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1
Yang, Chaoran, and Lin Wang. "Comparisons of Waist Circumference Measurements at Five Different Anatomical Sites in Chinese Children." BioMed Research International 2017 (2017): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/7678613.
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This study compared the waist circumference (WC) measurements of Chinese children at different sites to determine the relationship between WC measurements and body fat. WC was measured at five sites in 255 subjects aged 9–19 years: immediately below the lowest rib (WC1), at the narrowest waist (WC2), the midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest (WC3), 1 cm above the umbilicus (WC4), and immediately above the iliac crest (WC5). Body fat mass (FM), body fat percentage (% BF), body fat mass in the trunk (FM in the trunk), and fat percentage in the trunk (% BF in the trunk) were determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The WCs were then compared through ANOVA with repeated measurement. The relationship of WC of each site with FM, % BF, FM in the trunk, and % BF in the trunk was examined through partial correlation. The WCs exhibited the following pattern: WC2 < WC1 < WC3 < WC4 < WC5 (p<0.001) in males and WC2 < WC1 < WC4, WC3 < WC5 (p<0.001) in females. The measured WCs were strongly correlated with FM, % BF, FM in the trunk, and % BF in the trunk. The WC measurements at five commonly used sites among Chinese children are different from one another. Results indicate that standardizing the anatomic point for the WC measurements is necessary.
2
Endoma, L. F., J. H. C. Gabo, R. M. Sargadillos, C. G. Condrillon, W. A. Francisco, I. P. Daet, F. C. Silaya, K. J. M. Monaya, and M. F. S. Muegue. "Physico-chemical properties and sensory quality of surimi from bigtooth pomfret (Brama orcini) at different washing cycles." Food Research 6, no. 5 (October 8, 2022): 266–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.6(5).597.
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In this study, the effects of different washing cycles on the physico-chemical and sensory properties of surimi from Brama orcini were determined. The isolated muscle from B. orcini was divided into five different treatment lots, WC0 (minced, no washing), WC1 (washing cycle 1), WC2 (washing cycle 2), WC3 (washing cycle 3), and WC4 (washing cycle 4) as washing cycle treatments. Both washed and unwashed samples have been added with cryoprotectants and analysed for physico-chemical and sensory evaluation. Results in this study highlighted that increased washing cycle (WC) improved the waterholding capacity of WC3 (88.89%) and WC4 (86.11%) samples, as compared WC0 (63.84%), WC1 (73.51%), WC2 (82.82%) samples (p<0.05). Three to four washing cycles (WC3, WC4) also favoured a significant reduction in the total ash levels (0.50, 0.45%), increased moisture content (71.5, 74.39%), decreased expressible drip losses (11.11, 13.89%), improved whiteness indices (52.46, 51.74%), and increased product over-all acceptability scores (7.12, 8.44) in surimi without compromising its yield (32.00, 31.23%) and total protein content (22.15, 20.84%). This study suggested that washing three times with cold saltwater (10-15°C) improved the physico-chemical and sensory properties of surimi from B. orcini.
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Eenens, P. R. J., P. M. Williams, and R. Wade. "Identification and Analysis of Infrared Lines of WC Stars." Symposium - International Astronomical Union 143 (1991): 99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0074180900044958.
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We present 1 – 3.4 μm spectra of six Wolf-Rayet stars: WR 146 (WC4), WR 111 (WC5), WR 86 (WC7), WR 140 (WC7+O4), WR 135 (WC8) and WR 88 (WC9). Examination of the relative strengths of the emission lines has enabled us to make over 20 new line identifications. Recombination analyses of the carbon and helium lines yield C/He abundance ratios much in excess of the solar value and correlated with spectral subtype.
4
Wan Azahar, Wan Nur Aifa, Mastura Bujang, Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya, Mohd Rosli Hainin, Norzita Ngadi, and Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah. "Performance of Waste Cooking Oil in Asphalt Binder Modification." Key Engineering Materials 700 (July 2016): 216–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.700.216.
