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Journal articles on the topic 'X-RAY SPECTROMETERS'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 8 February 2022

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1

Lund, Mark W. "More Than One Ever Wanted To Know About X-ray Detectors Part V: Wavelength - The "Other" Spectroscopy." Microscopy Today 3, no. 4 (May 1995): 8–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500063537.

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The use of x-ray spectrometry in electron microscopy has been a powerful market driver not only for electron microscopes but also for x-ray spectrometers. More x-ray spectrometers are sold with electron microscopes than in any other configuration. A general name for the combination is AEM, or analytical electron microscope, though in modern times AEM can include other instrumentation such as electron energy loss spectroscopy and visible light spectroscopy. In previous articies I have discussed energy dispersive spectrometers (EDS). These use semiconductor crystals to detect the x-rays and measure the energy deposited in the crystal. A second type of x-ray spectrometer measures the wavelength of the x-rays, and so is called "wavelength dispersive spectrometry" (WDS).

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2

Wittry, David B., and Nicholas C. Barbi. "X-ray Crystal Spectrometers and Monochromators in Microanalysis." Microscopy and Microanalysis 7, no. 2 (March 2001): 124–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s100050010080.

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Abstract Castaing’s successful implementation and application of the electron probe microanalyzer in 1950 stimulated a flurry of development activity around the world. The later versions of this instrument represented a truly international effort, with significant contributions by scientists from Europe, Asia, and North America. If the probe-forming system of the instrument was its heart, the X-ray wavelength spectrometer was its soul. This article reviews some of the history of spectrometer developments—lthrough the “golden years” of microprobe development, namely the dozen or so years following the publication of Castaing’s thesis, to the present. The basic physics of spectrometer and crystal design is reviewed. Early experimental devices, such as those developed by Castaing, Borovskii, Wittry, Duncumb, and Ogilvie are reported. Examples of commercial spectrometers such as those by ARL, MAC, Microspec, and Peak are described. Recent developments such as the combination of grazing-incidence optics with flat crystal spectrometers are noted, and the properties and uses of doubly curved crystals are discussed. Finally, the continued development of doubly curved crystal configurations, such as the “Wittry geometry” for scanning monochromators, and point-to-point focusing diffractors for producing small monochromatic X-ray probes to provide improved detection limits for microanalysis are considered.

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3

Lyman, C. E., D. B. Williams, and J. I. Goldstein. "X-ray detectors and spectrometers." Ultramicroscopy 28, no. 1-4 (April 1989): 137–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3991(89)90286-6.

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4

Campbell, J. L. "X-ray spectrometers for PIXE." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 49, no. 1-4 (April 1990): 115–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-583x(90)90227-l.

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5

Wollman, D. A., G. C. Hilton, K. D. Irwin, L. L. Dulcie, Dale E. Newbury, and John M. Martinis. "High-Energy-Resolution Microcalorimeter Spectrometer for EDS X-ray Micro Analysis." Microscopy and Microanalysis 3, S2 (August 1997): 1073–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600012253.

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Si(Li) and Ge Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) detectors are commonly used for x-ray microanalysis because they are easy to use, inexpensive to operate, and offer both rapid qualitative evaluation of chemical composition and accurate quantitative analysis. Unfortunately, they are limited by energy resolutions on the order of 100 eV, which is insufficient to resolve many important overlapping x-ray peaks in materials of industrial interest, such as the Si Kα and W Mα peak overlap in WSi2. Although WDS spectrometers with excellent energy resolution (typically 2 eV to 10 eV) can resolve most peak overlaps, qualitative WDS analysis is limited by the need to serially scan over the entire energy range using multiple diffraction crystals. There is a need for a new generation of x-ray spectrometers for microanalysis that combines the excellent energy resolution of WDS spectrometers with the ease of use and the parallel energy detection capability of EDS spectrometers.We are developing a high-energy-resolution x-ray microcalorimeter spectrometer for use in x-ray microanalysis. Our microcalorimeter spectrometer consists of a superconducting transition-edge microcalorimeter cooled to an operating temperature of 100 mK by a compact adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator mounted on a SEM column, read-out SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) electronics followed by pulse-shaping amplifiers and pile-up rejection circuitry, and a multichannel analyzer with real-time computer interface.

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6

Hayakawa, Shinjiro, Shunji Goto, Takashi Shoji, Eiji Yamada, and Yohichi Gohshi. "X-ray microprobe system for XRF analysis and spectroscopy at SPring-8 BL39XU." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 5, no. 3 (May 1, 1998): 1114–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s090904959701892x.

