Academic literature on the topic 'Wildlife immobilization'

Sabah is faced with a problem of small groups of orang-utans isolated from their parent populations in fragments of secondary forest, mainly on oil-palm plantations. The Wildlife Department has recently captured 84 such animals in three locations and translocated most of them to Tabin Wildlife Reserve, which already has a low-density population of orang-utans. The majority of animals were captured by drug immobilization, using a 5:1 ketamine/xylazine mixture at a mean dosage of 8.47 mg/kg body weight (range 3.76–22.64 mg/kg). This proved an effective and safe method. Others, mainly immatures, were captured manually. Few injuries or other problems were encountered. The cost of the rescue operations was $US175 per animal. A satisfactory way of monitoring the released orangutans is under development.

The Andean Cat Leopardus jacobita, one of the most rare and endangered feline species in the world, is distributed from central Peru to central Argentina. The aim of this study was to evaluate the health and morphometry of a subadult male Andean Cat that was rescued from wildlife trade in Bolivia and held captive for 165 days before being released back into its natural habitat. Physical immobilizations followed by anaesthesia using ketamine hydrochloride (KH) and xylazine hydrochloride (XH) were performed to obtain clinical, morphometric, haematological and serum chemical parameters. Physical immobilizations were efficient using capture nets. The combination of KH + XH had an average initial sedation effect within 12min with a range of 10–16 min after intramuscular application. Anaesthetic average plane lasted 41.7min with a range of 40–45 min and was extended to 64.5min (63–66 min range) with an addition of KH. The individual was underweight on arrival and gradually reached an ideal condition and was overweight before its release. Morphometry parameters showed that it grew during the captive period. It was released back into the wild when it was considered healthy. This is the first report of a protocol of physical and chemical immobilization, physiological values, and biometric variation of an Andean Cat under captive conditions.

Patagium retraction is one of the most common problems after long–term periods of immobilization due to bandaging for injury treatment or loss of motion related to chronic pathology. Physiotherapy technics in protocolized treatments involve thermotherapy, laser, ultrasound, Z–massage, manual therapy, stretching, and kinesiotherapy. These treatments, followed by strength and endurance enhancement, allow improvement of full range of motion, propioceptive training, neuromuscular awareness, and avoid the development of fibrotic tissue, calcifications, and tie downs. The success of the evolution process was tested with goniometry, centimetric measurements, percentage score assessment, and imaging tools. This study was developed on a basis of 200 wild birds under treatment at the GREFA Wildlife Hospital of Madrid, Spain.

AbstractWild mammals sometimes need to be restrained for conservation purposes. Game rangers, wildlife managers, field biologists and wildlife veterinarians need to be fully conversant with a wide array of environmental and biological variables when using chemical restraint on wild mammals. In order to minimize risks to subject animals, they also need to be able to react appropriately using the correct equipment with sufficient skill to deal with anything that can go wrong. The importance of thorough background research and planning before going into the field cannot be overemphasized. The physiological results of immobilization drugs delivered by dart depend on dosages, the success of dart placement and drug delivery in good muscle, as well as the physiological state of the animals prior to and during anaesthetic induction. This paper describes the essential components of a planning and monitoring protocol for chemically restraining terrestrial mammals under field conditions.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária
Due to constant changes in restraint techniques, equipment and even immobilization drugs, wildlife veterinary practices have improved over the past decades. This broad progress coupled with the experience of practitioners contributes towards a safer practice for both the animals and people involved in the procedures. Anesthetic protocols used for chemical immobilizations performed during an internship in South Africa (184 of 245 restrained individuals) were analyzed for the various species approached, taking into account the darting equipment involved, the surrounding environment and some of the main purposes of each intervention. The different chemical immobilizations performed were classified as successful (176) or unsuccessful (8), and the most common complications that affected the procedures were documented. The reasons for the failings that in cases led to a second darting (13 cases) or to the death of animals (3 cases) are also addressed and preventive measures to avoid them were put forward. It is important to analyze the information logged after every immobilization procedure, including personal experiences from each clinical case, and present and disseminate the conclusions, to help wildlife practitioners worldwide avoid future complications.
RESUMO - A medicina veterinária associada à vida selvagem têm vindo a evoluir nas últimas décadas graças às constantes mudanças nas técnicas de imobilização, equipamentos e até fármacos utilizados. Estes progressos, aliados à experiência dos veterinários, têm vindo a contribuir para uma prática médica mais segura tanto para os animais como para as equipas envolvidas nos procedimentos. Durante o estágio na África do Sul, os protocolos anestésicos usados nas imobilizações químicas (184 dos 245 indivíduos imobilizados) foram analisados para as diferentes espécies manipuladas, tendo em conta o equipamento de disparo utilizado, o ambiente envolvente e o propósito das intervenções praticadas. As diferentes imobilizações químicas foram classificadas como bem-sucedidas (176) ou não (8), tendo sido referidas as principais complicações que afectaram os procedimentos. Nos casos sem o sucesso anestésico esperado, recorrendo a um segundo dardo (13 casos) ou culminando na morte dos individuos (3 casos), as razões para o insucesso foram discutidas e algumas medidas preventivas para o futuro foram propostas. É importante que este tipo de informação seja sempre analisado após a execução de uma imobilização, divulgando as conclusões dessa análise e respectivas experiências pessoais dos casos, de modo a poderem ser exploradas pelos médicos-veterinários de vida selvagem para evitar complicações futuras.