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Oxidation, hydrolysis and polymerization process during frying activity has caused the alteration value of the waste cooking oil (WCO) properties which is acid value and water content. This parameter is recognized as the quality measurement of waste cooking oil that might be affecting the performance of WCO in binder modification. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to relate the quality of WCO by the determination of the WCO parameter with the performance of WCO in modified binder by physical and rheological binder testing. Based on the finding, the high and good quality of WCO is recorded in December sample with the lowest acid value (1.66 mL/g) and water content (0.01 ml). The high quality of WCO affected the good performance of rheological properties where the higher rutting resistance and temperature failure at 64 °C is achieved by the modified asphalt binder with the addition of WCO in December sample.
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Alagawany, Mahmoud, Mohamed Abd El-Hack, Adham Al-Sagheer, Mohammed Naiel, Islam Saadeldin, and Ayman Swelum. "Dietary Cold Pressed Watercress and Coconut Oil Mixture Enhances Growth Performance, Intestinal Microbiota, Antioxidant Status, and Immunity of Growing Rabbits." Animals 8, no. 11 (November 17, 2018): 212. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani8110212.
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The present study assessed the effect of dietary supplementation with coconut oil (CNO), watercress oil (WCO), and their mixture as promoters of growth, antioxidant status, immunity, and intestinal microbiota in growing rabbits. A total of 120 rabbits were distributed into six groups (20 rabbits/group) receiving a basal diet without supplementation (G1) or diet supplemented with 2 g CNO (G2), 2 g WCO (G3), 0.5 g CNO plus 1.5 g WCO (G4), 1 g CNO plus 1 g WCO (G5), or 1.5 g CNO plus 0.5 g WCO/kg (G6). Live body weight and feed conversion ratio were significantly higher in the G4 and G5 groups than in the other groups. Superoxide dismutase activity and reduced glutathione concentration were significantly improved in the CNO or WCO diets. Supplemental CNO plus WCO at all tested levels produced the best lysozyme and complement 3 activities. Cecal lactobacilli, coliform, Enterobacteriaceae, and Clostridium spp. populations were lower in the group who received the 1 g CNO + 1 g WCO/kg diet than that in the control group. Dietary supplementation of 1 g CNO + 1 g WCO or 0.5 g CNO + 1.5 g WCO/kg had the potential to improve growth, feed utilization, antioxidant status, and immunity, and reduce cecal pathogenic bacteria in rabbits.
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KURY, ADRIANO B., AMANDA C. MENDES, LILIAN CARDOSO, MILENA S. KURY, ALEXIA A. GRANADO, MATTHEW J. YODER, and IAN S. KURY. "WCO-Lite version 1.1: an online nomenclatural catalogue of harvestmen of the world (Arachnida, Opiliones) curated in TaxonWorks." Zootaxa 4908, no. 3 (January 15, 2021): 447–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4908.3.10.
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The “World Catalogue of Opiliones” (WCO) is a collaborative effort to comprehensively index the Earth’s species of harvestmen. This paper announces one component of the WCO, “WCO-Lite” a website available at https://wcolite.com/. WCO-Lite provides a graphic user interface for a second component of the WCO, “Opiliones of the World”, a database on the taxonomy of the harvestmen curated in TaxonWorks (TW). WCO-Lite interfaces include: (1) a checklist of all valid taxa of the arachnid Opiliones, exhaustive up to December 2018; (2) a taxonomic tree; (3) a search engine comprising two modules; and (4) a counter of species diversity for each taxon. An e-Book companion was launched simultaneously with WCO-Lite version 1.1 on September 12, 2020 to account for the formal publication of mandatory nomenclatural changes and availability of taxonomic names. The collective components of the WCO are also being summarized in a forthcoming conventional paper-form catalogue, currently in manuscript stage.
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Solangi, Faheem Ahmed, Liaquat Ali Memon, Saleem Raza Samo, Muhammad Ramzan Luhur, Aqeel Ahmed Bhutto, and Ali Murtaza Ansari. "Investigation of Performance and Emission Characteristics of CI Engine Using Diesel and Waste Cooking Oil Blends." Energies 15, no. 19 (September 30, 2022): 7211. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15197211.
