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Artículos de revistas sobre el tema "African trypanosomiasi"

Autor: Grafiati

Publicado: 11 de marzo de 2023

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1

Giblin, James. "Trypanosomiasis Control in African History: An Evaded Issue?" Journal of African History 31, n.º 1 (marzo de 1990): 59–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700024786.

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Social control of trypanosomiasis in African history deserves further study. The pioneering work in this field is John Ford's respected but neglected The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology (1971). While Ford's arguments have received support from recent findings in immunological, epidemiological and epizootiological research, they have rarely met with evaluation or engagement, either in historical or scientific literature. Historians have tended to describe trypanosomiasis control as a matter of avoiding contact with tsetse fly. In so doing they have implicitly rejected the position of Ford, who regarded infrequent contacts between tsetse and mammalian hosts as necessary for the maintenance of host resistance. Ford believed that host resistance, rather than avoidance of tsetse, was the basis of trypanosomiasis control. The historical nature of Ford's work requires that a satisfactory evaluation of The Role of the Trypanosomiases make use of historical, as well as scientific, data. The evidence of trypanosomiasis and cattle-keeping from one region of north-eastern Tanzania supports Ford and suggests that other explanations of trypanosomiasis control are inadequate. The Tanzanian evidence shows that precolonial societies coexisted with, but could not avoid, tsetse. They could not eradicate tsetse because scarcity of water prevented permanent occupation of large areas. Tsetse and trypanosomiasis did not prevent cattle-keeping, but helped to keep the region's cattle population low and confined it to relatively densely settled neighbourhoods. Social control of trypanosomiasis collapsed during the pre-Second World War period of colonial rule. Economic and political developments were primarily responsible for a series of famines between 1894 and 1934. Famine-induced depopulation allowed steady spread of tsetse and wildlife reservoirs of trypanosomes into formerly cultivated areas which had been free of tsetse before the colonial period.

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2

VICKERMAN, KEITH. "The Trypanosomiases (ed. Maudlin, I., Holmes, P. H. & Miles, M. A.), pp. 624. International CABI Publishing, UK, 2004. ISBN 0 85199 475 X. £99.50 (US$185.00)." Parasitology 131, n.º 3 (16 de agosto de 2005): 436–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182005238581.

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Back in the early 1960s, when the curtain was falling on British colonial administration in Africa, the newly-created Ministry of Overseas Development decided to gather together for posterity the expertise and experience of authorities on tsetse and trypanosomiasis control. Weighing in at three and a half pounds, the resulting publication, ‘The African Trypanosomiases’ edited by Colonel Hugh Mulligan and published in 1969, has since been a baseline not only for investigators in the field but also for pure scientists working on related problems at the laboratory bench. The editors of the present volume were inspired by the enormous progress made in trypanosomiasis research over the last thirty years to produce ‘an update of Mulligan’ – so, how do the two books compare? Well, amazingly, their weights are exactly the same – but content and coverage are, as might be expected, very different.

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3

Pereira, Glaécia AN, Lucianna H. Santos, Steven C. Wang, Luan C. Martins, Filipe S. Villela, Weiting Liao, Marco A. Dessoy et al. "Benzimidazole inhibitors of the major cysteine protease of Trypanosoma brucei". Future Medicinal Chemistry 11, n.º 13 (julio de 2019): 1537–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.4155/fmc-2018-0523.

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Aim: Limitations in available therapies for trypanosomiases indicate the need for improved medicines. Cysteine proteases cruzain and rhodesain are validated targets for treatment of Chagas disease and human African trypanosomiasis. Previous studies reported a benzimidazole series as potent cruzain inhibitors. Results & methodology: Considering the high similarity between these proteases, we evaluated 40 benzimidazoles against rhodesain. We describe their structure-activity relationships (SAR), revealing trends similar to those observed for cruzain and features that lead to enzyme selectivity. This series comprises noncovalent competitive inhibitors (best Ki = 0.21 μM against rhodesain) and micromolar activity against Trypanosoma brucei brucei. A cheminformatics analysis confirms scaffold novelty, and the inhibitors described have favorable predicted physicochemical properties. Conclusion: Our results support this series as a starting point for new human African trypanosomiasis medicines.

