Artículos de revistas sobre el tema "1814-1864"

Grundtvig’s Position in Early Danish NationalismBy Lorenz RerupThe article deals with Grundtvig’s important position in Early Danish nationalism, i.e., in the decades from about 1800 to 1830. The background is the Danish Monarchy from the prosperous years at the turn of the century to the disastrous war 1807-1814, the loss of Norway in 1814, and the following needy postwar time. After 1814 the Danish Monarchy consisted of the Kingdom of Denmark, the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, the North-Atlantic Islands (the Faeroes and Greenland) and some minor colonies. The ideology which integrated the higher ranks of these heterogeneous ethnic groups of the Monarchy into one society was a patriotism underlining peace and order in the realm, the importance of just government and - before 1807 - the protection provided by the Danish navy.The patriotism of the Monarchy was compatible with various feelings of identity which bred in different parts of it from about 1750. The Danes, living in an old kingdom, equipped with a written language, with a complete educational system, and with a history of their own, of course, had a feeling of a Danish identiy, as the German speaking population of the Duchies had a corresponding feeling of an identity of their own. Clashes of these different identities might happen but were not connected with political ideas. The state was run by the king, not by the people, and a public opinion about politics was not allowed - and was almost non-existent - before the announcement of the Advisory Estates Assemblies in 1831. Now nationalism spread and soon undermined the supranational Monarchy, which finally disintegrated in 1864.However, in the first decades of the 18th century and influenced by the ideas of Romanticism a few poets, first of all Grundtvig, developed a literary national movement without political aims. In the writings of these poets the Danes - the whole people - have a real chance to make history if they abandon their superficial life and revive the virtues and piety of the great periods in Danish history. Like political nationalists these poets propagate this kind of revival. Their attempt failed. People were still divided into a ’high’ and a ’broad’ culture and some decades had to pass until the latter one felt the need of an ideology in order to be integrated into society. Nevertheless, Grundtvig seems to be a kind of link between the patriotic ideology of the 18th and the political nationalism of the 19th century.

El inglés Aaron Manby (1776-1850) es el iniciador de una saga, continuada por sus hijos, también ingenieros: Charles (1804-1884), John Richard (1813-1869), Joseph (1814-1862), y Edward (1816-1864). Todos ellos desempeñaron un papel muy relevante en la Europa del ochocientos, combinando su profesión como ingenieros con una intensa actividad industrial, que desarrollaron en Gran Bretaña, Francia y España. Aaron, el patriarca, fue el primero en construir un barco de hierro, que comunicó Gran Bretaña y Francia. En Francia levantó una gran industria metalúrgica a principios de la década de 1820, dedicándose a la construcción de este tipo de buques, y entre otros menesteres también abarcó la fabricación de equipamiento para el negocio gasista; de hecho, obtuvo la concesión para el alumbrado de París. A mediados de los años 1840 sus hijos Joseph y Edward marcharon a España, donde destacaron con un trabajo frenético en la industria del gas, así como en la desecación de lagunas, la construcción de ferrocarril, o la explotación minera. En este estudio se analiza el conjunto de sus actividades, subrayando su participación en el nacimiento de la industria española del gas, sin descuidar el resto de ámbitos en los que diversificaron sus inversiones.

ABSTRACT Military applications of geology became apparent within the United Kingdom during the nineteenth century, and were developed during the First World War and more extensively during the Second, incidentally by some officers with links to Canada. In the nineteenth century, three Royal Engineer major-generals with geological interests had served there briefly: Joseph Ellison Portlock (1794–1864) helped to stem invasion of Upper Canada by the United States Army in 1814, pioneer geological survey in Ireland from 1826, and promote knowledge of geology amongst British Army officers; Frederick Henry Baddeley (1794–1879) helped to pioneer geological studies in south-east Canada in the 1820s; Richard John Nelson (1803–1877) served in Canada after mapping the geology of Jersey in 1828 and making geological observations in Bermuda. During the First World War, Tannatt William Edgeworth David (1858–1934), a Welsh-born Australian and from 1916 to 1918 the senior of two geologists serving with the British Army on the Western Front, had a Canadian military family link through his mother; and Reginald Walter Brock (1874–1935), Dean of Applied Science at the University of British Columbia and a distinguished Canadian geologist, interrupted his career for infantry service in Europe but was used as a geologist from mid-1918, in Palestine. During the Second World War, the British military geologist Frederick William Shotton (1906–1990) provided geological advice to, amongst other units, Canadian forces who generated thematic maps for parts of northern France that predicted ‘going’ (conditions affecting cross-country vehicle mobility) to follow the D-Day Allied landings in Normandy. In 1943, Thomas Crawford Phemister (1902–1982), Professor and Head of the Department of Geology and Mineralogy at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland but from 1926 to 1932 an associate professor at the University of British Columbia, as an ‘emergency’ Royal Engineers captain founded the Geological Section of the Inter-Service Topographical Department, a unit whose reports and thematic maps provided terrain intelligence for Allied forces in both Europe and the Far East from a base in England, within the University of Oxford. John Leonard Farrington (1906–1982), an undergraduate student from 1923 to 1928 of Brock and/or Phemister at the University of British Columbia, co-founded the Section and soon succeeded Phemister as its head, from 1944 to 1945 in the rank of major. Soon after 1945, military geologists became established in continuity within the British Army.