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Reusing waste cooking oil (WCO) as fuel in compression ignition (CI) engine offers a sustainable solution for energy scarcity and environmental protection. WCO and n-pentanol ternary blends deliver are attractive prospects in utilization as bio-components and recycled components to moderately substitute diesel fuel. The current study intends to investigate the performance and emission characteristics of a single cylinder CI engine, having constant load at a uniform speed of 1300 rpm, using diesel-waste cooking oil n-pentanol blends. Blends chosen and analogized with diesel oil as reference fuel and their contents were the following: (1) D95-WCO5 (95%vol. diesel, WCO5%vol. waste cooking oil, (2) D65-WCO20-Pe15 (65%vol. diesel, 20%vol. waste cooking oil, and 15%vol. n-pentanol) and (3) D60-WCO20-Pe20 (60%vol. diesel, 20%vol. waste cooking oil and 20%voil. n-pentanol). The experimental results revealed that with the DF95-WCO5 blend the BSFC improved by 0.32%. However, with the addition of n-pentanol as a ternary blend; DF65-WCO20-Pe15 and DF60-WCO20-Pe20 resulted in improvements of0.49% and 0.68% respectively. The BTE for DF95-WCO5 increased by 38.7%, while the increase was39.2% for DF65-WCO20-Pe15 and 39.6% for DF60-WCO20-Pe20, which was less, as compared with diesel fuel. The lowermost level of CO discharge was achieved when the engine was fueled with DF65-WCO20-Pe15 and DF60-WCO20-Pe20, due to the highest level of saturation. CO2, in the cases of DF65-WCO20-Pe15 and DF60-WCO20-Pe20, increased, as compared to diesel fuel under the same engine operating conditions. However, the binary blend DF95-WCO5 resulted in decreased CO2 as analogized to diesel, because of incomplete combustion of the fuel. During experimental work it could be observed that the DF95-WCO5 binary blend produced higher Particulate material (PM-1, PM-2.5, PM-7 and PM-10) emissions, compared to DF100. Moreover, with the addition of n-pentanol as a ternary blend in the ratio of 15 to 20%, emission was further reduced. This indicated that direct exertion of WCO in engines must be promoted, as it is an impressive choice for waste recapture.
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Zhao, Haixiang, Yongli Wang, Xiuli Xu, Heling Ren, Li Li, Li Xiang, and Weike Zhong. "Detection of Adulterated Vegetable Oils Containing Waste Cooking Oils Based on the Contents and Ratios of Cholesterol, β-Sitosterol, and Campesterol by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry." Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 98, no. 6 (November 1, 2015): 1645–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.15-053.
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Abstract A simple and accurate authentication method for the detection of adulterated vegetable oils that contain waste cooking oil (WCO) was developed. This method is based on the determination of cholesterol, β-sitosterol, and campesterol in vegetable oils and WCO by GC/MS without any derivatization. A total of 148 samples involving 12 types of vegetable oil and WCO were analyzed. According to the results, the contents and ratios of cholesterol, β-sitosterol, and campesterol were found to be criteria for detecting vegetable oils adulterated with WCO. This method could accurately detect adulterated vegetable oils containing 5% refined WCO. The developed method has been successfully applied to multilaboratory analysis of 81 oil samples. Seventy-five samples were analyzed correctly, and only six adulterated samples could not be detected. This method could not yet be used for detection of vegetable oils adulterated with WCO that are used for frying non-animal foods. It provides a quick method for detecting adulterated edible vegetable oils containing WCO.
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Mustapha, Aliru Olajide, Amina Abiola Adebisi, and Bukola Opeyemi Olanipekun. "Characterization of Biodiesel from Alkaline Refinement of Waste Cooking Oil." International Annals of Science 10, no. 1 (September 4, 2020): 16–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.21467/ias.10.1.16-24.
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The waste cooking oil (WCO) is a low cost and prospective feedstock with no competitive food uses for biodiesel production, but the yield and quality have been greatly affected by impurities. This study examined the chemical and fuel quality of biodiesel of both WCO and alkaline treated WCO. The transesterification process using the alkaline treated cooking oil (ACO) methanol and sodium hydroxide as catalyst followed the Association of Officials of Analytical Chemists (AOAC) techniques. The pH values between 7.27 and 8.65 were found for alkaline treated cooking methyl ester (ACME), alkaline treated cooking oil (ACO) and WCO. Density of ACME, ACO and WCO varied between 0.89 and 0.93 (g/cm3). The fatty acids found were benzoic acid (3.77%), octanoic acid (8.35%), and palmitic acid (75.02%) – most abundant. Comparison of results with the American Standard for Testing Materials (ASTM) values showed quality enhancements of ACO in physicochemical and fuel properties over WCO. The biodiesels from ACO have enhanced emulsification, fuel and free fatty acids qualities over the WCO, showing the refinement methodology of WCO has overall improvement in the biodiesel purity and quality against the previous conflicting reports.