East African meso- and mega-herbivores have been a key part of the Earth’s ecosystem for millions of years, but are now at risk of disappearing. To ensure their conservation, operations that involve veterinary immobilization are becoming essential for wild populations. However, capture morbidity remains high, with both short- and longer-term physiological alterations that can result in acute or delayed death. In large-sized herbivores, the size and unique anatomy and physiology contribute to the high susceptibility to capture stress, drugs adverse effects and alterations due to recumbency. On top of this, the limited knowledge in the species-specific physiological response to immobilization and, as a result, the obliged practice of extrapolating drug doses and protocols from similar species, enhances the risk of complications. Improvement in capture methods and drug protocols are advocated, and as such, in order to develop targeted strategies, it is essential to gain a better understanding of the species-specific physiological impact of capture. The general objective of this thesis is to advance the knowledge of the physiological mechanism of capture morbidity, and evaluate strategies for the prevention, detection and treatment of complications arising from opioid-based immobilization of selected species of East African megaherbivores, the giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis ssp. tippelskirchi and reticulata) and the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis ssp. michaeli), and in a large mesoherbivore, the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer). A key factor of this study was the collection of data through an opportunistic approach, whereas the research design was shaped for each of the study species based on targeted needs, thus different specific objectives were pursued for each species. In free-ranging Masai giraffes that were immobilized for a translocation, a combination of etorphine and azaperone was evaluated for physiological and handling safety. Early opioid antagonization – a common procedure performed to reduce etorphine’s respiratory depression – was performed at low doses to assess if it would result in smoother restraint and transport. The protocol produced safe inductions, but variable opioid-related excitement occurred and accounted for metabolic derangement. On the other hand, early antagonization with low dose naltrexone allowed calm restraints, a stable physiological function during the recumbency, and enabled smooth recoveries and loading into the chariot with resulting uneventful transport. No delayed complications or resedation were observed during a two-week post-capture boma monitoring. Although the protocol allowed safe immobilization and transport, the study highlighted that further research on techniques that reduce induction-induced excitement, which poses severe health risks in giraffe capture, is advocated. Building up on the study performed in Masai giraffe, the physiological mechanism of capture morbidity occurring in both vehicle and helicopter darted reticulated giraffes, immobilized with an etorphine-azaperone combination, was investigated in order to detect the predisposing factors for homeostatic alterations and to define and guide prevention strategies. Trends over time in blood gases, selected biochemistry variables and cardio-respiratory function were analyzed following early opioid antagonization, and the use of a non-invasive nasal capnometer was investigated. In the helicopter darted giraffes, severe metabolic alterations were observed as a result of an intense startle response, whereas in vehicle darted giraffes, these were moderate and mainly a result of etorphine-induced excitement. Intense excitement occurred when lower doses of etorphine were administered, whereas higher doses resulted in respiratory depression, severe respiratory acidosis and hypoxemia. Early antagonization produced an improvement over time of gas exchanges, but not of the acid-base status, and resulted in poor immobilization quality. Nasal capnometry proved to be a useful non-invasive monitoring tool for field ventilatory function in giraffes. The severe alterations observed suggest that advances in giraffe immobilization should focus on reducing both opioid-respiratory depression and excitement, and onto providing adequate sedation and analgesia during field immobilizations. In Eastern black rhinoceroses, two intra-anesthetic treatments, butorphanol and oxygen, or doxapram, butorphanol and oxygen - which are routinely administered to improve gas exchanges, but which efficacy has not been investigated yet in the species - were evaluated. The mechanism of physiological alterations resulting from capture was investigated, and nasal capnometry was evaluated for its accuracy in monitoring carbon dioxide. Hypoxemia and severe lactic acidosis, proportional to more intense pre-dart chase, occurred. After the administration of doxapram and butorphanol, the initial hypoxemia and acidosis improved, presumably as a result of increase in ventilation mediated by doxapram; whereas the same values worsened when butorphanol only was administered. This might suggest that, different to other rhinoceroses, increased oxygen consumption is not the primary mechanism of hypoxemia in black rhinoceros. Nasal capnometry was efficient in monitoring carbon dioxide trends, but not accurate in predicting absolute values. Although intra-anesthetic treatment with doxapram partially improved gas exchanges, and post-capture complications did not occur for at least nine months, the severe metabolic and respiratory alterations observed highlight the need of advances in black rhinoceros capture methods that focus on preventing the origin of physiological alterations. The physiological safety of two immobilization protocols, etorphine-azaperone and etorphine- medetomidine-azaperone combinations, was compared in free-ranging African buffalos. The aim was to evaluate if medetomidine’s sparing effect would have allowed to safely decrease etorphine doses, and its adverse respiratory effects, without increasing the risk of excitement or poor immobilization quality. The addition of a low dose of medetomidine allowed to decrease etorphine dose by 30 %, and resulted in quicker and smoother inductions, and significantly improved immobilization quality. Medetomidine reduced the occurrence of tachycardia and respiratory acidosis, but not of hypoxemia. Etorphine-medetomidine-azaperone combination is recommended for buffalo immobilization as it provides greater physiological and handling safety, and can help to reduce the onset of capture stress. The new knowledge acquired within the different studies of this thesis has allowed to detect and evaluate species-specific strategies for the prevention (through knowledge of factors influencing capture morbidity, and improved immobilization protocols), detection (through clinical monitoring) or treatment (intra-anesthetic drugs) of capture and drug complications in large-sized herbivores. Species- specific and intra-specific variation of physiological response to capture stress and drugs were individuated, and hence a species-specific approach needs to be endorsed when capturing large-sized herbivores. Furthermore, based on the new information gained in this thesis, further studies can now specifically focus towards targeting solutions for the specific detected physiological alterations. The advances on immobilization methods resulting from this thesis represents a first step towards the improvement of the safety of immobilization of giraffes, black rhinoceroses and buffalos, and by reducing the risk of occurrence of delayed morbidity, it also contributes to the conservation of these East African large-sized herbivores.