hervé, Kenneth S. Johnson y Yuichiro Takeshita. "Observing the Global Ocean with Biogeochemical-Argo". Annual Review of Marine Science 12, n.º 1 (3 de enero de 2020): 23–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010419-010956.

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Biogeochemical-Argo (BGC-Argo) is a network of profiling floats carrying sensors that enable observation of as many as six essential biogeochemical and bio-optical variables: oxygen, nitrate, pH, chlorophyll a, suspended particles, and downwelling irradiance. This sensor network represents today's most promising strategy for collecting temporally and vertically resolved observations of biogeochemical properties throughout the ocean. All data are freely available within 24 hours of transmission. These data fill large gaps in ocean-observing systems and support three ambitions: gaining a better understanding of biogeochemical processes (e.g., the biological carbon pump and air–sea CO2 exchanges) and evaluating ongoing changes resulting from increasing anthropogenic pressure (e.g., acidification and deoxygenation); managing the ocean (e.g., improving the global carbon budget and developing sustainable fisheries); and carrying out exploration for potential discoveries. The BGC-Argo network has already delivered extensive high-quality global data sets that have resulted in unique scientific outcomes from regional to global scales. With the proposed expansion of BGC-Argo in the near future, this network has the potential to become a pivotal observation system that links satellite and ship-based observations in a transformative manner.

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24

Copin-Montégut, Claire y Milena Bégovic. "Distributions of carbonate properties and oxygen along the water column (0–2000m) in the central part of the NW Mediterranean Sea (Dyfamed site): influence of winter vertical mixing on air–sea CO2 and O2 exchanges". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 49, n.º 11 (enero de 2002): 2049–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0967-0645(02)00027-9.

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25

Rodgers, K. B., S. E. M. Fletcher, D. Bianchi, C. Beaulieu, E. D. Galbraith, A. Gnanadesikan, A. G. Hogg et al. "Interhemispheric gradient of atmospheric radiocarbon reveals natural variability of Southern Ocean winds". Climate of the Past Discussions 7, n.º 1 (25 de enero de 2011): 347–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cpd-7-347-2011.

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Abstract. Tree ring Δ14C data (Reimer et al., 2004; McCormac et al., 2004) indicate that atmospheric Δ14C varied on multi-decadal to centennial timescales, in both hemispheres, over the pre-industrial period AD 950–1830. Although the Northern and Southern Hemispheric Δ14C records display similar variability, it is difficult from these data alone to distinguish between variations driven by 14CO2 production in the upper atmosphere (Stuiver, 1980) and exchanges between carbon reservoirs (Siegenthaler, 1980). Here we consider rather the Interhemispheric Gradient in atmospheric Δ14C as revealing of the background pre-bomb air-sea Disequilbrium Flux between 14CO2 and CO2. As the global maximum of the Disequilibrium Flux is squarely centered in the open ocean regions of the Southern Ocean, relatively modest perturbations to the winds over this region drive significant perturbations to the Interhemispheric Gradient. The analysis presented here implies that changes to Southern Ocean windspeeds are likely a main driver of the observed variability in the Interhemispheric Gradient over 950–1830, and further, that this variability may be larger than the Southern Ocean wind trends that have been reported for recent decades (notably 1980–2004). This interpretation also implies a significant weakening of the winds over the Southern Ocean within a few decades of AD 1375, associated with the transition between the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Little Ice Age. The driving forces that could have produced such a shift in the winds remain unkown.

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26

Calleja, M. Ll, C. M. Duarte, Y. T. Prairie, S. Agustí y G. J. Herndl. "Evidence for surface organic matter modulation of air-sea CO2 gas exchange". Biogeosciences Discussions 5, n.º 6 (3 de noviembre de 2008): 4209–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-5-4209-2008.

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Abstract. Air-sea CO2 exchange depends on the air-sea CO2 gradient and the gas transfer velocity (k), computed as a simple function of wind speed. Large discrepancies among relationships predicting k from wind suggest that other processes may also contribute significantly to modulate CO2 exchange. Here we report, on the basis of the relationship between the measured gas transfer velocity and the ocean surface organic carbon concentration at the ocean surface, a significant role of surface organic matter in suppressing air-sea gas exchange, at low and intermediate winds, in the open ocean. The potential role of total surface organic matter concentration (TOC) on gas transfer velocity (k) was evaluated by direct measurements of air-sea CO2 fluxes at different wind speeds and locations in the open ocean. According to the results obtained, high surface organic matter contents may lead to lower air-sea CO2 fluxes, for a given air-sea CO2 partial pressure gradient and wind speed below 5 m s−1, compared to that observed at low organic matter contents. We found the bias in calculated gas fluxes resulting from neglecting TOC to co-vary geographically and seasonally with marine productivity. These findings suggest that consideration of the role of organic matter in modulating air-sea CO2 exchange can improve flux estimates and help avoid possible bias associated to variability in surface organic concentration across the ocean.

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27

Calleja, M. Ll, C. M. Duarte, Y. T. Prairie, S. Agustí y G. J. Herndl. "Evidence for surface organic matter modulation of air-sea CO2 gas exchange". Biogeosciences 6, n.º 6 (25 de junio de 2009): 1105–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-6-1105-2009.