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An X-ray microprobe system for X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis and spectroscopy has been developed at SPring-8 BL39XU; it comprises an X-ray focusing or collimation system, energy-dispersive (ED) and wavelength-dispersive (WD) XRF spectrometers, and a sample-scanning system. The conventional ED spectrometer will be utilized for qualitative and quantitative trace-element analysis, and the WD spectrometer will be used both for trace-element analysis and XRF spectroscopy. A combination of monochromated undulator radiation and the WD spectrometer will enable resonant XRF spectroscopy using brilliant hard X-ray undulator radiation.

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7

Segall, K., C. M. Wilson, L. Li, A. K. Davies, R. Lathrop, M. C. Gaidis, D. E. Prober, A. E. Szymkowiak, and S. H. Moseley. "Single photon imaging X-ray spectrometers." IEEE Transactions on Appiled Superconductivity 9, no. 2 (June 1999): 3326–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/77.783741.

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8

Strüder, L. "High-resolution imaging X-ray spectrometers." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 454, no. 1 (November 2000): 73–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(00)00811-1.

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9

Ascone, Isabella, Wolfram Meyer-Klaucke, and Loretta Murphy. "Experimental aspects of biological X-ray absorption spectroscopy." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 10, no. 1 (December 24, 2002): 16–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049502022598.

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Spectroscopic techniques, like X-ray absorption spectroscopy, will provide important input for integrated biological projects in genomics and proteomics. This contribution summarizes technical requirements and typical set-ups for both simple and complex biological XAS experiments. An overview on different strategies for sample preparation is discussed in detail. Present and future BioXAS spectrometers are presented to help potential users in locating the spectrometer required for their biological application.

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10

Lane, David W., Antony Nyombi, and James Shackel. "Energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction mapping on a benchtop X-ray fluorescence system." Journal of Applied Crystallography 47, no. 2 (February 22, 2014): 488–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600576714000314.

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A method for energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction mapping is presented, using a conventional low-power benchtop X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, the Seiko Instruments SEA6000VX. Hyper spectral X-ray maps with a 10 µm step size were collected from polished metal surfaces, sectioned Bi, Pb and steel shot gun pellets. Candidate diffraction lines were identified by eliminating those that matched a characteristic line for an element and those predicted for escape peaks, sum peaks, and Rayleigh and Compton scattered primary X-rays. The maps showed that the crystallites in the Bi pellet were larger than those observed in the Pb and steel pellets. The application of benchtop spectrometers to energy-dispersive X-ray diffraction mapping is discussed, and the capability for lower atomic number and lower-symmetry materials is briefly explored using multi-crystalline Si and polycrystalline sucrose.

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11

Gehrels, N., C. J. Crannell, D. J. Forrest, R. P. Lin, L. E. Orwig, and R. Starr. "Hard X-ray and low-energy gamma-ray spectrometers." Solar Physics 118, no. 1-2 (1988): 233–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00148595.

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12

Fujita, J., S. Morita, and M. Sakurai. "X-ray diagnostics for fusion plasmas." Laser and Particle Beams 7, no. 3 (August 1989): 483–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263034600007448.

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We have developed medium and high resolution X-ray crystal spectrometers for measurements of charge state distributions of impurity ions, density of suprathermal electrons and ion temperature in magnetically confined plasmas. The techniques utilizing these spectrometers are, in principle, applicable to laser produced plasmas, especially in their expanding phase. The role of X-ray spectroscopy to produce useful data for atomic physics as well as for plasma diagnostics is emphasized. A beam-line has been designed and installed to the Ultraviolet Synchrotron Radiation Facility (UVSOR) at IMS, Okazaki, for the purpose of establishing calibration techniques for optical components, detectors and spectrometers in the range from ultraviolet to soft X ray for plasma diagnostics. Characteristics of the beam and its application to the study of interaction between synchrotron radiation and hot dense plasmas are described. Synchrotron radiation can replace the dye laser which has so far been used as a light source in the laser-induced fluorescence method to obtain population density of specified levels in a plasma.

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13

Cantor, Robin, and Hideo Naito. "Practical X-ray Spectrometry with Second-Generation Microcalorimeter Detectors." Microscopy Today 20, no. 4 (July 2012): 38–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929512000429.

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X-ray spectroscopy is a widely used and extremely sensitive analytical technique for qualitative as well as quantitative elemental analysis. Typically, high-energy-resolution X-ray spectrometers are integrated with a high-spatial-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) or transmission electron microscope (TEM) for X-ray microanalysis applications. The focused electron beam of the SEM or TEM excites characteristic X rays that are emitted by the sample. The integrated X-ray spectrometer can then be used to identify and quantify the elemental composition of the sample on a sub-micron length scale. This combination of energy resolution and spatial resolution makes X-ray microanalysis of great importance to the semiconductor industry.