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Tsai, Wen-Tien. "Mandatory Recycling of Waste Cooking Oil from Residential and Commercial Sectors in Taiwan." Resources 8, no. 1 (February 18, 2019): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/resources8010038.
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Waste cooking oil (WCO) has been considered a low-cost and renewable feedstock for the production of biodiesel and biobased products if it can be economically and efficiently collected and recycled. The objective of this case study is to review the scientific background of WCO recycling in the literature in connection with the regulatory and promotional measures in Taiwan under the authorization of a legal waste management system. Furthermore, the updated information about the on-line reporting WCO amounts in Taiwan is also analyzed to illustrate its significant increase in the recycling status of WCO officially designated as one of the mandatory recyclable wastes since 2015. Finally, an overview of available utilization of WCO as biodiesel, fuel oil, and non-fuel related uses is briefly addressed in this paper. It shows that the collected amounts of WCO from residential and commercial sectors in Taiwan significantly increased from 1599 tonnes in 2015 to 12,591 tonnes, reflecting on the WCO recycling regulation effective since 2015. Practically, the most important option for this urban mining is to reuse WCO as an energy source for the productions of biodiesel and auxiliary fuel. Other non-fuel related uses include the production of soaps/detergents, C-18 fatty acids, and lubricants. However, the reuse of WCO as a feed additive should be banned to prevent it from re-entering the food chain.
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Wang, Wentong, Jin Li, Di Wang, Pengfei Liu, and Xinzhou Li. "The Synergistic Effect of Polyphosphates Acid and Different Compounds of Waste Cooking Oil on Conventional and Rheological Properties of Modified Bitumen." Materials 15, no. 23 (December 5, 2022): 8681. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15238681.
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In order to conserve non-renewable natural resources, waste cooking oil (WCO) in bitumen can help lower CO2 emissions and advance the environmental economy. In this study, three different components of WCO were isolated and then, together with polyphosphoric acid (PPA), used separately as bitumen modifiers to determine the suitability of various substances in WCO with PPA. Conventional tests, including penetration, softening point temperature, and ductility, and the dynamic shear rheology (DSR) test, including temperature sweep and frequency sweep, were used to evaluate the influence of WCO/PPA on the traditional performance and rheological properties at high and low temperatures. The results indicate that WCO reduced the ductility and penetration value, when the use of PPA increased the softening point temperature and high-temperature performance. Compared to reference bitumen, the rutting factor and viscous activation energy (Ea) of bitumen modified with 4% WCO and 2% PPA has the most significant increase by 18.6% and 31.5, respectively. All components of WCO have a significant impact on improving the low-temperature performance of PPA-modified bitumen. The performance of the composite-modified bitumen at low temperatures is negatively affected by some waxy compounds in WCO, such as methyl palmitate, which tends to undergo a solid–liquid phase change as the temperature decreases. In conclusion, the inclusion of WCO/PPA in bitumen offers a fresh approach to developing sustainable pavement materials.
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Sadyasmara, Cokorda Anom Bayu, I. Ketut Satriawan, Dewa Ayu Anom Yuarini, Deria Wahyuni, and I. Gede Arie Mahendra Putra. "Potential Analysis and Distribution Flow of Waste Cooking Oil in Bali Province." International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 11, no. 9 (September 10, 2022): 120–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2022.1109.014.
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Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) is a hazardous and toxic that has a negative impact on the environment. WCO becomes a potential if it managed properly, because it can be processed into products that have an economic value. The purposes of this research were to present data the use of cooking oil in the Province of Bali, the handling carried out, the distribution flow of WCO, public expectation and responses regarding the wasted cooking oil collection system. The research stage begins with an initiation, collecting data of respondent, processing and analyzing data. Data collection was conducted using questionnaires and interviews. The sample used was 365 respondents consisting of household respondents, hotels, restaurants, cafes, food-based SMEs, catering and street vendors. The results showed that the use of cooking oil in Bali is not less than 3,050.052 liters/month which will produce WCO not less than 1 million liters/month. The data obtained were then analyzed descriptively. In handling and distribution of WCO, it was found that 91% of respondents disposed of their WCO, and 6% was distributed to collectors or waste banks and the rest was processed themselves to make products such as candles. Then 98% of respondents hope and are willing to support the government to create a WCO management system, where WCO can be collected by villages or waste banks for households and collectors who have permits/legality for non-household WCO. This research provides positive information for the government, so that in the future WCO can be managed properly and provide added value for environmental, social and economic aspects.