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4

Morais, Mayara Castro de, Jucieudo Virgulino de Souza, Carlos da Silva Maia Bezerra Filho, Silvio Santana Dolabella y Damião Pergentino de Sousa. "Trypanocidal Essential Oils: A Review". Molecules 25, n.º 19 (6 de octubre de 2020): 4568. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25194568.

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Trypanosomiases are diseases caused by parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of the genus Trypanosoma. In humans, this includes Chagas disease and African trypanosomiasis. There are few therapeutic options, and there is low efficacy to clinical treatment. Therefore, the search for new drugs for the trypanosomiasis is urgent. This review describes studies of the trypanocidal properties of essential oils, an important group of natural products widely found in several tropical countries. Seventy-seven plants were selected from literature for the trypanocidal activity of their essential oils. The main chemical constituents and mechanisms of action are also discussed. In vitro and in vivo experimental data show the therapeutic potential of these natural products for the treatment of infections caused by species of Trypanosoma.

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5

Parwan, Deepika, Ranjan Kumar y Sumit Aggrawal. "African Trypanosomiasis in Young Female in North India - A Rare Case Report". Annals of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 8, n.º 4 (10 de mayo de 2021): C71–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/apalm.2997.

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Human African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is a vector-borne parasitic disease. It is caused by infection with protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Trypanosoma. They are transmitted to humans by tsetse fly (Glossina genus) bites which have acquired their infection from human beings or from animals harboring human pathogenic parasites. Tsetse flies are found just in sub-Saharan Africa though only certain species transmit the disease. We report a case of human African trypanosomiasis in a 28-year-old Indian female who had a travel history to sub–Saharan Africa, Uganda and she presented with a history of fever, body ache, headache, decreased oral intake, pain lower abdomen, swelling and discharge from forearm chancre since last 4-5 days. Peripheral smear showed heavy parasitemia by flagellated forms of Trypanosoma and the diagnosis of Trypanosoma brucei was given on Peripheral smear report. Serological testing was also done and a diagnosis of West-African trypanosomiasis was confirmed. The patient was successfully treated and made a good recovery. So West-African trypanosomiasis should be considered in the differential diagnosis with presentation of fever with chancre in every person with recent history of travel to African countries as it is universally fatal without treatment.

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6

Mulenga, Gloria M., Lars Henning, Kalinga Chilongo, Chrisborn Mubamba, Boniface Namangala y Bruce Gummow. "Insights into the Control and Management of Human and Bovine African Trypanosomiasis in Zambia between 2009 and 2019—A Review". Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 5, n.º 3 (11 de julio de 2020): 115. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed5030115.

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Tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is a fatal disease commonly known as Nagana in cattle and sleeping sickness in humans. The disease threatens food security and has severe economic impact in Africa including most parts of Zambia. The level of effectiveness of commonly used African trypanosomiasis control methods has been reported in several studies. However, there have been no review studies on African trypanosomiasis control and management conducted in the context of One Health. This paper therefore seeks to fill this knowledge gap. A review of studies that have been conducted on African trypanosomiasis in Zambia between 2009 and 2019, with a focus on the control and management of trypanosomiasis was conducted. A total of 2238 articles were screened, with application of the search engines PubMed, PubMed Central and One Search. Out of these articles, 18 matched the required criteria and constituted the basis for the paper. An in-depth analysis of the 18 articles was conducted to identify knowledge gaps and evidence for best practices. Findings from this review provide stakeholders and health workers with a basis for prioritisation of African trypanosomiasis as an important neglected disease in Zambia and for formulation of One Health strategies for better control and/or management of the disease.

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7

Torr, S. J., G. A. Vale y J. F. Morton. "Less is more: restricted application of pyrethroids for controlling tsetse". Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science 2005 (2005): 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s175275620000942x.

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In Africa, the animal trypanosomiases kill about 3 million cattle each year with related annual losses in animal productivity of ∼£3 billion. 32 of the 36 affected countries have per capita incomes of less than US$1 per day. The most effective method of combating the trypanosomiases is to eradicate their vectors, the tsetse. Up to the early 1980s, responsibility for vector control in Africa was largely taken by government agencies, using techniques such as large-scale aerial and ground spraying. Following economic crises, structural adjustment and decline or privatisation of veterinary services, much of the onus for controlling tsetse has fallen on livestock keepers themselves (Eisler et al. 2003), but partly as a consequence of trypanosomiasis, many are too poor to afford the cost. Treating cattle with synthetic pyrethroids may provide a way of breaking this cycle of poverty and disease.