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14

Strueder, L. "High resolution imaging silicon-x-ray spectrometers." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 522, no. 1-2 (April 2004): 146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2004.01.034.

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15

Brammertz, G., P. Verhoeve, A. Peacock, D. Martin, N. Rando, R. den Hartog, and D. J. Goldie. "Development of practical soft X-ray spectrometers." IEEE Transactions on Appiled Superconductivity 11, no. 1 (March 2001): 828–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/77.919472.

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16

de Korte, Piet A. J. "Cryogenic imaging spectrometers for X-ray astronomy." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 444, no. 1-2 (April 2000): 163–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(99)01350-9.

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17

Sperling, Z. "Precise calibration of sequential x-ray spectrometers." X-Ray Spectrometry 17, no. 4 (August 1988): 155–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/xrs.1300170408.

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18

Seely, John, Glenn Holland, Charles Brown, Richard Deslattes, Lawrence Hudson, Perry Bell, Michael Miller, and Christina Back. "Hard x-ray spectrometers for NIF (abstract)." Review of Scientific Instruments 72, no. 1 (January 2001): 1201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1326019.

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19

De Geronimo, Gianluigi, Pavel Rehak, Kim Ackley, Gabriella Carini, Wei Chen, Jack Fried, Jeffrey Keister, et al. "ASIC for SDD-Based X-Ray Spectrometers." IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 57, no. 3 (June 2010): 1654–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tns.2010.2044809.

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20

Lee, S. G., J. G. Bak, M. Bitter, M. K. Moon, U. W. Nam, K. C. Jin, K. N. Kong, and K. I. Seon. "Imaging x-ray crystal spectrometers for KSTAR." Review of Scientific Instruments 74, no. 3 (March 2003): 1997–2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1535243.

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21

Wark, J. S., and R. R. Whitlock. "Effect of high x‐ray fluxes on laser‐plasma x‐ray spectrometers." Review of Scientific Instruments 64, no. 7 (July 1993): 1718–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1143999.

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22

Gurker, N. "Imaging Techniques for X-Ray Fluorescence and X-Ray Diffraction." Advances in X-ray Analysis 30 (1986): 53–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1154/s0376030800021145.

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Electron induced X-ray mapping together with modern SEM/EDX analysis systems has reached a high level of perfection due to established methods of beam deflection and focusing and today's standard in energy dispersive X-ray detection and data processing. X-ray analysis of specimens based on X-ray excitation (XRF/XRD) is routinely performed on comparatively large specimen areas without conserved spatial information. XRF-/XRD-imaging capabilities are not yet commonly available on standard spectrometers, since both suitable X-ray optical elements are missing and there is a large intensity loss due to the necessary primary beam collimation.

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23

Kavčič, M. "High energy resolution PIXE spectroscopy at the J. Stefan Institute, Ljubljana." International Journal of PIXE 24, no. 03n04 (January 2014): 205–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129083514400130.

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While traditional proton induced X-ray emission (PIXE) analytical technique is based on the energy dispersive solid state detectors used to collect the X-ray fluorescence from the sample, wavelength dispersive X-ray (WDX) spectrometers are applied in high energy resolution PIXE (HR-PIXE) analysis. The main drawback of the WDX spectroscopy is the relatively low efficiency making it less applicable for trace element PIXE analysis. However, the efficiency was enhanced significantly in modern spectrometers employing cylindrically or even spherically curved crystals combined with position sensitive X-ray detectors. The energy resolution of such a spectrometer may exceed the resolution of the energy dispersive detector by two orders of magnitude while keeping the efficiency at a high enough level to perform trace element analysis. In this paper, the recent history and the development of HR-PIXE spectroscopy at the J. Stefan Institute in Ljubljana is presented. Our current setup based on in-vacuum Johansson-type crystal spectrometer is presented in more details followed by some most recent applications.

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24

Small, J. A., J. A. Armstrong, D. S. Bright, and B. B. Thorne. "The Analysis of Particles With Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS)." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 184–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600021048.

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The addition of the Si-Li detector to the electron probe, the scanning electron microscope, and more recently the transmission electron microscope (resulting in the analytical electron microscope) has made it possible to obtain elemental analysis on individual “particles” with dimensions less than 1 nm using EDS. Although some initial particle studies on micrometer-sized particles were done on the electron probe using wavelength dispersive spectrometers, WDS, the variability and complexity of many particle compositions coupled with the high currents necessary for WDS made elemental analysis of particles by WDS difficult at best. In addition, the use of multiple spectrometers, each with a different view of the particle and therefore different particle geometry as shown in Fig. 1, limited the quantitative capabilities of the technique. With the introduction of the Si-Li detector, there was only one spectrometer with a single geometry resulting in the development of various procedures for obtaining quantitative elemental analysis of the individual particles.