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Abstract. Air-sea CO2 exchange depends on the air-sea CO2 gradient and the gas transfer velocity (k), computed as a function of wind speed. Large discrepancies among relationships predicting k from wind suggest that other processes also contribute significantly to modulate CO2 exchange. Here we report, on the basis of the relationship between the measured gas transfer velocity and the organic carbon concentration at the ocean surface, a significant role of surface organic matter in suppressing air-sea gas exchange, at low and intermediate winds, in the open ocean, confirming previous observations. The potential role of total surface organic matter concentration (TOC) on gas transfer velocity (k) was evaluated by direct measurements of air-sea CO2 fluxes at different wind speeds and locations in the open ocean. According to the results obtained, high surface organic matter contents may lead to lower air-sea CO2 fluxes, for a given air-sea CO2 partial pressure gradient and wind speed below 5 m s−1, compared to that observed at low organic matter contents. We found the bias in calculated gas fluxes resulting from neglecting TOC to co-vary geographically and seasonally with marine productivity. These results support previous evidences that consideration of the role of organic matter in modulating air-sea CO2 exchange may improve flux estimates and help avoid possible bias associated to variability in surface organic concentration across the ocean.

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28

Frankignoulle, M. "Field measurements of air-sea CO2 exchange1". Limnology and Oceanography 33, n.º 3 (mayo de 1988): 313–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.4319/lo.1988.33.3.0313.

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29

Gutiérrez-Loza, Lucía, Erik Nilsson, Marcus B. Wallin, Erik Sahlée y Anna Rutgersson. "On physical mechanisms enhancing air–sea CO₂ exchange". Biogeosciences 19, n.º 24 (14 de diciembre de 2022): 5645–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-5645-2022.

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Abstract. Reducing uncertainties in the air–sea CO2 flux calculations is one of the major challenges when addressing the oceanic contribution in the global carbon balance. In traditional models, the air–sea CO2 flux is estimated using expressions of the gas transfer velocity as a function of wind speed. However, other mechanisms affecting the variability in the flux at local and regional scales are still poorly understood. The uncertainties associated with the flux estimates become particularly large in heterogeneous environments such as coastal and marginal seas. Here, we investigated the air–sea CO2 exchange at a coastal site in the central Baltic Sea using 9 years of eddy covariance measurements. Based on these observations we were able to capture the temporal variability in the air–sea CO2 flux and other parameters relevant for the gas exchange. Our results show that a wind-based model with a similar pattern to those developed for larger basins and open-sea conditions can, on average, be a good approximation for k, the gas transfer velocity. However, in order to reduce the uncertainty associated with these averages and produce reliable short-term k estimates, additional physical processes must be considered. Using a normalized gas transfer velocity, we identified conditions associated with enhanced exchange (large k values). During high and intermediate wind speeds (above 6–8 m s−1), conditions on both sides of the air–water interface were found to be relevant for the gas exchange. Our findings further suggest that at such relatively high wind speeds, sea spray is an efficient mechanisms for air–sea CO2 exchange. During low wind speeds (<6 m s−1), water-side convection was found to be a relevant control mechanism. The effect of both sea spray and water-side convection on the gas exchange showed a clear seasonality with positive fluxes (winter conditions) being the most affected.

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30

Lansø, A. S., J. Bendtsen, J. H. Christensen, L. L. Sørensen, H. Chen, H. A. J. Meijer y C. Geels. "Sensitivity of the air–sea CO2 exchange in the Baltic Sea and Danish inner waters to atmospheric short-term variability". Biogeosciences 12, n.º 9 (11 de mayo de 2015): 2753–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-2753-2015.

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Abstract. Minimising the uncertainties in estimates of air–sea CO2 exchange is an important step toward increasing the confidence in assessments of the CO2 cycle. Using an atmospheric transport model makes it possible to investigate the direct impact of atmospheric parameters on the air–sea CO2 flux along with its sensitivity to, for example, short-term temporal variability in wind speed, atmospheric mixing height and atmospheric CO2 concentration. With this study, the importance of high spatiotemporal resolution of atmospheric parameters for the air–sea CO2 flux is assessed for six sub-basins within the Baltic Sea and Danish inner waters. A new climatology of surface water partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2w) has been developed for this coastal area based on available data from monitoring stations and on-board pCO2w measuring systems. Parameterisations depending on wind speed were applied for the transfer velocity to calculate the air–sea CO2 flux. Two model simulations were conducted – one including short-term variability in atmospheric CO2 (VAT), and one where it was not included (CAT). A seasonal cycle in the air–sea CO2 flux was found for both simulations for all sub-basins with uptake of CO2 in summer and release of CO2 to the atmosphere in winter. During the simulated period 2005–2010, the average annual net uptake of atmospheric CO2 for the Baltic Sea, Danish straits and Kattegat was 287 and 471 Gg C yr−1 for the VAT and CAT simulations, respectively. The obtained difference of 184 Gg C yr−1 was found to be significant, and thus ignoring short-term variability in atmospheric CO2 does have a sizeable effect on the air–sea CO2 exchange. The combination of the atmospheric model and the new pCO2w fields has also made it possible to make an estimate of the marine part of the Danish CO2 budget for the first time. A net annual uptake of 2613 Gg C yr−1 was found for the Danish waters. A large uncertainty is connected to the air–sea CO2 flux in particular caused by the transfer velocity parameterisation and the applied pCO2w climatology. However, as a significant difference of 184 Gg C yr−1 is obtained between the VAT and CAT simulations, the present study underlines the importance of including short-term variability in atmospheric CO2 concentration in future model studies of the air–sea exchange in order to minimise the uncertainty.

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31

Lansø, A. S., J. Bendtsen, J. H. Christensen, L. L. Sørensen, H. Chen, H. A. J. Meijer y C. Geels. "Sensitivity of the air–sea CO2 exchange in the Baltic Sea and Danish inner waters to atmospheric short term variability". Biogeosciences Discussions 11, n.º 12 (9 de diciembre de 2014): 16993–7042. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-11-16993-2014.