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8

Taylor, Emma Michelle y James Smith. "Product Development Partnerships: Delivering Innovation for the Elimination of African Trypanosomiasis?" Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease 5, n.º 1 (15 de enero de 2020): 11. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed5010011.

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African trypanosomiasis has been labelled as a ‘tool-deficient’ disease. This article reflects on the role that Product Development Partnerships (PDPs) have played in delivering new tools and innovations for the control and elimination of the African trypanosomiases. We analysed three product development partnerships—DNDi, FIND and GALVmed—that focus on delivering new drugs, diagnostic tests, and animal health innovations, respectively. We interviewed key informants within each of the organisations to understand how they delivered new innovations. While it is too early (and beyond the scope of this article) to assess the role of these three organisations in accelerating the elimination of the African trypanosomiases, all three organisations have been responsible for delivering new innovations for diagnosis and treatment through brokering and incentivising innovation and private sector involvement. It is doubtful that these innovations would have been delivered without them. To varying degrees, all three organisations are evolving towards a greater brokering role, away from only product development, prompted by donors. On balance, PDPs have an important role to play in delivering health innovations, and donors need to reflect on how best to incentivise them to focus and continue to deliver new products.

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9

Maudlin, I. "African trypanosomiasis". Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 100, n.º 8 (diciembre de 2006): 679–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/136485906x112211.

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10

MORRISON, L. J. y A. MacLEOD. "African trypanosomiasis". Parasite Immunology 33, n.º 8 (15 de julio de 2011): 421–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3024.2011.01302.x.

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11

Streit, Judy A. y Eiyu Matsumoto. "African Trypanosomiasis". New England Journal of Medicine 375, n.º 24 (15 de diciembre de 2016): 2380. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/nejmicm1604333.

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12

Nieman, R. E. y J. J. Kelly. "African Trypanosomiasis". Clinical Infectious Diseases 30, n.º 6 (1 de junio de 2000): 985. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/313833.

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13

Kubata, Bruno Kilunga, Michael Duszenko, Zakayi Kabututu, Marc Rawer, Alexander Szallies, Ko Fujimori, Takashi Inui et al. "Identification of a Novel Prostaglandin F2α Synthase in Trypanosoma brucei". Journal of Experimental Medicine 192, n.º 9 (6 de noviembre de 2000): 1327–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.192.9.1327.

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Members of the genus Trypanosoma cause African trypanosomiasis in humans and animals in Africa. Infection of mammals by African trypanosomes is characterized by an upregulation of prostaglandin (PG) production in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid. These metabolites of arachidonic acid (AA) may, in part, be responsible for symptoms such as fever, headache, immunosuppression, deep muscle hyperaesthesia, miscarriage, ovarian dysfunction, sleepiness, and other symptoms observed in patients with chronic African trypanosomiasis. Here, we show that the protozoan parasite T. brucei is involved in PG production and that it produces PGs enzymatically from AA and its metabolite, PGH2. Among all PGs synthesized, PGF2α was the major prostanoid produced by trypanosome lysates. We have purified a novel T. brucei PGF2α synthase (TbPGFS) and cloned its cDNA. Phylogenetic analysis and molecular properties revealed that TbPGFS is completely distinct from mammalian PGF synthases. We also found that TbPGFS mRNA expression and TbPGFS activity were high in the early logarithmic growth phase and low during the stationary phase. The characterization of TbPGFS and its gene in T. brucei provides a basis for the molecular analysis of the role of parasite-derived PGF2α in the physiology of the parasite and the pathogenesis of African trypanosomiasis.

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14

Katabazi, Aziz, Adamu Almustapha Aliero, Sarah Gift Witto, Martin Odoki y Simon Peter Musinguzi. "Prevalence of Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax in Lira District, Uganda". BioMed Research International 2021 (14 de junio de 2021): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/7284042.