This article considers the contribution of pre-revolutionary artists of the Russian Empire to the study of the local history of Kazakhstan. It is known that the lands and Kazakh population of Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Kazakhstan found their worthy reflection in the paintings of famous artists. So, for example, the sacred monuments of the Mangyshlak Peninsula, the plain of Ustyurt, the northern Aral Sea and the Caspian Sea were deoicted in the paintings and sketches of the great Ukrainian poet and playwright T.G. Shevchenko (1814–1864). He was exiled for ten years in Kazakhstan (1847–1857) in the Orenburg steppes, in the fortress of Orsk, and then in the Novopetrovsk fortification on the Mangyshlak Peninsula and on the banks of the Caspian Sea. His participation in the work of two expeditions of Aral (1848–1849) and Karatau facilitated the creation of several paintings and graphic works of landscapes, which have a direct relation to the study of local lore and life of the Kazakhs. Original albums and sketches of the Tomsk artist P.M. Kosharov (1824– 1902) depicting types of architecture, the material culture of Western Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan are also of note. Participating in an expedition of P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky to Zhetysu in 1852–1857, he managed to issue the early documentary image of Verny, mineral source Kapal-Arasan, etc. The Southern Kazakhstan and Zhetysu found the reflection in V.V. Vereshchagin's sketches (1842–1904), who was the authorof the pictures «Turkestan Series» (1871–1874), and the illustrated books «Turkestan. The etude from nature» (1874), «Essays, sketches, memoirs» (1883). A similar contribution to the subject under consideration was made by the member of the Turkestan circle of lovers of archaeology, founder of the Semirechensky department of the Russian Geographical Society N.G. Khludov (1850–1935). He created a set of realistic art paintings devoted to Zhetysu and Zailijsky Alatau. Thus, the article shows the contribution of the above-mentioned pre-revolutionary artists to the development of the subject posed by us.

Folk, dannelse og styreform: En anmeldelse af Ove Korsgaard “Kampen om folket” (2004).[People, Education and Government: A Review of Ove Korsgaard ‘The Battle over the People’ (2004) ]By Vagn WåhlinOve Korsgaard, Kampen om folket. Et dannelsesperspektiv på dansk historie gennem 500 år [The Battle over the People: A Perspective of Education through 500 years of Danish History] (Gyldendal, Copenhagen, 2004), 672 p.From the day of its publication, Ove Korsgaard’s brilliant dissertation has had much influence on the Danish understanding of Denmark’s 500-year process of establishing the concepts of individual, society, people, and democracy. The author distinguishes between demos, the general population of the state, and ethnos, that part of the population which has inherited and accepted rights and obligations as far as and beyond a constitution and written laws. These latter are folket, the people.This primary division leads to a similar distinction between state and nation as well as a parallel distinction in government between representative government and democratic, self-organization of the citizens. A special focus of the book is the interaction and mutual dependency of the specified categories in an historical perspective of change from a late feudal society to a modem democratic welfare state. Essential institutions in this long societal process have been (a) the Lutheran Church; (b) from 1814, the municipal local schools for all, including girls; (c), for centuries, the patriarchal household; and (d) the rising centralized power of king and state. These four institutions formed the ideological and practical base of society until, through the slow effect of the Enlightenment, the individual and the people as such, within a national and democratic framework, took over in the period 1870-1900 and became the ideological basis of society with special and defined rights and duties attaching to every adult male and, from 1920, female. After the pre-1814 ethnic and cultural Danish-Norwegian-German conglomerate state finally broke down with the loss (1814) of Norway to Sweden and (1864) the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein to Pmssia, Denmark became the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous state of Europe. Not until then could the ethnic concept of ‘the p e o p l folket, finally take over the indisputable role as the rock of the Danish society - a role which was further strengthened by the German occupation of Denmark 1940-45.Before 1870, 75% of all cultivated land was worked by the owners of medium-sized family farms, and some 75% of the population made their living in the agrarian sector of society. Agriculture produced the necessary surplus to pay for Denmark’s imports. From 1870, when the farmers began to organize effectively, they gained a higher economic, cultural and political status in Danish class-structured society which they were able to maintain for a hundred years. Up to 1870-90 Copenhagen was the only urban-industrial centre of any great significance, and from the 1890s the organized industrial capital and its workforce rose in influence; but not until the 1960s and 70s did these succeed in outdoing the fundamental influence of the agrarian sector on a national scale. Regrettably, this economic perception of the lower middle-class appearance of Danish society has been under evaluated in Korsgaard’s book, and the reader may thus miss a vital factor in the development of the democratic understanding of the Danish ethnos.The labour unions and the labour movement in politics never became revolutionary to any great extent and from 1916-29 renounced any such tendency and won a national position as a trustworthy partner in a coalition with other political and social forces. They graduated from expressing purely class interests to representing the whole population of Denmark. This led to the formation of a general welfare state for all after the Second World War. All political parties and national movements took part in building a welfare provision from cradle to grave, covering 80-90% of the population, which led to an embracing of both ethnos and demos.From the post-industrial and post-modern society of 1970 until today no leading classes in coalition with other groups have been able to formulate a common ideology and political guidelines for the future. So the Danes collectively are insecure about the future, and divided as to whether they want globalisation, Muslim newcomers, the EUconstitution etc.All in all, this book is a fascinating and well-written contribution to the current debate: Where do we come from? Who are we? And where are we heading?