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25

Wark, J. S. "Transient effects in laser-plasma X-ray spectrometers." Laser and Particle Beams 9, no. 2 (June 1991): 569–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026303460000358x.

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X-ray spectroscopy is a widely used means of diagnosing densities and temperature within laser-produced plasmas. At X-ray energies above approximately 1 keV, Bragg crystal spectrometers are routinely used to record X-ray spectra. Quantitative measurements of plasma conditions can be obtained with a knowledge of crystal reflectivity and film or detector response. In such data analysis it is always assumed that the crystal response is constant in time. However, we show that under certain adverse experimental conditions the X-ray fluxes incident on the crystal are so high as to significantly transiently modify the reflection characteristics of the crystal. Such degradation need not necessarily be accompanied by a loss of observed spectral solution. The transient (nanosecond-time-scale) change in crystal reflectivity is due to a change from dynamical to more kinematic diffraction caused by an X-ray-induced thermal strain gradient in the surface layer of the crystal. The decay time of this strain is typically several nanoseconds. Calculations of some specific crystal reflectivities and rocking curves under such conditions are presented, and methods of minimizing the effect by appropriate filtering are discussed.

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26

Tadic, T., Y. Mokuno, Y. Horino, and M. Jaksic. "GEOMETRICAL ABERRATIONS IN THE VON HAMOS AND THE PLANE BRAGG CRYSTAL SPECTROMETERS." International Journal of PIXE 07, no. 03n04 (January 1997): 117–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129083597000151.

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Numerical calculations of the effect of the finite dimensions and orientations of source and crystal are presented for plane and von Hamos Bragg crystal spectrometers for PIXE analysis, combined with a position sensitive (X-ray) detector. Analytical studies of all effects are provided. It is shown that some parameters can produce line shifts and asymmetries. A numerical model for an X-ray diffraction ray-tracing procedure for a crystal Bragg spectrometer is described.

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27

Wherry, David C., Brian J. Cross, and Thomas H. Briggs. "An Automated X-Ray MicroFluorescence Materials Analysis System." Advances in X-ray Analysis 31 (1987): 93–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1154/s0376030800021881.

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Recently there has been a growing interest in the field of X-Ray MicroFluorescence (XRMF) for analyzing small areas (with sizes greater than about 10 microns diameter). Several recent papers have described prototype systems for this kind of analysis, with particular emphasis on the elemental imaging applications. However, the technique of small-area XRF analysis is not new. For example, Bertin gives an excellent review of much of the earlier work (up to the late 1960s), which used a variety of focusing (with curved crystals) or collimation techniques. Several wavelength dispersive spectrometer systems were modified for small-spot analysis. One of the earliest spectrometers was the X-ray Milliprobe developed by Adler and Axelrod, which employed curved crystals.

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28

Ingham, Mark N., and Bruno A. R. Vrebos. "High Productivity Geochemical XRF Analysis." Advances in X-ray Analysis 37 (1993): 717–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1154/s0376030800016281.

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XRF has become over the years a method of choice when dealing with elemental analysis of large quantities of samples. Geochemical analysis pushes the technique to its limits because of the large number of samples to be analysed as well as the lower limits of detection required for many trace elements of geochemical and economic importance. The Analytical Geochemistry Group at the British Geological Survey (BGS) has access to a wide variety of methods for instrumental analysis. Instrumental methods for inorganic analysis include x-ray fluorescence as well as DC arc emission spectrometry, atomic absorption spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). X-ray fluorescence, however, is the technique of choice when it comes to the routine analysis of large numbers of solid samples. The XRF section at BGS currently runs three sequential spectrometers (one PW1480 and two PW2400s made by Philips Analytical X-Ray). In this paper, some aspects of the method of sample preparation and the calibration of the spectrometers for the analysis of the trace elements are discussed.

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29

Matsumoto, H., K. Koyama, T. G. Tsuru, H. Nakajima, H. Yamaguchi, H. Tsunemi, K. Hayashida, et al. "X-ray imaging spectrometers (XIS) of Astro-E2." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 541, no. 1-2 (April 2005): 357–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2005.01.076.

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30

Honkimäki, V., H. Reichert, J. S. Okasinski, and H. Dosch. "X-ray optics for liquid surface/interface spectrometers." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 13, no. 6 (October 18, 2006): 426–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049506031438.