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Trypanosomes are the causative agents of animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) and human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), the former affecting domestic animals prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa. The main species causing AAT in cattle are T. congolense, T. vivax, and T. b. brucei. Northern Uganda has been politically unstable with no form of vector control in place. The return of displaced inhabitants led to the restocking of cattle from AAT endemic areas. It was thus important to estimate the burden of trypanosomiasis in the region. This study was designed to compare the prevalence of animal African trypanosomes in cattle in Lira District using microscopy and polymerase chain reaction amplification (PCR) methods. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 254 cattle from the three villages of Acanakwo A, Barropok, and Acungkena in Lira District, Uganda, were selected by simple random sampling technique and screened for trypanosomiasis using microscopy and PCR methods. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis according to microscopic results was 5/254 (2.0%) as compared to 11/254 (4.3%) trypanosomiasis prevalence according to PCR analysis. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis infection in the animal studied is 11/254 (4.3%). Trypanosoma congolense was the most dominant trypanosome species with a proportion of 9/11 (81.8%), followed by T. vivax 1/11 (9.1%) and mixed infection of T. congolense/T. vivax1/11 (9.1%). Barropok village had the highest prevalence of trypanosomiasis with 6/11 (54.5%). There is a statistically significant relationship ( OR = 6.041 ; 95% CI: 1.634-22.331; p < 0.05 ) between abnormal PCV and trypanosome infection. Polymerase reaction amplification was the most reliable diagnostic method due to its high sensitivity and specificity as compared to the conventional microscopic method. Polymerase reaction amplification appears to have adequate accuracy to substitute the use of a microscope where facilities allow. This study, therefore, underscores the urgent need for local surveillance schemes more especially at the grassroots in Uganda to provide data for reference guideline development needed for the control of trypanosomiasis in Uganda.

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15

Simarro, Pere P., Giuliano Cecchi, José R. Franco, Massimo Paone, Eric M. Fèvre, Abdoulaye Diarra, José Antonio Ruiz Postigo, Raffaele C. Mattioli y Jean G. Jannin. "Risk for Human African Trypanosomiasis, Central Africa, 2000–2009". Emerging Infectious Diseases 17, n.º 12 (diciembre de 2011): 2322–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1712.110921.

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16

Oscherwitz, Steven L. "East African Trypanosomiasis". Journal of Travel Medicine 10, n.º 2 (8 de marzo de 2006): 141–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2310/7060.2003.31743.

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17

Stich, A. "Human African trypanosomiasis". BMJ 325, n.º 7357 (27 de julio de 2002): 203–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.325.7357.203.

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18

Brun, Reto, Johannes Blum, Francois Chappuis y Christian Burri. "Human African trypanosomiasis". Lancet 375, n.º 9709 (enero de 2010): 148–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(09)60829-1.

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19

Büscher, Philippe, Giuliano Cecchi, Vincent Jamonneau y Gerardo Priotto. "Human African trypanosomiasis". Lancet 390, n.º 10110 (noviembre de 2017): 2397–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(17)31510-6.

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20

Kennedy, Peter G. E. "Human African trypanosomiasis". Neurology 66, n.º 7 (10 de abril de 2006): 962–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000208221.55385.55.

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21

Brun, Reto y Johannes Blum. "Human African Trypanosomiasis". Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 26, n.º 2 (junio de 2012): 261–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2012.03.003.

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22

Bottieau, Emmanuel y Jan Clerinx. "Human African Trypanosomiasis". Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 33, n.º 1 (marzo de 2019): 61–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.idc.2018.10.003.

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23

Carrington, Mark. "Slippery customers: How African trypanosomes evade mammalian defences". Biochemist 31, n.º 4 (1 de agosto de 2009): 8–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bio03104008.

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African trypanosomes are excellent parasites and can maintain an infection of a large mammalian host for months or years. In endemic areas, Human African Trypanosomiasis, also called sleeping sickness, has been largely unaffected by the advent of modern medicine, and trypanosomiasis of domestic livestock is a major restraint on productivity in endemic areas and is arguably the major contributor to the institutionalized poverty in much of rural sub-Saharan Africa1,2. A simple way of visualizing the effect of the livestock disease is to compare maps showing the distribution of livestock (www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/Fulldocs/Mappoverty/index.htm) and tsetse flies, the insect vector (www.fao.org/ag/AGAinfo/programmes/en/paat/maps.html): the lack of overlap is remarkable. Tsetse flies are only present in sub-Saharan Africa, and this probably restricted the spread of African trypanosomiasis until historical times. Livestock infections are now present in much of South Asia and South America, a product of long distance trade and adaptation of the trypanosomes to mechanical transmission3. The majority of research is on Trypanosoma brucei as this includes the human infective subspecies. This article provides a description of progress in the understanding the molecular details of how the trypanosome interacts with the mammalian immune system and how these studies have extended beyond this to fundamental aspects of eukaryotic cell biology.