In the article the general state of medicine, the questions of activity of medical institutions on rendering services to the population of Turkestan city in late XIX-early XX centuries, from the period of the city conquest by the Russian Empire in 1864 to 1917, in the context of traditions and modernizations are considered. Separately the activity of infirmaries, outpatient clinics of the city, their financial position and main problems of their activity, the attitude of local population to Russian medics-doctors, the issues of using folk medicine are analyzed. The methodological basis of the study of medical and sanitary organization and the provision of medical care to the population was the principles of historicism, objectivity and systematic approach, for the collection of statistical data - a comparative-historical method.

During the period from 1795 to 1850, the East India Company Raj in India viewed forests chiefly as limiting agriculture. In Bengal, forested lands, classified as wastelands, had been included in zamindari (landlord) estates (Ribbentrop 1900, 60). Colonial administrators of this period also tended to perceive forests as being inexhaustible. Much of the woody vegetation, however, was not timber quality, being the product of a landscape long under shifting cultivation. The East India Company continued Indian rulers’ practices of selling blocks of forests or individual trees to timber merchants for a fixed down payment that encouraged great destruction and wastage in their extraction (Stebbing 1922, 35, 61). No attempts to introduce conservancy were made in the North West Provinces (NWP) or Bengal until after the revolt of 1857, even though the value of NWP sal (shorea robusta) forests was known from the time of the Gurkha wars in 1814–16, and the reports of Dr. Wallich, Superintendent of the Calcutta Botanical Gardens in 1825 (Stebbing 1922, 66–67, 201).

Fyodor Inozemtsev was born on February 24, 1802 in the family of a manor manager in the village of Belkino, Kaluga province. In 1814, after the death of his father, F.I. Inozemtsev moved to his older brother, a student of the medical faculty of Kharkiv University, Egor. At the age of 12, Fyodor studied first at a college, then at a gymnasium, and after completing preparatory courses, he entered the verbal faculty of Kharkiv University to study at the state expense, although he initially aspired to the medical faculty. Protesting against studying at the Faculty of Words, he skips classes, becomes the "first hooligan" and for re-education is sent as a history teacher to the Kursk province, where he also teaches arithmetic, geometry and German. In 1826, F.I. Inozemtsev was already studying medicine at the 2nd year of Kharkov, and after that - Dorpat University. A good knowledge of the German language in which the teaching is conducted distinguishes him from other students. The famous surgeon Nikolai Yellinsky, considering that F.I. Inozemtsev has an unconditional "operator talent" already in the 3rd year allows him to perform his first operation - amputation of the lower leg. In 1833, Fyodor Ivanovich defended his doctoral dissertation and went on an internship abroad. Since 1835, F.I. Inozemtsev has been an extraordinary, and in 1937 an ordinary professor of surgery at Moscow University. In 1839-1840 F.I. Inozemtsev studied medicine in Germany, France, Italy, after which he created his own free clinic. He was one of the reformers of the educational system (1840-1860): he prepared a new modern training program for practical surgery (1850), was one of the first in the country to lecture on topographic anatomy; developed a course of eye diseases; created the first faculty surgical clinic in Russia at Moscow University (1846). Fedor Inozemtsev was a very popular doctor, who treated over 6 thousand patients a year. F.I. Inozemtsev performed the operation under general ether anesthesia for the first time in the country; Russian Russian doctor proposed to use a setting for treatment, the recipe of which has been used for more than 100 years; was the organizer of the Congress of Russian doctors, the founder of the Society of Russian Doctors in Moscow (1861); created the Moscow Medical Newspaper (1858-1878). Fyodor Ivanovich advocated that the surgeon should be a therapist at the same time. F.I. Inozemtsev author of 3-x monographs and 33 scientific articles, the founder of the medical school, whose prominent representatives were I.M. Sechenov, S.P. Botkin, G. A. Zakharin, N.V. Sklifosovsky and others. Inozemtsev was awarded the rank of state councilor with seniority, the Orders of St. Anna of the 2nd and 3rd degrees, St. Stanislav of the 2nd degree. In 1859, F.I. Inozemtsev retired due to deteriorating health, but in 1864 he was elected an honorary member of Moscow University. F.I. Inozemtsev died on August 6, 1869 and was buried in the famous cemetery of the Donskoy Monastery. The historian Pyotr Ivanovich Bartenev wrote about Fyodor Ivanovich: "A useful professor, a skilled doctor, a well-meaning citizen, a kind man, an ever-memorable friend of mankind."