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Abstract. Minimising the uncertainties in estimates of air–sea CO2 exchange is an important step toward increasing the confidence in assessments of the CO2 cycle. Using an atmospheric transport model makes it possible to investigate the direct impact of atmospheric parameters on the air–sea CO2 flux along with its sensitivity to e.g. short-term temporal variability in wind speed, atmospheric mixing height and the atmospheric CO2 concentration. With this study the importance of high spatiotemporal resolution of atmospheric parameters for the air–sea CO2 flux is assessed for six sub-basins within the Baltic Sea and Danish inner waters. A new climatology of surface water partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) has been developed for this coastal area based on available data from monitoring stations and underway pCO2 measuring systems. Parameterisations depending on wind speed were applied for the transfer velocity to calculate the air–sea CO2 flux. Two model simulations were conducted – one including short term variability in atmospheric CO2 (VAT), and one where it was not included (CAT). A seasonal cycle in the air–sea CO2 flux was found for both simulations for all sub-basins with uptake of CO2 in summer and release of CO2 to the atmosphere in winter. During the simulated period 2005–2010 the average annual net uptake of atmospheric CO2 for the Baltic Sea, Danish Straits and Kattegat was 287 and 471 Gg C yr-1 for the VAT and CAT simulations, respectively. The obtained difference of 184 Gg C yr-1 was found to be significant, and thus ignoring short term variability in atmospheric CO2 does have a sizeable effect on the air–sea CO2 exchange. The combination of the atmospheric model and the new pCO2 fields has also made it possible to make an estimate of the marine part of the Danish CO2 budget for the first time. A net annual uptake of 2613 Gg C yr-1 was found for the Danish waters. A large uncertainty is connected to the air–sea CO2 flux in particular caused by the transfer velocity parameterisation and the applied pCO2 climatology. However, the present study underlines the importance of including short term variability in the atmospheric CO2 concentration in future model studies of the air–sea exchange in order to minimise the uncertainty.

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32

Prytherch, John, Sonja Murto, Ian Brown, Adam Ulfsbo, Brett F. Thornton, Volker Brüchert, Michael Tjernström, Anna Lunde Hermansson, Amanda T. Nylund y Lina A. Holthusen. "Central Arctic Ocean surface–atmosphere exchange of CO₂ and CH₄ constrained by direct measurements". Biogeosciences 21, n.º 2 (2 de febrero de 2024): 671–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-671-2024.

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Abstract. The central Arctic Ocean (CAO) plays an important role in the global carbon cycle, but the current and future exchange of the climate-forcing trace gases methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) between the CAO and the atmosphere is highly uncertain. In particular, there are very few observations of near-surface gas concentrations or direct air–sea CO2 flux estimates and no previously reported direct air–sea CH4 flux estimates from the CAO. Furthermore, the effect of sea ice on the exchange is not well understood. We present direct measurements of the air–sea flux of CH4 and CO2, as well as air–snow fluxes of CO2 in the summertime CAO north of 82.5∘ N from the Synoptic Arctic Survey (SAS) expedition carried out on the Swedish icebreaker Oden in 2021. Measurements of air–sea CH4 and CO2 flux were made using floating chambers deployed in leads accessed from sea ice and from the side of Oden, and air–snow fluxes were determined from chambers deployed on sea ice. Gas transfer velocities determined from fluxes and surface-water-dissolved gas concentrations exhibited a weaker wind speed dependence than existing parameterisations, with a median sea-ice lead gas transfer rate of 2.5 cm h−1 applicable over the observed 10 m wind speed range (1–11 m s−1). The average observed air–sea CO2 flux was −7.6 mmolm-2d-1, and the average air–snow CO2 flux was −1.1 mmolm-2d-1. Extrapolating these fluxes and the corresponding sea-ice concentrations gives an August and September flux for the CAO of −1.75 mmolm-2d-1, within the range of previous indirect estimates. The average observed air–sea CH4 flux of 3.5 µmolm-2d-1, accounting for sea-ice concentration, equates to an August and September CAO flux of 0.35 µmolm-2d-1, lower than previous estimates and implying that the CAO is a very small (≪ 1 %) contributor to the Arctic flux of CH4 to the atmosphere.

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33

Löffler, Annekatrin, Bernd Schneider, Matti Perttilä y Gregor Rehder. "Air–sea CO2 exchange in the Gulf of Bothnia, Baltic Sea". Continental Shelf Research 37 (abril de 2012): 46–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csr.2012.02.002.

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34

Lueker, T. J. "Coastal upwelling fluxes of O2, N2O, and CO2 assessed from continuous atmospheric observations at Trinidad, California". Biogeosciences 1, n.º 1 (16 de noviembre de 2004): 101–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-1-101-2004.

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Abstract. Continuous atmospheric records of O2/N2, CO2 and N2O obtained at Trinidad, California document the effects of air-sea exchange during coastal upwelling and plankton bloom events. The atmospheric records provide continuous observations of air-sea fluxes related to synoptic scale upwelling events over several upwelling seasons. Combined with satellite, buoy and local meteorology data, calculated anomalies in O2/N2 and N2O were utilized in a simple atmospheric transport model to compute air-sea fluxes during coastal upwelling. CO2 fluxes were linked to the oceanic component of the O2 fluxes through local hydrographic data and estimated as a function of upwelling intensity (surface ocean temperature and wind speed). Regional air-sea fluxes of O2/N2, N2O, and CO2 during coastal upwelling were estimated with the aid of satellite wind and SST data. Upwelling CO2 fluxes were found to represent ~10% of export production along the northwest coast of North America. Synoptic scale upwelling events impact the net exchange of atmospheric CO2 along the coastal margin, and will vary in response to the frequency and duration of alongshore winds that are subject to climate change.