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24

Peace Igolia, Ngozichukwuka, Alexander I Gray, Carol J. Clements, John O Igoli, Nzekwe Ub y Rajeev K Singla. "Scientific Investigation of Antitrypanosomal Activity of Crateva Adansonii DC Leaves Extracts". Indo Global Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 02, n.º 03 (2012): 226–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.35652/igjps.2012.27.

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Crateva adansonii DC is used in traditional medicines in the West of Africa. The crude hexane (CAN-1) and ethyl acetate (CAN-2) extracts were evaluated for their in vitro bioactivity against African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei brucei (S427) blood stream forms. The crude extracts showed moderate anti-trypanosomal activity (MIC 12.5µg/ml). We recommend its use either alone or in combination with other natural/semi-synthetic/synthetic drugs for the treatment of Human African Trypanosomiasis. © 2011 IGJPS. All rights reserved. KEYWORDS: Crateva adansonii DC; Anti-trypanoso

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25

Franco, Jose R., Giuliano Cecchi, Gerardo Priotto, Massimo Paone, Augustin Kadima Ebeja, Pere P. Simarro, Abdoulaye Diarra, Dieudonné Sankara, Weining Zhao y Daniel Argaw Dagne. "Human African trypanosomiasis cases diagnosed in non-endemic countries (2011–2020)". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 16, n.º 11 (7 de noviembre de 2022): e0010885. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0010885.

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Background Sleeping sickness, or human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), is transmitted by tsetse flies in endemic foci in sub-Saharan Africa. Because of international travel and population movements, cases are also occasionally diagnosed in non-endemic countries. Methodology/Principal findings Antitrypanosomal medicines to treat the disease are available gratis through the World Health Organization (WHO) thanks to a public-private partnership, and exclusive distribution of the majority of them enables WHO to gather information on all exported cases. Data collected by WHO are complemented by case reports and scientific publications. During 2011–2020, 49 cases of HAT were diagnosed in 16 non-endemic countries across five continents: 35 cases were caused by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, mainly in tourists visiting wildlife areas in eastern and southern Africa, and 14 cases were due to T. b. gambiense, mainly in African migrants originating from or visiting endemic areas in western and central Africa. Conclusions/Significance HAT diagnosis in non-endemic countries is rare and can be challenging, but alertness and surveillance must be maintained to contribute to WHO’s elimination goals. Early detection is particularly important as it considerably improves the prognosis.

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26

Dofuor, Kwain, Osei, Tetevi, Okine, Ohashi, Gwira y Kyeremeh. "N-(Isobutyl)-3,4-methylenedioxy Cinnamoyl Amide". Molbank 2019, n.º 3 (5 de julio de 2019): M1070. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/m1070.

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The plant Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler is one of the most important medicinal species of the genus Zanthoxylum on the African continent. It is used in the treatment and management of parasitic diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. These properties have inspired scientists to investigate species within the genus for bioactive compounds. However, a study, which details a spectroscopic, spectrometric and bioactivity guided extraction and isolation of antiparasitic compounds from the genus Zanthoxylum is currently non-existent. Tortozanthoxylamide (1), which is a derivative of the known compound armatamide was isolated from Z. zanthoxyloides and the full structure determined using UV, IR, 1D/2D-NMR and high-resolution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HRESI-LC-MS) data. When tested against Trypanosoma brucei subsp. brucei, the parasite responsible for animal African trypanosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa, 1 (IC50 7.78 µM) was just four times less active than the commercially available drug diminazene aceturate (IC50 1.88 µM). Diminazene aceturate is a potent drug for the treatment of animal African trypanosomiasis. Tortozanthoxylamide (1) exhibits a significant antitrypanosomal activity through remarkable alteration of the cell cycle in T. brucei subsp. brucei, but it is selectively non-toxic to mouse macrophages RAW 264.7 cell lines. This suggests that 1 may be considered as a scaffold for the further development of natural antitrypanosomal compounds.