Abstract The generic synonyms of Taumacera Thunberg, 1814 are revised. Acroxena Baly, 1879; Kinabalua Mohamedsaid, 1997; Neochrolea Jacoby, 1887; Paraenidea Laboissière, 1933 and Xenarthra Baly, 1861 are proposed as new synonyms of Taumacera. Luperomorphella Chûjô, 1964 is removed from the synonymy with Taumacera and proposed as a new synonym of Cerophysa Chevrolat, 1836. As a result of the examination of extensive type material, the following new combinations are proposed: Cerophysaalbomaculata (Chûjô, 1964) comb. nov. (from Luperomorpha), Hoplosaenidea basalis (Duvivier, 1884) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Hoplosaenidea dohertyi (Jacoby, 1894) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Hoplosaenidea rubripennis (Duvivier, 1884) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Hyphaenia balyi (Jacoby, 1895) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Hyphaenia bicornuta (Medvedev, 2001) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Hyphaenia costata (Medvedev, 2001) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Hyphaenia tonkinensis (Laboissière, 1936) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Pseudoscelida metallica (Jacoby, 1887) comb. nov. (from Doridea), Pseudoscelida nigrolimbata (Jacoby, 1899) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Taumacera antennata (Mohamedsaid, 1997) comb. nov. (from Kinabalua), Taumacera bella (Weise, 1922) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Taumacera cervicornis (Baly, 1861) comb. nov. (from Xenarthra), Taumacera clypeata (Baly, 1888) comb. nov. (from Acroxena), Taumacera coxalis (Jacoby, 1899) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Taumacera facialis (Baly, 1886) comb. nov. (from Acroxena), Taumacera fulva (Kimoto, 1989) comb. nov. (from Acroxena), Taumacera jacobyi (Weise, 1922) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Taumacera javanensis (Jacoby, 1895) comb. nov. (from Dorydea), Taumacera lewisi (Jacoby, 1887) comb. nov. (from Xenarthra), Taumacera martensi (Medvedev, 1990) comb. nov. (from Acroxena), Taumacera mirabilis (Jacoby, 1887) comb. nov. (from Xenarthra), Taumacera musaamani (Mohamedsaid, 2010) comb. nov. (from Kinabalua), Taumacera nasuta (Baly, 1879) comb. nov. (from Acroxena), Taumacera paradoxa (Laboissière, 1936) comb. nov. (from Acroxena), Taumacera samoderzhenkovi (Medvedev, 1992) comb. nov. (from Acroxena), Taumacera submetallica (Jacoby, 1896) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Taumacera sumatrensis (Jacoby, 1884) comb. nov. (from Aenidea), Taumacera suturalis (Duvivier, 1885) comb. nov. (from Platyxantha), Taumacera unicolor (Jacoby, 1887) comb. nov. (from Xenarthra), Taumacera viridis (Hope, 1831) comb. nov. (from Auchenia). New substitute names are proposed for preoccupied taxa which are newly transferred to Taumacera from other genera: Taumacera kimotoi nom. nov. (for Acroxena femoralis Kimoto, 1989, nec Platyxantha femoralis Allard, 1889, synonym of T. fulvicollis (Jacoby, 1881)); Taumacera indicola nom. nov. (for Acroxena indica Jacoby, 1896, nec Taumacera indica (Jacoby, 1889)); Taumacera medvedevi nom. nov. (for Acroxena nigricornis Medvedev, 1992, nec Taumacera nigricornis (Baly, 1864)). The following new synonyms are established: Fleutiauxia chinensis (Maulik, 1933) = Fleutiauxia mutifrons Gressitt & Kimoto, 1963 syn. nov.; Hoplosaenidea abdominalis (Jacoby, 1884) = Platyxantha wallacei Jacoby, 1895 syn. nov.; Metrioidea grandis (Allard, 1889) = Platyxantha robusta Jacoby, 1895 syn. nov.; Taumacera lewisi (Jacoby, 1887) = Aenidea hirtipennis Jacoby, 1887 syn. nov.; Taumacera indica (Jacoby, 1889) = Palpoxena yunnana Medvedev, 2015 syn. nov.; Taumacera sumatrensis (Jacoby, 1884) = Ozomena intermedia Jacoby, 1899 syn. nov. Platyxantha quadraticollis Jacoby, 1896 is confirmed as a synonym of Theopella bodjoensis (Duvivier, 1885). The name Hyphaenia tibialis Medvedev & Romantsov, 2013 is fixed by the act of the first reviewer principle. Based on the structure of antennae, seven species-groups are recognized (the antennata-group, the cervicornis-group, the deusta-group, the insignis-group, the nasuta-group, the nigricornis-group, and the viridis-group). Lectotypes are designated for Platyxantha balyi Jacoby, 1895 and Dorydea indica Jacoby, 1889, which is important since each of their syntype series consists of two different species