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35

Lueker, T. J. "Coastal upwelling fluxes of O2, N2O, and CO2 assessed from continuous atmospheric observations at Trinidad,California". Biogeosciences Discussions 1, n.º 1 (13 de agosto de 2004): 335–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-1-335-2004.

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Abstract. Continuous atmospheric records of O2/N2, CO2 and N2O obtained at Trinidad, California document the effects of air-sea exchange during coastal upwelling and plankton bloom events. The atmospheric records provide continuous observations of air-sea fluxes related to synoptic scale upwelling events over several upwelling seasons. Combined with satellite, buoy and local meteorology data, calculated anomalies in O2/N2 and N2O were utilized in a simple atmospheric transport model to compute air-sea fluxes during coastal upwelling. CO2 fluxes were linked to the oceanic component of the O2 fluxes through local hydrographic data and estimated as a function of upwelling intensity (surface ocean temperature and wind speed). Regional air-sea fluxes of O2/N2O, and CO2 during coastal upwelling were estimated with the aid of satellite wind and SST data. Upwelling CO2 fluxes were found to represent ~10% of export production along the northwest coast of North America. Synoptic scale upwelling events impact the net exchange of atmospheric CO2 along the coastal margin, and will vary in response to the frequency and duration of alongshore winds that are subject to climate change.

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36

Nomura, Daiki, Hisayuki Yoshikawa-Inoue, Takenobu Toyota y Kunio Shirasawa. "Effects of snow, snowmelting and refreezing processes on air–sea-ice CO2 flux". Journal of Glaciology 56, n.º 196 (2010): 262–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/002214310791968548.

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AbstractThe air–sea-ice CO2 flux was measured in the ice-covered Saroma-ko, a lagoon on the northeastern coast of Hokkaido, Japan, using a chamber technique. The air–sea-ice CO2 flux ranged from −1.8 to +0.5 mg C m−2 h−1 (where negative values indicate a sink for atmospheric CO2). The partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) in the brine of sea ice was substantially lower than that of the atmosphere, primarily because of the influence of the under-ice plume from the Saromabetsu river located in the southeastern part of the lagoon. This suggests that the brine had the ability to take up atmospheric CO2 into the sea ice. However, the snow deposited over the sea ice and the superimposed ice that formed from snowmelting and refreezing partially blocked CO2 diffusion, acting as an impermeable medium for CO2 transfer. Our results suggest that the air–sea-ice CO2 flux was dependent not only on the difference in pCO2 between the brine and the overlying air, but also on the status of the ice surface. These results provide the necessary evidence for evaluation of the gas exchange processes in ice-covered seas.

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37

Zhai, W. D., M. H. Dai, B. S. Chen, X. H. Guo, Q. Li, S. L. Shang, C. Y. Zhang, W. J. Cai y D. X. Wang. "Seasonal variations of sea–air CO2 fluxes in the largest tropical marginal sea (South China Sea) based on multiple-year underway measurements". Biogeosciences 10, n.º 11 (29 de noviembre de 2013): 7775–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-7775-2013.

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Abstract. Based upon 14 field surveys conducted between 2003 and 2008, we showed that the seasonal pattern of sea surface partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and sea–air CO2 fluxes differed among four different physical–biogeochemical domains in the South China Sea (SCS) proper. The four domains were located between 7 and 23° N and 110 and 121° E, covering a surface area of 1344 × 103 km2 and accounting for ~ 54% of the SCS proper. In the area off the Pearl River estuary, relatively low pCO2 values of 320 to 390 μatm were observed in all four seasons and both the biological productivity and CO2 uptake were enhanced in summer in the Pearl River plume waters. In the northern SCS slope/basin area, a typical seasonal cycle of relatively high pCO2 in the warm seasons and relatively low pCO2 in the cold seasons was revealed. In the central/southern SCS area, moderately high sea surface pCO2 values of 360 to 425 μatm were observed throughout the year. In the area west of the Luzon Strait, a major exchange pathway between the SCS and the Pacific Ocean, pCO2 was particularly dynamic in winter, when northeast monsoon induced upwelling events and strong outgassing of CO2. These episodic events might have dominated the annual sea–air CO2 flux in this particular area. The estimate of annual sea–air CO2 fluxes showed that most areas of the SCS proper served as weak to moderate sources of the atmospheric CO2, with sea–air CO2 flux values of 0.46 ± 0.43 mol m−2 yr−1 in the northern SCS slope/basin, 1.37 ± 0.55 mol m−2 yr−1 in the central/southern SCS, and 1.21 ± 1.48 mol m−2 yr−1 in the area west of the Luzon Strait. However, the annual sea–air CO2 exchange was nearly in equilibrium (−0.44 ± 0.65 mol m−2 yr−1) in the area off the Pearl River estuary. Overall the four domains contributed (18 ± 10) × 1012 g C yr−1 to the atmospheric CO2.

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38

Zhai, W. D., M. H. Dai, B. S. Chen, X. H. Guo, Q. Li, S. L. Shang, C. Y. Zhang, W. J. Cai y D. X. Wang. "Seasonal variations of air-sea CO2 fluxes in the largest tropical marginal sea (South China Sea) based on multiple-year underway measurements". Biogeosciences Discussions 10, n.º 4 (19 de abril de 2013): 7031–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-10-7031-2013.