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27

Yang, Zhiyuan, Mai Shi, Xiaoli Zhang y Danyu Yao. "Genome-Wide Screening for Pathogenic Proteins and microRNAs Associated with Parasite–Host Interactions in Trypanosoma brucei". Insects 13, n.º 11 (22 de octubre de 2022): 968. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects13110968.

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Tsetse flies are a type of blood-sucking insect living in diverse locations in sub-Saharan Africa. These insects can transmit the unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei) which causes African trypanosomiasis in mammals. There remain huge unmet needs for prevention, early detection, and effective treatments for this disease. Currently, few studies have investigated the molecular mechanisms of parasite–host interactions underlying African trypanosomiasis, mainly due to a lack of understanding of the T. brucei genome. In this study, we dissected the genomic and transcriptomic profiles of T. brucei by annotating the genome and analyzing the gene expression. We found about 5% of T. brucei proteins in the human proteome, while more than 80% of T. brucei protein in other trypanosomes. Sequence alignment analysis showed that 142 protein homologs were shared among T. brucei and mammalian genomes. We identified several novel proteins with pathogenic potential supported by their molecular functions in T. brucei, including 24 RNA-binding proteins and six variant surface glycoproteins. In addition, 26 novel microRNAs were characterized, among which five miRNAs were not found in the mammalian genomes. Topology analysis of the miRNA-gene network revealed three genes (RPS27A, UBA52 and GAPDH) involved in the regulation of critical pathways related to the development of African trypanosomiasis. In conclusion, our work opens a new door to understanding the parasite–host interaction mechanisms by resolving the genome and transcriptome of T. brucei.

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28

Kioy, D., J. Jannin y N. Mattock. "Focus: Human African trypanosomiasis". Nature Reviews Microbiology 2, n.º 3 (marzo de 2004): 186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro848.

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29

Maddocks, Susan y Rowan O'Brien. "African Trypanosomiasis in Australia". New England Journal of Medicine 342, n.º 17 (27 de abril de 2000): 1254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/nejm200004273421705.

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30

Wéry, Marc. "Therapy for African trypanosomiasis". Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 4, n.º 6 (diciembre de 1991): 838–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001432-199112000-00020.

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31

Krishna, Sanjeev y August Stich. "Trypanosomiasis: African and American". Medicine 33, n.º 8 (agosto de 2005): 50–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1383/medc.2005.33.8.50.

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32

Pale, Carlos Alberto y Luis Vigna. "African Trypanosomiasis in Argentina". New England Journal of Medicine 369, n.º 8 (22 de agosto de 2013): 763. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/nejmicm1211777.

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33

Sabbah, P., C. Brosset, P. Imbert, G. Bonardel, P. Jeandel y J. F. Briant. "Human African trypanosomiasis: MRI". Neuroradiology 39, n.º 10 (2 de octubre de 1997): 708–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s002340050491.

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Bisoffi, Zeno, Anna Beltrame, Geraldo Monteiro, Alessandra Arzese, Stefania Marocco, Giada Rorato, Mariella Anselmi y Pierluigi Viale. "African Trypanosomiasis Gambiense, Italy". Emerging Infectious Diseases 11, n.º 11 (noviembre de 2005): 1745–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1111.050649.

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Dofuor, Aboagye Kwarteng, Temitayo Samson Ademolue, Karen Nana Akua Kuampah, Frederick Ayertey y Theresa Manful Gwira. "In Vitro Mechanism of Action of Acanthospermum hispidum in Trypanosoma brucei". Advances in Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences 2022 (18 de octubre de 2022): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/1645653.