The present article describes how the work of M.Kh. Dulati "Tarih-i-Rashidi" as one of the outstanding written monuments in the historical literature of the Muslim countries of the XVI century, before its translation into English, attracted the attention of Russian orientalists. For them, "Tarih-i-Rashidi" was a very valuable source. Because it was difficult for Russian orientalists to find information about East Turkestan. They had to look for information about the region in Chineese literature or in the writings of Persian and Mawarannahr historians.The study of "Tarih-i-Rashidi" was conducted by Russian historians V.V. Velyaminov-Zernov started. Tarih-i Rashidi was instrumental in writing his famous work "The study of the Kasym Khans and Tsarevich". The second part of his work contains voluminous copies of the original and translation of the work of M.Kh. Dulati. The work of Velyaminov-Zernov has not lost its value to this day. After all, none of the research scientists in Kazakhstan is V.V. Velyaminov-Zernov's work is inevitable. In the twelfth chapter of the second volume of the book "The study of the Kasym Khans and Tsarevich", published in St. Petersburg in 1864, Velyaminov-Zernov wrote about the history of Zhanibek and Adik khans in the XV century. The most accurate information about Adik Khan is given in "Tarih-i-Rashidi". It was written in Persian by Muhammad Haidar Gurgan between 948 (1541-42) and 953 (1546-47)

<p class="MsoNormal"><strong style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: DA;">Resumé</span></strong></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 21px; font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Artiklen diskuterer den ”grundspænding” mellem det nationale og det globale, som kulturarven som begreb og konkret praksis finder betydning i. Et indledende eksempel fra forfatterens feltarbejde ved den historiske slagmark Dybbøl lige nord for den dansk/tyske grænse demonstrerer, hvordan steder og højtideligheder, der tidligere blev opfattet som stærkt nationale, i stigende grad tilskrives transnationale eller sågar universelle værdier. Herefter sporer og diskuterer forfatteren forbindelserne mellem national identitet, arkæologien og kulturarven, med reference til 1800tallets nationalromantiske vending. Særlig opmærksomhed tildeles den tyske præromantiker Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), hvis tanker om sammenhængen mellem folk, nation og kultur fik afgørende betydning for toneangivende danske skikkelser som Adam Oehlenschläger og N.F.S. Grundtvig. Forståelsen af kulturarven, som voksede frem i 1800-tallets Danmark, var knyttet til erfaringen af den krisestemning, som blandt andet tabet af Norge 1814 og de slesvigske krige 1848-51 og 1864 hensatte nationen i. Dansk kultur og kulturarv blev opfattet som noget grundlæggende skrøbeligt og truet, en præmis som stadig kendetegner megen kulturarvspraksis.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.0pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; tab-stops: 17.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: DA;">Men parallelt med denne grundlæggende nationale konnotation i kulturarvsbegrebet peger forfatteren på nutidige bevægelser, som peger i en tilsyneladende modsat retning, hvor genstande, steder, monumenter og traditioner i stigende grad søges knyttet til universelle og kosmopolitiske dagsordner og medfølgende værdisæt, som det ses mest rendyrket hos UNESCO. Artiklen diskuterer den nyere universalistiske kulturarvstænkning gennem en kritisk analyse af UNESCOs verdensarvsbegreb. Der argumenteres for, at man under<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">  </span>verdensorganisationens diplomatiske og inkluderende sprogbrug aner en relativistisk og romantisk kulturforståelse, der på paradoksal vis fastholder de enkelte ”communities” og kulturer i afsondret og ubrydelig specificitet.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 16.0pt; mso-line-height-rule: exactly; tab-stops: 17.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: DA;">Artiklens analytiske strategi er at adressere relationerne og spændingerne mellem de nationale og globale forståelser og niveauer, og at undersøge de lag af fortolkning og forhandling, som er med til at fylde kulturarven med mening og værdi. Overordnet er ambitionen at sætte spørgsmålstegn ved relevansen af kategoriske opdelinger af kulturarv i geografiske trin eller koncentriske cirkler, opdelt i fx lokale, nationale og globale niveauer, og i stedet slå til lyd for en kulturanalyse, der interesserer sig for, hvordan sådanne kategorier fremelskes, forhandles og får effekt.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language: DA;"> </span></p>