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31

Li, L., L. Frunzio, C. Wilson, K. Segall, D. E. Prober, A. E. Szymkowiak, and S. H. Moseley. "X-ray single photon 1-D imaging spectrometers." IEEE Transactions on Appiled Superconductivity 11, no. 1 (March 2001): 685–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/77.919437.

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32

Reverdin, C., A. Casner, F. Girard, L. Lecherbourg, B. Loupias, V. Tassin, and F. Philippe. "Two crystal x-ray spectrometers for OMEGA experiments." Review of Scientific Instruments 87, no. 11 (September 6, 2016): 11E335. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4961284.

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33

Chiuzbăian, Sorin G., Coryn F. Hague, and Jan Lüning. "Approaching ultimate resolution for soft x-ray spectrometers." Applied Optics 51, no. 20 (July 3, 2012): 4684. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/ao.51.004684.

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34

Moseley, S. Harvey, R. L. Kelley, J. C. Mather, R. F. Mushotzky, A. E. Szymkowiak, and D. McCammon. "Thermal Detectors as Single Photon X-Ray Spectrometers." IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 32, no. 1 (1985): 134–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tns.1985.4336808.

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35

Porter, F. S., M. P. Chiao, M. E. Eckart, R. Fujimoto, Y. Ishisaki, R. L. Kelley, C. A. Kilbourne, et al. "Temporal Gain Correction for X-ray Calorimeter Spectrometers." Journal of Low Temperature Physics 184, no. 1-2 (January 27, 2016): 498–504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10909-016-1503-2.

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36

Cross, J. B., and R. D. Jones. "Robotic Automation Applied to X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis." Advances in X-ray Analysis 30 (1986): 89–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1154/s0376030800021182.

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X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Analysis is an established analytical technique, widely used in industry and research laboratories for accurate, reproducible, and timely analysis of liquid (aqueous and non-aqueous) and solid samples. Modern X-ray spectrometers are of many types, ranging from inexpensive, simple systems for single element analysis to complex, expensive, automated systems capable of providing thousands of determinations per week. Automated data handling is now relatively commonplace, as are sample changers and matrix correction techniques. For proper application of the technique, it is still necessary to prepare the sample in a suitable manner and present it to the spectrometer so that quantitative information can be obtained. This step, sample preparation, is the most labor intensive portion of the analysis.

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37

Szalóki, I., T. Pintér, I. Szalóki, G. Radócz, and A. Gerényi. "A novel confocal XRF-Raman spectrometer and FPM model for analysis of solid objects and liquid substances." Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry 34, no. 8 (2019): 1652–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9ja00044e.

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A new table-top combined spectrometer was designed and constructed consisting of X-ray fluorescence and Raman spectrometers for spot-analysis of elementary and chemical composition of solid and liquid substances for industrial analytical applications.

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38

Honkanen, Ari-Pekka, Roberto Verbeni, Laura Simonelli, Marco Moretti Sala, Ali Al-Zein, Michael Krisch, Giulio Monaco, and Simo Huotari. "Improving the energy resolution of bent crystal X-ray spectrometers with position-sensitive detectors." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 21, no. 4 (June 12, 2014): 762–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577514011163.

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Wavelength-dispersive high-resolution X-ray spectrometers often employ elastically bent crystals for the wavelength analysis. In a preceding paper [Honkanenet al.(2014).J. Synchrotron Rad.21, 104–110] a theory for quantifying the internal stress of a macroscopically large spherically curved analyser crystal was presented. Here the theory is applied to compensate for the corresponding decrease of the energy resolution. The technique is demonstrated with a Johann-type spectrometer using a spherically bent Si(660) analyser in near-backscattering geometry, where an improvement in the energy resolution from 1.0 eV down to 0.5 eV at 9.7 keV incident photon energy was observed.

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39

Walter, Peter, Andrei Kamalov, Averell Gatton, Taran Driver, Dileep Bhogadi, Jean-Charles Castagna, Xianchao Cheng, et al. "Multi-resolution electron spectrometer array for future free-electron laser experiments." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 28, no. 5 (August 26, 2021): 1364–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577521007700.