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Zhang, Chuan-Peng, Guang-Xing Li, Chenlin Zhou, Lixia Yuan, and Ming Zhu. "Using CO line ratios to trace compressed areas in bubble N131." Astronomy & Astrophysics 631 (November 2019): A110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/201936063.
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Aims. N131 is a typical infrared dust bubble showing an expanding ring-like shell. We study the CO line ratios that can be used to trace the interaction in the expanding bubble. Methods. We carried out new CO (3–2) observations toward bubble N131 using the 15 m JCMT, and derived line ratios by combining these observations with our previous CO (2–1) and CO (1–0) data from IRAM 30 m observations. To trace the interaction between the molecular gas and the ionized gas in the HII region, we used RADEX to model the dependence of the CO line ratios on kinetic temperature and H2 volume density, and examined the abnormal line ratios based on other simulations. Results. We present CO (3–2), CO (2–1), and CO (1–0) integrated intensity maps convolved to the same angular resolution (22.5″). The three different CO transition maps show a similar morphology. The line ratios of WCO (3–2)/WCO (2–1) mostly range from 0.2 to 1.2 with a median of 0.54 ± 0.12, while the line ratios of WCO (2–1)/WCO (1–0) range from 0.5 to 1.6 with a median of 0.84 ± 0.15. The high CO line ratios WCO (3–2)/WCO (2–1) ≳ 0.8 and WCO (2–1)/WCO (1–0) ≳ 1.2 are beyond the threshold predicted by numerical simulations based on the assumed density-temperature structure for the inner rims of the ring-like shell, where the compressed areas are located in bubble N131. Conclusions. These high CO integrated intensity ratios, such as WCO (3–2)/WCO (2–1) ≳ 0.8 and WCO (2–1)/WCO (1–0) ≳ 1.2, can be used as a tracer of gas-compressed regions with a relatively high temperature and density. This further suggests that the non-Gaussian part of the line-ratio distribution can be used to trace the interaction between the molecular gas and the hot gas in the bubble.
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Yamaoka, Tokio. "The De Facto Accession of the European Communities to the World Customs Organization: Process and Significance." Global Trade and Customs Journal 8, Issue 4 (April 1, 2013): 92–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2013013.
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Normally, it is a very simple matter to become a Member of the World Customs Organization (WCO). In some cases, however, political and legal problems constitute stumbling blocks. Following a decision to allow accession of the European Communities (EC) by the WCO Council, the accession remains ad hoc, pending amendment of the Convention establishing the WCO. This article explores issues related to the accession process of the EC to the WCO and issues concerning the decision to allow accession and the Convention establishing the WCO. Because the WCO's status as an international organization has not been satisfactorily addressed , this article also focuses on its characteristics, as compared with those of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In closing, this article will consider and evaluate the political impact of the EC's accession to the WCO.
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Hossain, Abul K. "Combustion Characteristics of Waste Cooking Oil–Butanol/Diesel/Gasoline Blends for Cleaner Emission." Clean Technologies 2, no. 4 (November 9, 2020): 447–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol2040028.
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Sustainable green biofuels could replace a significant amount of fossil fuels responsible for environmental pollution. In this study, waste cooking oil (WCO) was tested in a diesel engine either neat or blended separately with diesel, butanol and gasoline, with an additive concentration between 10% and 30% by volume. The heating values of the WCO were slightly decreased when blended with butanol, whereas they increased when blended with either gasoline or diesel. The flash point temperatures decreased. All fuel samples were non-corrosive and non-acidic. At full load, the brake specific fuel consumption of the WCO–additive fuels was approximately 1–3% higher than diesel. The thermal efficiency of the neat WCO, neat diesel and WCO–10% diesel were very close to each other, whereas, in the case of 20% butanol blend, the efficiency decreased by about 2% when compared to the neat diesel value. The WCO–butanol fuel gave the lowest NOx emission and a 0.6% lower CO2 emission than diesel. Combustion characteristics results showed stable engine operation for all blends. The combustion duration was maximal with WCO–butanol blends. The study concluded that the WCO with 10–20% butanol or fossil diesel exhibited similar performance and emission characteristics observed for neat fossil diesel.