Til Nordmænd om en Norsk Høi-Skole. En indledning[To the Norwegians concerning a Norwegian High School. An Introduction]By Henrik YdeTo the Norwegians concerning a Norwegian High School (1837) is the second of Grundtvig’s major writings on people’s high schools or national high schools. It is also the only one aimed at a non-Danish public. And whereas his other writings on this subject did not catch much attention in Denmark when published, To the Norwegians concerning a Norwegian High School immediately stirred up a fierce debate in Norway.In 1832—after the liberal revolutions in Paris and elsewhere—Grundtvig clearly stated that he was “no friend of parliaments” but preferred absolute monarchy. However, as parliaments did exist, Grundtvig was of the opinion that the voters as well as the members of parliaments ought to receive national education in their vernacular languages in order to gain sense and knowledge about the common good of their respective nations.When addressing the Norwegians, Grundtvig had to take into account that the Norwegian constitution from 1814 was one of the most liberal of all European constitutions. The Norwegian parliament—the Storting—actually had legislative authority and had shown itself to be strong enough to oppose the Swedish-Norwegian king. This was not the case in Denmark, where provisional advisory assemblies—praised by Grundtvig—had been established in 1831 largely to ward off demands for a constitutional monarchy. However, in To the Norwegians concerning a Norwegian High School, Grundtvig deliberately avoids a direct address to the Storting. He chooses not to talk about the need for national education for the members of the Norwegian parliament. This omission is probably due to the fact that while some of Grundtvig’s Norwegian followers were liberals, some were conservatives: thus, it was crucial for him not to be accused of taking sides in Norwegian politics. Instead, he makes a more general claim about a national education in the mother tongue where the students should learn about the common good of the nation. He hardly mentions the Storting.However, when speaking of education in the mother tongue, Grundtvig entered another area of high tension, namely that of the use of the classical language of Latin at the University of Christiania (Oslo) and in the Norwegian upper secondary schools, the ‘Latin schools’. And though Grundtvig’s conservative Norwegian friends did not share his hatred of Latin, here he did not hesitate to stress the need for a higher national education in the vernacular language.The reaction was immediate: A week before the official release of To the Norwegians concerning a Norwegian High School (on July 29th 1837) the conservative paper Den Constitutionelle (The Constitutionalist) strongly attacked Grundtvig, claiming that his idea of national education was subversive and socialist and also that it was contradictory to his former biblical fundamentalism.These arguments were immediately refuted by the liberal Morgenbladet (The Morning Daily), in which the critic totally agreed with Grundtvig to an extent not even uttered in To the Norwegians concerning a Norwegian High School itself: that a national high school using the mother tongue would be an excellent means for educating the members of the Storting, especially those who had not attended the ‘Latin school’ in their youth.One specific paper did not react in the first round of the debate: Statsborgeren (The Nationalf), a radical liberal and national paper, edited by the writer Henrik Wergeland. He and Grundtvig had very similar ideas about a number of issues including the enlightenment of the people. However, no dialogue was possible: Wergeland was a liberal applauding the ideals of The French Revolution, Grundtvig was a conservative anti-rationalist. Furthermore Wergeland still remembered that his father Nicolai had had a fierce fight with Grundtvig in the years 1811-16 over Denmark’s political and economic relationship to Norway through the centuries, as being either imperialistic (N. Wergeland’s claim) or altruistic (Grundtvig’s claim). Later, in the debate about To the Norwegians concerning a Norwegian High School, Wergeland attacked Grundtvig along with his Norwegian followers, claiming that Grundtvig was ignorant in the matter of science and a megalomaniac as a person.Thus with the exception of Morgenbladet, the premise of Grundtvig’s booklet was not well understood. Instead, it was considered to be a comment on the standing debate in Norway over the use of Latin at the university and in the upper secondary school.On the sidelines, though, some of Grundtvig’s closest followers in Norway, the wealthy Solem-family, continued to work on their own initiative and with their own money to bring about a Grundtvigian national high school. However, the conditions for this were not yet favourable, either in Norway or in Denmark, and the first Norwegian people’s high school only opened in 1864.