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The design of an angular array of electron time-of-flight (eToF) spectrometers is reported, intended for non-invasive spectral, temporal, and polarization characterization of single shots of high-repetition rate, quasi-continuous, short-wavelength free-electron lasers (FELs) such as the LCLS II at SLAC. This array also enables angle-resolved, high-resolution eToF spectroscopy to address a variety of scientific questions on ultrafast and nonlinear light–matter interactions at FELs. The presented device is specifically designed for the time-resolved atomic, molecular and optical science endstation (TMO) at LCLS II. In its final version, the spectrometer comprises up to 20 eToF spectrometers aligned to collect electrons from the interaction point, which is defined by the intersection of the incoming FEL radiation and a gaseous target. The full composition involves 16 spectrometers forming a circular equiangular array in the plane normal to the X-ray propagation and four spectrometers at 54.7° angle relative to the principle linear X-ray polarization axis with orientations in the forward and backward direction of the light propagation. The spectrometers are capable of independent and minimally chromatic electrostatic lensing and retardation, in order to enable simultaneous angle-resolved photo- and Auger–Meitner electron spectroscopy with high energy resolution. They are designed to ensure an energy resolution of 0.25 eV across an energy window of up to 75 eV, which can be individually centered via the adjustable retardation to cover the full range of electron kinetic energies relevant to soft X-ray methods, 0–2 keV. The full spectrometer array will enable non-invasive and online spectral-polarimetry measurements, polarization-sensitive attoclock spectroscopy for characterizing the full time–energy structure of SASE or seeded LCLS II pulses, and support emerging trends in molecular-frame spectroscopy measurements.

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40

Rossington, C. S., N. W. Madden, and K. Chapman. "High Energy Resolution X-Ray Spectrometer for High Count Rate Xrf Applications." Advances in X-ray Analysis 37 (1993): 405–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1154/s0376030800015925.

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AbstractA new x-ray spectrometer has been constructed which incorporates a novel large area, low capacitance Si(Li) detector and a low noise JFET (junction field effect transistor) preamplifier. The spectrometer operates at high count Tates without the conventional compromise in energy resolution. For example, at an amplifier peaking time of 1 p.sec and a throughput count rate of 145,000 counts sec-1, the energy resolution at 5.9 keV is 220 eV FWHM. Commercially available spectrometers utilizing conventional geometry Si(Li) detectors with areas equivalent to the new detector have resolutions on the order of 540 eV under the same conditions. Conventional x-ray spectrometers offering high energy resolution must employ detectors with areas one-tenth the size of the new LBL detector (20 mm2 compared with 200 mm2). However, even with the use of the smaller area detectors, the energy resolution of a commercial system is typically limited to approximately 300 eV (again, at 1 μsec and 5.9 keV) due to the noise of the commercially available JFET's. The new large area detector is useful in high count rate applications, but is also useful in the detection of weak photon signals, in which it is desirable to subtend as large an angle of the available photon flux as possible, while still maintaining excellent energy resolution. X-ray fluorescence data from die new spectrometer is shown in comparison to a commercially available system in the analysis of a dilute muhi-element material, and also in conjunction with high count rate synchrotron EXAFS applications.

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41

Wollman, D. A., Christopher Jezewski, G. C. Hilton, Qi-Fan Xiao, K. D. Irwin, L. L. Dulcie, and John M. Martinis. "Use of Polycapillary Optics to Increase the Effective Area of Microcalorimeter Spectrometers." Microscopy and Microanalysis 3, S2 (August 1997): 1075–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600012265.

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Although the performance of high-energy-resolution microcalorimeter spectrometers for x-ray microanalysis is encouraging, the future widespread acceptance of these spectrometers as valuable microanalysis instruments depends on improvements in both achievable count rate and geometrical x-ray collection efficiency. While the maximum output count rate of our microcalorimeter (∼160 s−1) is much less than that of conventional EDS detectors operating at their highest energy resolution (∼3000 s−1), we are confident that we can significantly improve the count rate without loss of energy resolution (∼10 eV FWHM over a broad energy range). Increasing the area (and thus solid angle) of the microcalorimeter is a more difficult problem, however, as the best microcalorimeter performance is achieved using small-area (typically 250 μm by 250 μm) absorbers with low heat capacity.This problem can be solved by using an x-ray lens to increase the collection efficiency of the microcalorimeter spectrometer. A polycapillary optic consisting of tens of thousands of fused capillaries can collect x-rays from a point x-ray source over a large solid angle and focus the x-rays onto the small-area absorber of the microcalorimeter.

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42

Sokaras, Dimosthenis, Tsu-Chien Weng, Dennis Nordlund, and Uwe Bergmann. "High Energy Resolution X-ray Spectroscopy at SSRL and LCLS: Instruments and Applications." Acta Crystallographica Section A Foundations and Advances 70, a1 (August 5, 2014): C223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s2053273314097769.