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African trypanosomiasis is a major neglected tropical disease with significant health and economic concerns in sub-Saharan Africa. In the absence of vaccines for African trypanosomiasis, there is a consideration for alternative sources of chemotherapy. Acanthospermum hispidum DC (A. hispidum) is a herbal species of the Asteraceae family that is endowed with rich phytochemicals with unknown mechanisms of antitrypanosomal effects. This study aimed to investigate the cellular mechanisms of antitrypanosomal and antioxidant activities of A. hispidum against Trypanosoma brucei (T. brucei), a causative protozoan species of African trypanosomiasis. Fractions were prepared from the whole plant of A. hispidum through solvent partitioning by employing solvents of varying polarities (hexane, HEX; dichloromethane, DCM; ethyl acetate, EA; aqueous, AQ). The in vitro efficacies and mechanisms of antitrypanosomal activities of A. hispidum were investigated using a panel of cell biological approaches. GC-MS analysis was used to identify the major compounds with a possible contribution to the trypanocidal effects of A. hispidum. A. hispidum fractions displayed significant antitrypanosomal activities in terms of half-maximal effective concentrations (EC50) and selectivity indices (SI) (AH-HEX, EC50 = 2.4 μg/mL, SI = 35.1; AH-DCM, EC50 = 2.2 μg/mL, SI = 38.3; AH-EA, EC50 = 1.0 μg/mL, SI = 92.8; AH-AQ, EC50 = 2.0 μg/mL, SI = 43.8). Fluorescence microscopic analysis showed that at their EC50 values, the fractions of A. hispidum altered the cell morphology as well as the organization of the mitochondria, nucleus, and kinetoplast in T. brucei. At their maximum tested concentrations, the prepared fractions exhibited antioxidant absorbance intensities comparable to the reference antioxidant, Trolox, in contrast to the oxidant intensity of an animal antitrypanosomal drug, diminazene (Trolox, 0.11 A; diminazene, 0.65 A; AH-HEX, 0.20 A, AH-DCM, 0.20 A, AH-EA, 0.13 A, AH-AQ, 0.22 A). GC-MS analysis of the various fractions identified major compounds assignable to the group of alkaloids and esters or amides of aliphatic acids. The results provide useful pharmacological insights into the chemotherapeutic potential of A. hispidum toward drug discovery for African trypanosomiasis.

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36

Frean, John, Willi Sieling, Hussein Pahad, Evan Shoul y Lucille Blumberg. "Clinical management of East African trypanosomiasis in South Africa: Lessons learned". International Journal of Infectious Diseases 75 (octubre de 2018): 101–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2018.08.012.

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Magez, Stefan, Joar Esteban Pinto Torres, Seoyeon Oh y Magdalena Radwanska. "Salivarian Trypanosomes Have Adopted Intricate Host-Pathogen Interaction Mechanisms That Ensure Survival in Plain Sight of the Adaptive Immune System". Pathogens 10, n.º 6 (31 de mayo de 2021): 679. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060679.

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Salivarian trypanosomes are extracellular parasites affecting humans, livestock and game animals. Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense are human infective sub-species of T. brucei causing human African trypanosomiasis (HAT—sleeping sickness). The related T. b. brucei parasite lacks the resistance to survive in human serum, and only inflicts animal infections. Animal trypanosomiasis (AT) is not restricted to Africa, but is present on all continents. T. congolense and T. vivax are the most widespread pathogenic trypanosomes in sub-Saharan Africa. Through mechanical transmission, T. vivax has also been introduced into South America. T. evansi is a unique animal trypanosome that is found in vast territories around the world and can cause atypical human trypanosomiasis (aHT). All salivarian trypanosomes are well adapted to survival inside the host’s immune system. This is not a hostile environment for these parasites, but the place where they thrive. Here we provide an overview of the latest insights into the host-parasite interaction and the unique survival strategies that allow trypanosomes to outsmart the immune system. In addition, we review new developments in treatment and diagnosis as well as the issues that have hampered the development of field-applicable anti-trypanosome vaccines for the implementation of sustainable disease control.

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38

Sterkel, Marcos, Lee R. Haines, Aitor Casas-Sánchez, Vincent Owino Adung’a, Raquel J. Vionette-Amaral, Shannon Quek, Clair Rose et al. "Repurposing the orphan drug nitisinone to control the transmission of African trypanosomiasis". PLOS Biology 19, n.º 1 (26 de enero de 2021): e3000796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000796.

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Tsetse transmit African trypanosomiasis, which is a disease fatal to both humans and animals. A vaccine to protect against this disease does not exist so transmission control relies on eliminating tsetse populations. Although neurotoxic insecticides are the gold standard for insect control, they negatively impact the environment and reduce populations of insect pollinator species. Here we present a promising, environment-friendly alternative to current insecticides that targets the insect tyrosine metabolism pathway. A bloodmeal contains high levels of tyrosine, which is toxic to haematophagous insects if it is not degraded and eliminated. RNA interference (RNAi) of either the first two enzymes in the tyrosine degradation pathway (tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) and 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD)) was lethal to tsetse. Furthermore, nitisinone (NTBC), an FDA-approved tyrosine catabolism inhibitor, killed tsetse regardless if the drug was orally or topically applied. However, oral administration of NTBC to bumblebees did not affect their survival. Using a novel mathematical model, we show that NTBC could reduce the transmission of African trypanosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa, thus accelerating current disease elimination programmes.