First a Man - then a Christian. Grundtvig and Missonary ActivityBy K.E. BuggeThe aim of this paper is to clarify Grundtvig’s ideas on missionary activity in the socalled »heathen parts«. The point of departure is taken in a brief presentation of the poem »Man first - and then a Christian« (1838), an often quoted text, whenever this theme is discussed. The most extensive among earlier studies on the subject is the book published by Georg Thaning: »The Grundtvigian Movement and the Mission among Heathen« (1922). The author provides valuable insights also into Grundtvig’s ideas, but has, of course, not been able to utilize more recent studies.On the background of the revival movement of the late 18th and early 19th century, The Danish Missionary Society was established in 1821. In the Lutheran churches such activity was generally deemed to be unnecessary. According to the Holy Scripture, so it was argued, the heathen already had a »natural« knowledge of God, and the word of God had been preached to the ends of the earth in the times of the Apostles. Nevertheless, it was considered a matter of course that a Christian sovereign had the duty to ensure that non-Christian citizens of his domain were offered the possibility of conversion to the one and true faith. In the double-monarchy Denmark-Norway such non-Christian populations were the Lapplanders of Northern Norway, the Inuits in Greenland, the black slaves in Danish West India and finally the native populations of the Danish colonies in West Africa and East India. Under the influence of Pietism missionary, activity was initiated by the Danish state in South India (1706), Northern Norway (1716), and Greenland (1721).In Grundtvig’s home the general attitude towards missionary work among the heathen seems to have reflected traditional Lutheranism. Nevertheless, one of Grundtvig’s elder brothers, Jacob Grundtvig, volunteered to become a missionary in Greenland.Due to incidental circumstances he was instead sent to the Danish colony in West Africa, where he died after less than one year of service. He was succeeded by his brother Niels Grundtvig, who likewise died within a year. During the period when Jacob Grundtvig prepared himself for the journey to Greenland, we can imagine that his family spent many an hour discussing his future conditions. It is probable that on these occasions his father consulted his copy of the the report on the Greenland mission published by Hans Egede in 1737. It is a fact that Grundtvig imbibed a deep admiration for Hans Egede early in his life. In his extensive poem »Roskilde Rhyme« (1812, published 1814), the theme of which is the history of Christianity in Denmark, Grundtvig inserted more than 70 lines on the Greenland mission. Egede’s achievements are here described in close connection with the missionary work of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, South India, as integral parts of the same journey towards the celestial Jerusalem.In Grundtvig’s famous publication »The Church’s Retort« (1825) he describes the church as an historical fact from the days of the Apostles to our days. This historical church is at the same time a universal entity, carrying the potential of becoming the church of all humanity - if not before, then at the end of the world. A few years later, in a contribution to the periodical .Theological Monthly., he applies this historicaluniversal perspective on missionary acticity in earlier times and in the present. The main features of this stance may be summarized in the following points:1. Grundtvig rejects the Orthodox-Lutheran line of thought and underscores the Biblical view: That before the end of time the Gospel must be preached out into all comers of the world.2. Our Lutheran, Biblically founded faith must not lead to inactivity in this field.3. Correctly understood, missionary activity is a continuance of the acts of the Apostles.4. The Holy Spirit is the intrinsic dynamic power in the extension of the Christian faith.5. The practical procedure in this extension work must never be compulsion or stealth, but the preaching of the word and the free, uninhibited decision of the listeners.We find here a total reversion of the Orthodox-Lutheran way of rejection in principle, but acceptance in practice. Grundtvig accepts the principle: That missionary activity is a legitimate and necessary Christian undertaking. The same activity has, however, both historically and in our days, been marred by unacceptable practices, on which he reacts with forceful rejection. To this position Grundtvig adhered for the rest of his life.Already in 1826, Grundtvig withdrew from the controversy arising from the publication of his .Retort.. The public dispute was, however, continued with great energy by the gifted young academic, Jacob Christian Lindberg. During the 1830s a weekly paper, edited by Lindberg, .Nordisk Kirke-Tidende., i.e. Nordic Church Tidings, became Grundtvig’s main channel of communication with the public. All through the years of its publication (1833-41), this paper, of which Grundtvig was also an avid reader, brought numerous articles and reports on missionary activity. Among the reasons for this editorial practice we find some personal motives. Quite a few of Grundtvig’s and Lindberg’s friends were board members of the Danish Missionary Society. Furthermore, one of Lindberg’s former students, Christen Christensen Østergaard was appointed a missionary in Greenland.In the present paper the articles dealing with missionary activity are extensively reported and quoted as far as the years 1833-38 are concerned, and the effects on Grundtvig of this incessant .bombardment. of information on missionary activity are summarized. Generally speaking, it was gratifying for Grundtvig to witness ho w many of his ideas on missionary activity were reflected in these contributions. Furthermore, Lindberg’s regular reports on the progress of C.C. Østergaard in Greenland has continuously reminded Grundtvig of the admired Hans Egede.Among the immediate effects the genesis of the poem »First the man - then the Christian« must be mentioned. As already observed by Kaj Thaning, Grundtvig has read an article in the issue of Nordic Church Tidings, dated, January 8th, 1838, written by the Orthodox-Lutheran, German theologian Heinrich Møller on the relationship between human nature and true Christianity. Grundtvig has, it seems, written his poem in protest against Møller’s assertion: That true humanness is expressed in acceptance of man’s fundamental sinfulness. Against this negative position Grundtvig holds forth the positive Johannine formulations: To be »of the truth« and to hear the voice of the Good Shepherd. Grundtvig has seen a connection between Møller’s negative view of human nature and a perverted missionary practice. In the third stanza of his poem Grundtvig therefore inserted some critical remarks, clearly inspired by his reading of Nordic Church Tidings.Other immediate effects are seen in the way in which, in his sermons from these years, Grundtvig meticulously elaborates on the Biblical argumentation in favour of missionary activity. In this context he combines passages form the Old and New Testament - often in an ingenious, original manner. Finally must be mentioned the way in which Grundtvig, in his hymn writing from the middle of the 1830s, more often than hitherto recognized, interposes stanzas dealing with the preaching of the Gospel to heathen populations.Turning from general observations and a study of immediate impact, the paper considers the effects, which become apparent in a longer perspective. In this respect Grundtvig’s interpretation of the seven churches mentioned in chapters 2-3 of the Book of Revelation is of crucial importance. According to Grundtvig, they symbolize seven stages in the historical development of Christianity, i.e. the churches of the Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the English, the Germans and the »Nordic« people. The seventh and last church will reveal itself sometime in the future.This vision, which Grundtvig expounds for the first time in 1810, emerges in his writings from time to time all through his life. The most impressive literary monument describing the vision is his great poem, »The Pleiades of Christendom« from 1856-60.In 1845 he becomes convinced that the arrival of the sixth stage is revealed in the breakthrough of a new and vigourous hymn-singing in the church of Vartov. As late as the spring of 1863 Grundtvig voices a contented optimism in a church-historical lecture, where the Danish missions to Greenland and to Tranquebar in South India are characterized as .signs of life and good omens.. Grundtvig here refers back to his above-mentioned »Roskilde Rhyme« (1812, 1814), where he had offered a spiritual interpretation of the names of persons and localities involved in the process. He had then observed that the colony founded in Greenland by Hans Egede was called »Good Hope«, a highly symbolic name. And the church built by the missionaries in Tranquebar was called »Church of the New Jerusalem«, a name explicitly referring to the Book of Revelation, and thus welding together his great vision and his view on missionary activity. After Denmark’s humiliating defeat in the Danish-German war of 1864, the optimism faded away. Grundtvig seems to have concluded that the days of the sixth and .Nordic. church had come to an end, and the era of the seventh church was about to commence. In accordance with his poem on »The Pleiades« etc. he localizes this final church in India.In Grundtvig’s total view missionary activity was the dynamism that bound his vision together into an integrated process. Through the activity of »Denmark’s apostle«, Ansgar, another admired mis-sionary, the universal church had become a locally rooted reality. Through the missions of Hans Egede and Ziegenbalg the Gospel was carried out to the ends of the earth. The local Danish church thus contributed significantly to the proliferation of a universal church. In the development of this view, Grundtvig was inspired as well as provoked by his regular reading of Nordic Church Tidings in the 1830s.