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Norambuena-Contreras, Jose, Jose Concha, Luis Arteaga-Pérez, and Irene Gonzalez-Torre. "Synthesis and Characterisation of Alginate-Based Capsules Containing Waste Cooking Oil for Asphalt Self-Healing." Applied Sciences 12, no. 5 (March 7, 2022): 2739. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12052739.
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This paper presents the synthesis and characterisation of biopolymeric capsules for asphalt self-healing. A sodium alginate biopolymer extracted from the cell wall of brown algae was used as the encapsulating material to contain Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) as a potential encapsulated rejuvenating agent for aged bitumen. Polynuclear capsules were synthesised by ionic gelation. The size, surface aspect and internal structure of the WCO capsules were evaluated using Optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy. The physical-chemical properties and thermal stability of the WCO capsules and their components were also evaluated. Moreover, the diffusion process and self-healing capability of the released WCO on cracked bitumen test samples were determined by image analysis through fluorescence microscopy. The main results of this study showed that the WCO capsules presented a suitable morphology to be mixed in asphalt mixtures. WCO capsules and their components presented mechanical and thermal stability and physical-chemical properties which suggest their feasibility for self-healing applications. It was proven that the encapsulated WCO can diffuse in the aged bitumen, reducing its viscosity and promoting the self-healing of microcracks.
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Thode Filho, Sérgio, Julieta Laudelina de Paiva, Heider Alves Franco, Daniel Vidal Perez, and Monica Regina da Costa Marques. "ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS CAUSED BY RESIDUAL VEGETABLE OIL IN THE SOIL-PLANT SYSTEM." Ciência e Natura 39, no. 3 (November 18, 2017): 748. http://dx.doi.org/10.5902/2179460x27645.
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Vegetable oils are widely used for food production at different levels: domestic, commercial or industrial. The estimated production of vegetable oil, in Brazil, is three billion liters per year. Only 2.5% of cooking oil waste (WCO) are recycled. This paper presents to evaluate the environmental impact of OVR in two Brazilian soils (sandy and loamy) and to estimate the terrestrial toxicity level (leakage test) and phytotoxicity (germination tests using lettuce seeds - Lactuca sativa L. – as well as in lettuce cultivation under greenhouse conditions). After leaching, the sandy soil had a slight lower WCO adsorption capacity than the clayey soil. The introduction of WCO caused clayey soil compaction. The WCO presence was toxic to earthworms, regardless of soil type. WCO negatively influenced germination and radicle growth in the eco toxicity assays. The different tested doses of WCO in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cultivation caused changes in plant morphology for all physical parameters analyzed for both soils. We concluded that the WCO is a potential contaminant residue when improperly disposed over the soil, compromising the soil-plant system.
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García Martín, Juan Francisco, María del Carmen López Barrera, Miguel Torres García, Qing-An Zhang, and Paloma Álvarez Mateos. "Determination of the Acidity of Waste Cooking Oils by Near Infrared Spectroscopy." Processes 7, no. 5 (May 21, 2019): 304. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr7050304.
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Waste cooking oils (WCO) recycling companies usually have economic losses for buying WCO not suitable for biodiesel production, e.g., WCO with high free acidity (FA). For this reason, the determination of FA of WCO by near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was studied in this work to assess its potential for in situ application. To do this, FA of 45 WCO was measured by the classical titration method, which ranged between 0.15 and 3.77%. Then, the NIR spectra from 800 to 2200 nm of these WCO were acquired, and a partial least squares model was built, relating the NIR spectra to FA values. The accuracy of the model was quite high, providing r2 of 0.970 and a ratio of performance to deviation (RPD) of 4.05. Subsequently, a model using an NIR range similar to that provided by portable NIR spectrometers (950–1650 nm) was built. The performance was lower (r2 = 0.905; RPD = 2.66), but even so, with good accuracy, which demonstrates the potential of NIR spectroscopy for the in situ determination of FA of WCO.
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de Souza, Gabriela Rezende, and André Geraldo Cornélio Ribeiro. "Waste Cooking Oil Management at Three Gastronomic Establishments in Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazil: Problems, Prospects and Solutions." Journal of Solid Waste Technology and Management 45, no. 4 (November 1, 2019): 403–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.5276/jswtm/2019.403.