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Abstract. Based upon fourteen field surveys conducted between 2003 and 2008, we showed that the seasonal pattern of sea surface partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and air–sea CO2 fluxes differed among four different physical-biogeochemical domains in the South China Sea (SCS) proper. The four domains were located between 4 and 23° N and 109 and 121° E, covering ~ 38% of the surface area of the entire SCS. In the area off the Pearl River Estuary, relatively low pCO2 values of 320 to 390 μatm were observed in all four seasons and both the biological productivity and CO2 uptake were enhanced in summer in the Pearl River plume waters. In the northern SCS slope/basin area, a typical seasonal cycle of relatively high pCO2 in the warmer seasons and relatively low pCO2 in the cold seasons was revealed. In the central/southern SCS area, moderately high sea surface pCO2 values of 360 to 425 μatm were observed throughout the year. In the area west of the Luzon Strait, a major exchange pathway between the SCS and the Pacific Ocean, pCO2 was particularly dynamic in winter, when northeast monsoon induced upwelling events and strong outgassing of CO2. These episodic events might have dominated the annual air–sea CO2 flux in this particular area. The estimate of annual sea–air CO2 fluxes showed that, most areas of the SCS proper served as weak sources to the atmospheric CO2, with sea–air CO2 flux values of 0.46 ± 0.43 mol m−2 yr−1 in the northern SCS slope/basin, 1.37 ± 0.55 mol m−2 yr−1 in the central/southern SCS, and 1.21 ± 1.47 mol m−2 yr−1 in the area west of the Luzon Strait. However, the annual sea–air CO2 exchange was nearly in equilibrium (−0.44 ± 0.65 mol m−2 yr−1) in the area off the Pearl River Estuary. Overall the four domains released (18 ± 10) × 1012 g C yr−1 into the atmosphere. The CO2 release rate of the South China Sea essentially exceeded the average CO2 emission level of most tropical oceans.

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39

Li, Jiaxin, Kunpeng Zang, Yi Lin, Yuanyuan Chen, Shuo Liu, Shanshan Qiu, Kai Jiang et al. "Effect of land–sea air mass transport on spatiotemporal distributions of atmospheric CO₂ and CH₄ mixing ratios over the southern Yellow Sea". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 16, n.º 20 (20 de octubre de 2023): 4757–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-4757-2023.

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Abstract. To reveal the spatiotemporal distributions of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 mixing ratios and regulation mechanisms over the China shelf sea, two field surveys were conducted in the southern Yellow Sea in China in November 2012 and June 2013, respectively. The results observed showed that mean background atmospheric CO2 and CH4 mixing ratios were 403.94 (±13.77) ppm and 1924.8 (±27.8) ppb in November 2012 and 395.90 (±3.53) ppm and 1918.0 (±25.7) ppb in June 2013, respectively. An improved data-filtering method was optimised and established to flag atmospheric CO2 and CH4 emission from different sources in the survey area. We found that the spatiotemporal distributions of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 mixing ratios over the southern Yellow Sea were dominated by land–sea air mass transport, which was mainly driven by seasonal monsoon, while the influence of air–sea exchange was negligible. In addition, atmospheric CO2 and CH4 mixing ratios over the southern Yellow Sea could be elevated remarkably at a distance of approximately 20 km offshore by land-to-sea air mass transportation from the Asian continent during the early-winter monsoon.

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40

Pipko, I. I., I. P. Semiletov, S. P. Pugach, I. Wåhlström y L. G. Anderson. "Interannual variability of air-sea CO2 fluxes and carbonate system parameters in the East Siberian Sea". Biogeosciences Discussions 8, n.º 1 (10 de febrero de 2011): 1227–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-8-1227-2011.

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Abstract. Over the past couple of decades it has become apparent that air-land-sea interactions in the Arctic have a substantial impact on the composition of the overlying atmosphere (ACIA, 2004). The Arctic Ocean is small (only ~4% of the total World Ocean), but it is surrounded by offshore and onshore permafrost which thaws at increasing rates under warming conditions releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) into the water and atmosphere. This work summarizes data collected from three expeditions in the coastal-shelf zone of the East Siberian Sea (ESS) in September 2003, 2004 and late August–September 2008. It is proposed that the western part of the ESS represents a river- and coastal erosion-dominated ocean margin that is a source for atmospheric CO2. It receives substantial river discharge that also adds organic matter, both dissolved and particulate. This in combination with significant input of organic matter from coastal erosion makes this region being of dominantly heterotrophic character. The eastern part of the ESS is a Pacific water-dominated autotrophic area. It's a high-productive zone, which acts as a sink for atmospheric CO2. The year to year dynamics of partial pressure of CO2 in the surface water as well as the sea-air flux of CO2 varied substantially. In some years the ESS shelf can be mainly heterotrophic and serve as strong source of CO2 (year 2004). Another year significant part of the ESS, where gross primary production exceeds community respiration, acts as a sink for the atmospheric CO2 and the net CO2 flux into the atmosphere is weak (year 2008). High variability of carbon system parameters observed in the ESS shelf is determined by many factors such as riverine runoff, advection of waters from adjacent seas, coastal erosion, primary production/respiration etc. The dynamics of the CO2 sea-air exchange is determined by ocean processes but also by atmospheric circulation which hence has a significant impact on the CO2 sea-air exchange. In this contribution the sea-air CO2 fluxes were evaluated in the ESS based on measured carbonate system (CS) parameters data and annual sea-to-air CO2 fluxes were estimated. It was shown that the total ESS shelf is a net source of CO2 for the atmosphere at a range from 0.5×1012 to 3.3×1012 g C.