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High-resolution hard x-ray spectroscopies (XES, HERFD, RIXS, XRS) are now well-established characterization tools for providing insights of material's electronic and geometric structure. The high brilliance synchrotron radiation beamlines have made feasible the routine study of the electronic structure and ligand environment of metal coordination compounds and active centers in metalloproteins, electrochemical process under in-situ conditions, as well as studies on catalytic systems under ambient conditions. Moreover, the recent availability of Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS), provides some unique opportunities for the study of ultrafast electronic structure dynamics in various phenomena such as electron transfer processes, transient molecular states, molecular dissociation, etc. At SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory we have developed recently a set of high-resolution x-ray spectroscopic capabilities based on various multicrystal spectrometers. At SSRL we have built three multicrystal Johann spectrometers enabling XES/RIXS/HERDF techniques as well as X-ray Raman Spectroscopy. For LCLS, we have developed an energy dispersive multicrystal von Hamos spectrometer that records simultaneously the overall emission spectrum, enabling shot-by-shot time-resolved studies. Representative examples of application will be shown and discussed from the ongoing spectroscopy programs of SSRL and LCLS.

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Strocov, Vladimir N. "Optimization of the X-ray incidence angle in photoelectron spectrometers." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 20, no. 4 (May 1, 2013): 517–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s0909049513007747.

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The interplay between the angle-dependent X-ray reflectivity, X-ray absorption and the photoelectron attenuation length in the photoelectron emission process determines the optimal X-ray incidence angle that maximizes the photoelectron signal. Calculations in the wide VUV to the hard X-ray energy range show that the optimal angle becomes more grazing with increasing energy, from a few tens of degrees at 50 eV to about one degree at 3.5 keV. This is accompanied by an intensity gain of a few tens of times, as long as the X-ray footprint on the sample stays within the analyzer field of view. This trend is fairly material-independent. The obtained results bear immediate implications for the design of (synchrotron-based) photoelectron spectrometers.

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Borchert, G. L., T. Rose, P. G. Hansen, B. Jonson, and H. L. Ravn. "Mechanisms for K X-ray Energy Shifts." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A 42, no. 8 (August 1, 1987): 781–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zna-1987-0801.

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A detailed study of the energies of K x-ray transitions in dependence on the excitation mechanism is reported. Using high resolution focussing crystal spectrometers, small energy shifts could be detected the origin of which is attributed to different effects. The agreement between calculation and experiment strongly supports the given interpretation.

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45

MacRae, C. M., I. R. Harrowfield, N. Wilson, M. Yoshiya, P. Fazey, S. Peacock, L. de Yong, and H. Adachi. "Fluorescent Spectroscopy of Mineral and Material Samples." Microscopy and Microanalysis 4, S2 (July 1998): 234–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600021292.

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Wavelength dispersive spectrometry of long wavelength lines by EPMA can give information on the site symmetry and bonding of the x-ray-emitting atom. For fully focussing spectrometers, the energy resolution can be as high as 2eV or better at a spatial resolution of 1 μm, but electron beam currents often must be set to damaging levels. Fluorescent spectroscopy of the same lines in the commercial laboratory XRF spectrometer is far less damaging but spatial resolution is non-existent or, with collimators, relatively poor. With a combination of electron induced and x-ray induced fluorescent spectroscopy, and the insight provided by molecular orbital calculations, speciation or state analysis can be achieved even on damage prone specimens.Electron and x-ray induced fluorescence has been employed to investigate surface coatings on magnesium metal. Oxygen Kα spectra for crystalline MgO, MgCO3 and powdered 4MgCO3.Mg(OH)2.5H2O were recorded using a TAP(2d=2.5757 nm) analysing crystal on a JEOL 8900R EPMA and a Philips PW 1404 XRF.

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Markert, T. H. "Dispersive Spectroscopy on AXAF." International Astronomical Union Colloquium 115 (1990): 339–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0252921100012550.

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AbstractThere are two transmission grating spectrometers and one Bragg crystal spectrometer being developed for the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (MIT is building the crystal spectrometer and one of the grating spectrometers; the Laboratory for Space Research in Utrecht is responsible for the other grating spectrometer). The gratings divide the AXAF energy band (80 eV – 10 keV) into three regions (the MIT instrument contains gratings with two different periods) and attain resolving powers for point sources between 100 and 1800. The gratings are composed of arrays of small facets mounted on plates which can be inserted immediately behind the AXAF telescope. The dispersed spectra from the grating arrays are read out by one of the AXAF imaging instruments.The Bragg Crystal Spectrometer (BCS) is a focal plane instrument. One of eight selectable curved diffractors intercepts the AXAF X-ray beam as it diverges beyond the focal point X-rays that satisfy Bragg’s law are reflected from the crystal which, because of its curvature, re-focuses the beam onto an imaging detector. Narrow spectral regions are scanned by rocking the crystal over a range ~0.1 to 1°. Nearly the entire AXAF energy range can be studied by selecting the appropriate crystal and rotating it to the proper Bragg angle. The BCS achieves the highest spectral resolutions of the AXAF spectrometers: for 500 eV < E < 1600 eV, the FWHM of a narrow line (ΔE) is ≲ 1 eV.