In the National Collection of printed works in the National Library of Denmark and Copenhagen University Library, primarily collected through Legal Deposit, one finds also works published abroad, dealing with Denmark and Danes, the so-called Danica extranea. These have been collected since 1788 when instructions, written to the new director of the library, ordered him to purchase works dealing with all the Danish states and colonies and their subjects. At that time the Danish king ruled over Denmark, Norway, the Duchies (Schleswig-Holstein) as well as colonies in India, Africa and the Caribbean. This kingdom was reduced 26 years later following the Treaty of Kiel in 1814 when Norway was ceded to Sweden. In 1864, the Duchies became part of the emerging German Empire.According to the instructions of 1788, this should also have influenced the acquisition of Danica extranea. However, this was not the case. The staff of the Danish Department (established in 1780) of the library retained until 1991 the image of Denmark as it had been before 1814 when it came to defining what should be purchased for the national collection. The article describes how this was formulated and carried out in practice during the second half of the twentieth century. The Department operated with three categories of Danica extranea: extranea proper, non-extranea (works on areas and people who had at one point in time belonged to Denmark or had been Danish subjects), and Scandinavica (works on Scandinavian countries and people, unless dealing exclusively with Sweden). This was confusing for people using the library, for example they had to look for Norwegian books published after 1814 in the Danish catalogue and not in the foreign, catalogue, and it created internal conflicts in the library when books purchased for general circulation were withheld in the national collection because of their subject matter and then could only be used in the Reading Room. The issue was resolved in 1991 when acquisitions of non-extranea and Scandinavica became the task of the University Department and purchases of duplicate copies was made possible in case of any conflict. The introduction of an online catalogue in 1998, into which all separate card catalogues were merged made it easier for users to find a book.

The family Ammotheidae is the most diversified group of the class Pycnogonida, with 297 species described in 20 genera. Its monophyly and intergeneric relationships have been highly debated in previous studies. Here, we investigated the phylogeny of Ammotheidae using specimens from poorly studied areas. We sequenced the mitochondrial gene encoding the first subunit of cytochrome c oxidase (CO1) from 104 specimens. The complete nuclear 18S rRNA gene was sequenced from a selection of 80 taxa to provide further phylogenetic signal. The base composition in CO1 shows a higher heterogeneity in Ammotheidae than in other families, which may explain their apparent polyphyly in the CO1 tree. Although deeper nodes of the tree receive no statistical support, Ammotheidae was found to be monophyletic and divided into two clades, here defined as distinct subfamilies: Achelinae comprises the genera Achelia Hodge, 1864, Ammothella Verrill, 1900, Nymphopsis Haswell, 1884 and Tanystylum Miers, 1879; and Ammotheinae includes the genera Ammothea Leach, 1814, Acheliana Arnaud, 1971, Cilunculus Loman, 1908, Sericosura Fry & Hedgpeth, 1969 and also Teratonotum gen. nov., including so far only the type species Ammothella stauromata Child, 1982. The species Cilunculus gracilis Nakamura & Child, 1991 is reassigned to Ammothella, forming the binomen Ammothella gracilis (Nakamura & Child, 1991) comb. nov. Additional taxonomic re-arrangements are suggested for the genera Achelia, Acheliana, Ammothella and Cilunculus.

It has long been realized by historians that the formulation of the first and X second laws of thermodynamics in the 1840s and 1850s was a complex process (1). What has not been so fully recognized is that the subsequent application of these laws to physical problems was also a complex process. To the formulators of the laws and to contemporaries of their generation there was little problem in applying the laws to physical problems. For example, J. R. Mayer, A. J. Ångström, For.Mem.R.S., J. P.Joule, F. R. S. , G. G. Stokes, F. R. S. , H. Helmholtz, For.Mem.R.S., and W. Thomson, F. R. S. , all of whom were born in the decade following 1814 (2), either formulated the laws of thermodynamics and/or applied them. I have examined elsewhere how some of these scientists (Mayer, Helmholtz and Thomson) applied the first and second laws to refute various mechanisms that had been previously proposed to account for the production of solar energy (3). They replaced them with theories of gravitational attraction whereby the Sun turned dynamical energy into heat energy. I have also examined the application of thermodynamics to theories of the interaction of light and matter that were found not to conform with the principle of the conservation of energy as then understood; Stokes, for example, developed a theory of resonance to explain phenomena such as absorption and fluorescence (4).