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41

Murata, A., K. Shimada, S. Nishino y M. Itoh. "Distributions of surface water CO2 and air-sea flux of CO2 in coastal regions of the Canadian Beaufort Sea in late summer". Biogeosciences Discussions 5, n.º 6 (18 de diciembre de 2008): 5093–132. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-5-5093-2008.

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Abstract. To quantify the air-sea flux of CO2 in a high-latitude coastal region, we conducted shipboard observations of atmospheric and surface water partial pressures of CO2 (pCO2) and total dissolved inorganic carbon (TCO2) in the Canadian Beaufort Sea (150° W–127° W; 69° N–73° N) in late summer 2000 and 2002. Surface water pCO2 was lower than atmospheric pCO2 (2000, 361.0 μatm; 2002, 364.7 μatm), and ranged from 250 to 344 μatm. Accordingly, ΔpCO2, which is the driving force of the air-sea exchange of CO2 and is calculated from differences in pCO2 between the sea surface and the overlying air, was generally negative (potential sink for atmospheric CO2), although positive ΔpCO2 values (source) were also found locally. Distributions of surface water pCO2, as well as those of ΔpCO2 and CO2 flux, were controlled mainly by water mixing related to river discharge. The air-sea fluxes of CO2 were −15.0 and −16.8 mmol m−2 d−1 on average in 2000 and 2002, respectively, implying that the area acted as a moderate sink for atmospheric CO2. The air-to-sea net CO2 flux in an extended area of the western Arctic Ocean (411 000 km2) during the ice-free season (=100 days) was calculated as 10.2±7.7 mmol m−2 d−1, equivalent to a regional CO2 sink of 5.0±3.8 Tg C. The estimated buffer factor was 1.5, indicating that the area is a high-capacity CO2 sink. These CO2 flux estimates will need to be revised because they probably include a bias due to the vertical gradients of physical and chemical properties characteristic in the region, which have not yet been adequately considered.

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42

Landschützer, P., J. F. Tjiputra, K. Assmann y C. Heinze. "A model study on the sensitivity of surface ocean CO2 pressure with respect to the CO2 gas exchange rate". Biogeosciences Discussions 8, n.º 6 (8 de noviembre de 2011): 10797–821. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-8-10797-2011.

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Abstract. Rising CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere and a changing climate are expected to alter the air-sea CO2 flux through changes in the respective control factors for gas exchange. In this study we determine the sensitivity of the CO2 fluxes on the gas transfer velocity using the MICOM-HAMOCC isopycnic carbon cycle model. The monthly generated MICOM-HAMOCC output data are suitable to investigate seasonal variabilities concerning the exchange of CO2. In a series of 3 sensitivity runs the wind dependent gas exchange rate is increased by 44%, both in the northern and southern westerly regions, as well as in the equatorial area to investigate the effect of regional variations of the gas transfer rate on the air-sea fluxes and the distribution of the ocean surface pCO2. For the period between 1948–2009, the results show that locally increasing gas transfer rates do not play an important role concerning the global uptake of carbon from the atmosphere. While effects on a global and annual scale are low, the regional and intra-annual variability shows remarkable variations in the gas fluxes and the surface pCO2. An accurate quantification of the variable gas transfer velocity therefore provides a potential source to enhance model predictions over small spatial and temporal scales and to successfully reconcile model results on surface pCO2 and air-sea CO2 fluxes with observations.

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43

Afdal, Richardus F. Kaswadji y Alan F. Koropitan. "Air-Sea Co2 Gas Exchange In Nasik Strait Waters, Belitung". Jurnal Segara 8, n.º 1 (8 de agosto de 2012): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.15578/segara.v8i1.58.

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44

Bates, N. R., J. T. Mathis y M. A. Jeffries. "Air-sea CO2 fluxes on the Bering Sea shelf". Biogeosciences Discussions 7, n.º 5 (5 de octubre de 2010): 7271–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-7-7271-2010.

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Abstract. There have been few previous studies of surface seawater CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) variability and air-sea CO2 gas exchange rates for the Bering Sea shelf which is the largest US coastal shelf sea. In 2008, spring and summertime observations were collected in the Bering Sea shelf as part of the Bering Sea Ecological Study (BEST). Our results indicate that the Bering Sea shelf was close to neutral in terms of CO2 sink-source status in springtime due to relatively small air-sea CO2 gradients (i.e., Δ pCO2) and sea-ice cover. However, by summertime, very low seawater pCO2 values were observed and much of the Bering Sea shelf became strongly undersaturated with respect to atmosphere CO2 concentrations. Thus the Bering Sea shelf transitions seasonally from mostly neutral conditions to a strong oceanic sink for atmospheric CO2 particularly in the "green belt" region of the Bering Sea. Ocean biological processes dominate the seasonal drawdown of seawater pCO2 for large areas of the Bering Sea shelf, with the effect partly countered by seasonal warming. In small areas of the Bering Sea shelf south of the Pribilof Islands and in the SE Bering Sea, seasonal warming is the dominant influence on seawater pCO2, shifting localized areas of the shelf from minor/neutral CO2 sink status to neutral/minor CO2 source status, in contrast to much of the Bering Sea shelf. We compute that the Bering Sea shelf CO2 sink in 2008 was 157 Tg C yr−1 (Tg = 1012 g C) and a stronger sink for CO2 than previously demonstrated by other studies.