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39

Kirchhoff, Louis V. "American trypanosomiasis (Chagasʼ disease) and African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)". Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 7, n.º 5 (octubre de 1994): 542–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001432-199410000-00004.

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40

Croft, S. L., L. Vivas y S. Brooker. "Recent advances in research and control of malaria, leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis and schistosomiasis". Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 9, n.º 4 (21 de septiembre de 2003): 518–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.26719/2003.9.4.518.

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In the Eastern Mediterranean Region of the World Health Organization [WHO], malaria, schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are the parasitic diseases of major importance. Our review focuses on recent advances in the control and treatment of these diseases with particular reference to diagnosis, chemotherapy, vaccines, vector and environmental control. The Roll Back Malaria Programme, for example, emphasizes the use of insecticide treated bednets in Africa and targets a 30-fold increase in treated bednet use by 2007. Increasing risk factors for leishmaniasis include urbanization, extended agricultural projects and civil unrest and the increase in patients with Leishmania infantum and HIV co-infection in the Region may signal a new threat. In the past 20 years, human African trypanosomiasis has resurged in sub-Saharan Africa; within the Region it has become more common in the southern Sudan where anthroponotic and zoonotic sub-species infections overlap. Schistosomiasis in the Region is caused by either Schistosoma haematobium or S. mansoni and large-scale control efforts include providing regular treatment to at-risk groups and supporting drug delivery through schools.

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41

Burchmore, Richard, Patrick Ogbunude, Bertin Enanga y Michael Barrett. "Chemotherapy of Human African Trypanosomiasis". Current Pharmaceutical Design 8, n.º 4 (1 de febrero de 2002): 257–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1381612023396159.

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42

Kennedy, Peter G. E. "Sleeping sickness - human African trypanosomiasis". Practical Neurology 5, n.º 5 (octubre de 2005): 260–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1474-7766.2005.00324.x.

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43

Bacchi, Cyrus J. "Chemotherapy of Human African Trypanosomiasis". Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases 2009 (2009): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2009/195040.

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Human Africa trypanosomiasis is a centuries-old disease which has disrupted sub-Saharan Africa in both physical suffering and economic loss. This article presents an update of classic chemotherapeutic agents, in use for >50 years and the recent development of promising non-toxic combination chemotherapy suitable for use in rural clinics.

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44

Steverding, Dietmar. "The history of African trypanosomiasis". Parasites & Vectors 1, n.º 1 (2008): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-1-3.

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ROELANTS, G. E. "Natural resistance to African trypanosomiasis". Parasite Immunology 8, n.º 1 (enero de 1986): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3024.1986.tb00828.x.

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46

Fairlamb, Alan H. y David Horn. "Melarsoprol Resistance in African Trypanosomiasis". Trends in Parasitology 34, n.º 6 (junio de 2018): 481–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2018.04.002.

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47

Ortiz, Hector Isaac Alejandro, Juan Maria Farina, Clara Saldarriaga, Ivan Mendoza, Alvaro Sosa Liprandi, Fernando Wyss, Lucrecia Maria Burgos, Bryce Alexander y Adrian Baranchuk. "Human African trypanosomiasis & heart". Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy 18, n.º 12 (14 de octubre de 2020): 859–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14779072.2020.1828066.

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48

Courtin, David, David Berthier, Sophie Thevenon, Guiguigbaza-Kossigan Dayo, André Garcia y Bruno Bucheton. "Host genetics in African trypanosomiasis". Infection, Genetics and Evolution 8, n.º 3 (mayo de 2008): 229–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2008.02.007.

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49

Land, Kirkwood. "African trypanosomiasis and drug development". Trends in Parasitology 18, n.º 7 (julio de 2002): 291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1471-4922(02)02355-3.

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50

Golden, MichaelH N. "Arsenic, selenium, and African trypanosomiasis". Lancet 339, n.º 8806 (junio de 1992): 1413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(92)91230-6.

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