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Höhne, Jens, Matthias Bühler, Theo Hertrich, and Uwe Hess. "Cryodetectors for High Resolution X-Ray Spectroscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, S2 (August 2000): 740–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600036199.

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Based on excellent energy resolution and single quantum detection sensitivity, cryodetectors are offering a variety of new, analytical solutions for the analysis of elementary surface compositions, especially for the analysis of light elements and very small sized structures. Cryodetectors operate typically at temperatures between 30 and 200mK and require vibration free and fully automated cooling systems in order to qualify for industrial applications. Cryodetectors are low temperature superconductors where the two most prominent types are based on microcalorimeter and tunnel diode principles. Cryodetectors are mainly employed for surface analysis applications as energy dispersive X-ray spectrometers with energy resolutions of less than 15eV, but may also be used as highly sensitive UV, VIS or even mass spectrometers in the future.Conventional EDX detectors are semiconductors. An impinging X-ray quantum creates a number of electronhole pairs dependent on the energy of the triggering event thus allowing energy dispersive measurements. The performance limit of semiconductor detectors has almost been reached and is determined by the excitation energy necessary to create electron-hole pairs.

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Newbury, Dale E. "Basic literacy in electron-excited x-ray microanalysis." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 51 (August 1, 1993): 502–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100148344.

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Electron beam x-ray microanalysis with energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry (EDS), as performed in electron probe microanalyzers (EPMA)/scanning electron microscopes (SEM) for thick specimens and analytical electron microscopes (AEM) for thin sections, is a powerful technique with wide applicability in the physical and biological sciences and technology communities. The operation of an EDS x-ray microanalysis system has been automated to the point that many users now consider EDS to be a routine tool where the results reported by the automation system are always correct Unfortunately, there are numerous pitfalls awaiting the unwary analyst. All EDS users require a basic level of literacy in x-ray microanalysis to properly interpret spectra and develop a sensible analysis strategy for their problems. This “basic literacy” includes knowledge of the factors controlling the efficiency of production of characteristic and continuum x-rays, the characteristic energies and structure of x-ray families that provide the basis for qualitative analysis, the operational characteristics of energy dispersive x-ray spectrometers, including artifacts, and the systematic procedures for qualitative and quantitative analysis.

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Tutt, James H., Randall L. McEntaffer, Drew M. Miles, Benjamin D. Donovan, and Christopher Hillman. "Grating Alignment for the Water Recovery X-Ray Rocket (WRXR)." Journal of Astronomical Instrumentation 08, no. 03 (September 2019): 1950009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2251171719500090.

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High-resolution, high-throughput soft X-ray spectroscopy using reflection gratings has the potential to unlock answers to many of the questions about the high-energy Universe. To enable missions to use this technology in the future, the ability to precisely align reflection gratings needs to be demonstrated. The Water Recovery X-ray Rocket (WRXR), a soft X-ray spectrometer that successfully launched in April 2018 from the Kwajalein Atoll, required co-aligned X-ray reflection gratings. WRXR was designed to produce a moderate-resolution spectrum of the Vela supernova remnant over a large field-of-view. The grating module was manufactured, integrated onto the rocket payload, passed environmental testing and was successfully launched and recovered. This paper describes the grating and mirror alignment methodologies for WRXR, and their inherent systematic uncertainties. Improvements to the alignment method that are required to meet the tighter alignment tolerances of future X-ray spectrometers are also discussed.

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White, N. E., and H. Tananbaum. "The Constellation X-ray Mission." Symposium - International Astronomical Union 195 (2000): 61–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0074180900162783.

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The Constellation-X mission is a large collecting-area X-ray facility emphasizing observations at high spectral resolution (E/ΔE ~ 300–3000) while covering a broad energy band (0.25–40 keV). By increasing the telescope aperture and utilizing efficient spectrometers, the mission will achieve a factor of 100 increased sensitivity over current high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy missions. The use of focusing optics across the 10–40 keV band will provide a similar factor of 100 increased sensitivity in this band. When observations commence in ~ 2008, Constellation-X will address many pressing questions concerning the extremes of gravity and the evolution of the Universe.

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