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45

Jones, Jacob, Karen E. Kohfeld, Helen Bostock, Xavier Crosta, Melanie Liston, Gavin Dunbar, Zanna Chase, Amy Leventer, Harris Anderson y Geraldine Jacobsen. "Sea ice changes in the southwest Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean during the last 140 000 years". Climate of the Past 18, n.º 3 (14 de marzo de 2022): 465–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-465-2022.

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Abstract. Sea ice expansion in the Southern Ocean is believed to have contributed to glacial–interglacial atmospheric CO2 variability by inhibiting air–sea gas exchange and influencing the ocean's meridional overturning circulation. However, limited data on past sea ice coverage over the last 140 ka (a complete glacial cycle) have hindered our ability to link sea ice expansion to oceanic processes that affect atmospheric CO2 concentration. Assessments of past sea ice coverage using diatom assemblages have primarily focused on the Last Glacial Maximum (∼21 ka) to Holocene, with few quantitative reconstructions extending to the onset of glacial Termination II (∼135 ka). Here we provide new estimates of winter sea ice concentrations (WSIC) and summer sea surface temperatures (SSST) for a full glacial–interglacial cycle from the southwestern Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean using the modern analog technique (MAT) on fossil diatom assemblages from deep-sea core TAN1302-96. We examine how the timing of changes in sea ice coverage relates to ocean circulation changes and previously proposed mechanisms of early glacial CO2 drawdown. We then place SSST estimates within the context of regional SSST records to better understand how these surface temperature changes may be influencing oceanic CO2 uptake. We find that winter sea ice was absent over the core site during the early glacial period until MIS 4 (∼65 ka), suggesting that sea ice may not have been a major contributor to early glacial CO2 drawdown. Sea ice expansion throughout the glacial–interglacial cycle, however, appears to coincide with observed regional reductions in Antarctic Intermediate Water production and subduction, suggesting that sea ice may have influenced intermediate ocean circulation changes. We observe an early glacial (MIS 5d) weakening of meridional SST gradients between 42 and 59∘ S throughout the region, which may have contributed to early reductions in atmospheric CO2 concentrations through its impact on air–sea gas exchange.

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46

Torres, Ricardo, Yuri Artioli, Vassilis Kitidis, Stefano Ciavatta, Manuel Ruiz-Villarreal, Jamie Shutler, Luca Polimene et al. "Sensitivity of Modeled CO2 Air–Sea Flux in a Coastal Environment to Surface Temperature Gradients, Surfactants, and Satellite Data Assimilation". Remote Sensing 12, n.º 12 (25 de junio de 2020): 2038. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12122038.

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This work evaluates the sensitivity of CO2 air–sea gas exchange in a coastal site to four different model system configurations of the 1D coupled hydrodynamic–ecosystem model GOTM–ERSEM, towards identifying critical dynamics of relevance when specifically addressing quantification of air–sea CO2 exchange. The European Sea Regional Ecosystem Model (ERSEM) is a biomass and functional group-based biogeochemical model that includes a comprehensive carbonate system and explicitly simulates the production of dissolved organic carbon, dissolved inorganic carbon and organic matter. The model was implemented at the coastal station L4 (4 nm south of Plymouth, 50°15.00’N, 4°13.02’W, depth of 51 m). The model performance was evaluated using more than 1500 hydrological and biochemical observations routinely collected at L4 through the Western Coastal Observatory activities of 2008–2009. In addition to a reference simulation (A), we ran three distinct experiments to investigate the sensitivity of the carbonate system and modeled air–sea fluxes to (B) the sea-surface temperature (SST) diurnal cycle and thus also the near-surface vertical gradients, (C) biological suppression of gas exchange and (D) data assimilation using satellite Earth observation data. The reference simulation captures well the physical environment (simulated SST has a correlation with observations equal to 0.94 with a p > 0.95). Overall, the model captures the seasonal signal in most biogeochemical variables including the air–sea flux of CO2 and primary production and can capture some of the intra-seasonal variability and short-lived blooms. The model correctly reproduces the seasonality of nutrients (correlation > 0.80 for silicate, nitrate and phosphate), surface chlorophyll-a (correlation > 0.43) and total biomass (correlation > 0.7) in a two year run for 2008–2009. The model simulates well the concentration of DIC, pH and in-water partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) with correlations between 0.4–0.5. The model result suggest that L4 is a weak net source of CO2 (0.3–1.8 molCm−2 year−1). The results of the three sensitivity experiments indicate that both resolving the temperature profile near the surface and assimilation of surface chlorophyll-a significantly impact the skill of simulating the biogeochemistry at L4 and all of the carbonate chemistry related variables. These results indicate that our forecasting ability of CO2 air–sea flux in shelf seas environments and their impact in climate modeling should consider both model refinements as means of reducing uncertainties and errors in any future climate projections.

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47

Ali, Elsheikh B., Ingunn Skjelvan, Abdirahman M. Omar, Are Olsen, Tor E. de Lange, Truls Johannessen y Salma Elageed. "Sea surface pCO2 variability and air-sea CO2 exchange in the coastal Sudanese Red Sea". Regional Studies in Marine Science 44 (mayo de 2021): 101796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2021.101796.

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48

Bates, N. R., J. T. Mathis y M. A. Jeffries. "Air-sea CO2 fluxes on the Bering Sea shelf". Biogeosciences 8, n.º 5 (23 de mayo de 2011): 1237–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-8-1237-2011.

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Abstract. There have been few previous studies of surface seawater CO2 partial pressure (pCO2) variability and air-sea CO2 gas exchange rates for the Bering Sea shelf. In 2008, spring and summertime observations were collected in the Bering Sea shelf as part of the Bering Sea Ecological Study (BEST). Our results indicate that the Bering Sea shelf was close to neutral in terms of CO2 sink-source status in springtime due to relatively small air-sea CO2 gradients (i.e., ΔpCO2 and sea-ice cover. However, by summertime, very low seawater pCO2 values were observed and much of the Bering Sea shelf became strongly undersaturated with respect to atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Thus the Bering Sea shelf transitions seasonally from mostly neutral conditions to a strong oceanic sink for atmospheric CO2 particularly in the "green belt" region of the Bering Sea where there are high rates of phytoplankton primary production (PP)and net community production (NCP). Ocean biological processes dominate the seasonal drawdown of seawater pCO2 for large areas of the Bering Sea shelf, with the effect partly countered by seasonal warming. In small areas of the Bering Sea shelf south of the Pribilof Islands and in the SE Bering Sea, seasonal warming is the dominant influence on seawater pCO2, shifting localized areas of the shelf from minor/neutral CO2 sink status to neutral/minor CO2 source status, in contrast to much of the Bering Sea shelf. Overall, we compute that the Bering Sea shelf CO2 sink in 2008 was 157 ± 35 Tg C yr−1 (Tg = 1012 g C) and thus a strong sink for CO2.

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49

Benetazzo, Alvise, Trygve Halsne, Øyvind Breivik, Kjersti Opstad Strand, Adrian H. Callaghan, Francesco Barbariol, Silvio Davison, Filippo Bergamasco, Cristobal Molina y Mauro Bastianini. "On the short-term response of entrained air bubbles in the upper ocean: a case study in the north Adriatic Sea". Ocean Science 20, n.º 3 (2 de mayo de 2024): 639–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-20-639-2024.

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Abstract. Air bubbles in the upper ocean are generated mainly by waves breaking at the air–sea interface. As such, after the waves break, entrained air bubbles evolve in the form of plumes in the turbulent flow, exchange gas with the surrounding water, and may eventually rise to the surface. To shed light on the short-term response of entrained bubbles in different stormy conditions and to assess the link between bubble plume penetration depth, mechanical and thermal forcings, and the air–sea transfer velocity of CO2, a field experiment was conducted from an oceanographic research tower in the north Adriatic Sea. Air bubble plumes were observed using high-resolution echosounder data from an upward-looking 1000 kHz sonar. The backscatter signal strength was sampled at a high resolution, 0.5 s in time and 2.5 cm along the vertical direction. Time series profiles of the bubble plume depth were established using a variable threshold procedure applied to the backscatter strength. The data show the occurrence of bubbles organized into vertical plume-like structures, drawn downwards by wave-generated turbulence and other near-surface circulations, and reaching the seabed at 17 m depth under strong forcing. We verify that bubble plumes adapt rapidly to wind and wave conditions and have depths that scale approximately linearly with wind speed. Scaling with the wind–wave Reynolds number is also proposed to account for the sea-state severity in the plume depth prediction. Results show a correlation between measured bubble depths and theoretical air–sea CO2 transfer velocity parametrized with wind-only and wind/wave formulations. Further, our measurements corroborate previous results suggesting that the sinking of newly formed cold-water masses helps bring bubbles to greater depths than those reached in stable conditions for the water column. The temperature difference between air and sea seems sufficient for describing this intensification at the leading order of magnitude. The results presented in this study are relevant for air–sea interaction studies and pave the way for progress in CO2 gas exchange formulations.

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50

Yang, Bo, Zhuo Zhang, Ziqiang Xie, Bogui Chen, Huina Zheng, Baolin Liao, Jin Zhou y Baohua Xiao. "Seasonal Controls of Seawater CO2 Systems in Subtropical Coral Reefs: A Case Study from the Eastern Coast of Shenzhen, China". Water 15, n.º 23 (28 de noviembre de 2023): 4124. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w15234124.

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In situ field investigations coupled with coral culture experiments were carried out in the coral reef waters of the eastern coast of Shenzhen, Da’ao Bay (DAB), Dalu Bay (DLB), and Yangmeikeng Sea Area (YMKSA) to study the dynamics of the carbon dioxide (CO2) system in seawater and its controlling factors. The results indicated that the CO2 parameters were highly variable over a range of spatiotemporal scales, forced by various physical and biochemical processes. Comprehensively, DAB acted as a sink for atmospheric CO2 with exchange flux of –1.51 ± 0.31 to 0.27 ± 0.50 mmol C m−2 d−1, while DLB and YMKSA acted as a CO2 source with exchange fluxes of –0.42 ± 0.36 to 1.69 ± 0.74 mmol C m−2 d−1 and –0.58 ± 0.48 to 1.69 ± 0.41 mmol C m−2 d−1, respectively. The biological process and mixing effect could be the most important factor for the seasonal variation in total alkalinity (TA). In terms of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), in addition to biological process and mixing, its seasonal variation was affected by air–sea exchange and coral metabolism to some extent. Different from the former, the other CO2 parameters, total scale pH (pHT), partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2), and aragonite saturation state (ΩA), were mainly controlled by a combination of the temperature change, biochemical processes, air–sea exchange, and coral metabolism, while water mixing has little effect on them. In addition, our results indicated that coral communities could significantly increase the DIC/TA ratio by reducing the TA concentration and increasing the DIC in the reef waters, which may promote the acidification of local seawater and need attention.

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