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The waste cooking oils (WCOs), when wrongly discarded, bring environmental damages, additionally to structural problems and financial losses if released in the sewage system. However, the correct management of this residue allows its reuse and recycling, representing economic gains, besides social and environmental benefits. There are several alternatives to recycling and reusing WCOs and the biodiesel production presents itself as one of the most important. Nevertheless, it is necessary to guarantee the residue quality in order to utilize its potential, as well as a coordinated management of WCO, promoting the correct processing and disposal of this waste. In this context, this article aims to propose an environmentally appropriate WCO onsite handling and collection in Lavras-MG, by evaluating the WCO management at three establishments in the city. The evaluation had taken into account the quantity of WCO generated, handling, storage and collection methods adopted, and the quality of the residue, by analyzing levels of acid, iodine and peroxide and saponification value. The results revealed the current management of the WCO, the actors involved in the management chain, the way the different frying and storage processes influence the WCO quality for reusing and recycling and possible alternatives to improve the management. The WCO management chain, composed of ACAMAR, G-Óleo, E1 and E2, is widespread and shows potential to transform the WCO into several other products, in addition to biodiesel and handmade soap. At long last to coordinate the correct WCO handling, collection, processing and disposal it is essential to guarantee the participation of the generators, collectors, and the government.
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Elahi, Zafreen, Fauzan Mohd Jakarni, Ratnasamy Muniandy, Salihudin Hassim, Mohd Shahrizal Ab Razak, Anwaar Hazoor Ansari, and Mohamed Meftah Ben Zair. "Waste Cooking Oil as a Sustainable Bio Modifier for Asphalt Modification: A Review." Sustainability 13, no. 20 (October 18, 2021): 11506. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su132011506.
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The rising demand for non-renewable resources such as asphalt binder is a significant issue in the pavement industry. Flexible pavement consumes a significant amount of asphalt binder, which has become a major issue in terms of environmental sustainability and from an economics viewpoint. Hence, researchers strive to find other alternatives to solve these problems, to enhance the performance and lifespan of flexible pavement. Biomass-based bio-oil, such as waste cooking oil (WCO), as a modifier has illustrated favorable effects for asphalt binder and mixture. However, in the pavement industry, its adoption as a modifier is still in an empirical stage. Hence, this paper aimed to give an overview by analyzing literature in-depth to reveal the potential of WCO as a modifier in the pavement industry. The low- and intermediate-temperature performance of the WCO-modified asphalt binder are superior. However, it compromises physical properties and high-temperature performance. Hence, it can be improved by controlling the quality of WCO or by further modification by additives such as ground tire rubber (GTR) and waste plastic. This paper also attempts to review available and potential physical and chemical technologies to minimize the negative effects of free fatty acid (FFA) and water content of WCO on modified asphalt binder properties. For WCO-modified asphalt mixture, the overall performance depends on the dose, quality of WCO, and type of additive added in the WCO-modified binder. Finally, future recommendations are provided to broaden the scope of WCO as a modifier in the forthcoming sustainable pavement industry.
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Mohd Razi, Mohd Zakwan, Mohd Fadzli Abdollah, Nur Rashid Mat Nuri, Hilmi Amiruddin, and Noreffendy Tamaldin. "Friction Properties of Waste Cooking Oil with Banana Peel Broth." Advanced Materials Research 1133 (January 2016): 579–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1133.579.
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The aim of this study is to investigate the friction properties of waste cooking oil (WCO) with banana peel broth. The WCO was purified using a physical technique. Several weight percentages of 15 wt.%, 30 wt.% and 45 wt.% of banana peel broth was dispersed in WCO using ultrasonic homogenizer. Span 80, as a surfactant, were added to the blends. The tribological test was performed using a four-ball tribometer according to the ASTM standards. At early stage, between 0-1200 seconds, it was found that the presence of banana peel broth in WCO reduces the friction coefficient. However, after a certain time, the oil film breakdown and instantly increased the friction coefficient. By observation of worn surfaces, it can be suggested that WCO with 30 wt.% banana peel broth could be a good blends for this study. As a conclusion, this study proposes that the banana peel broth could improve the tribological properties of WCO in mild conditions.
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Wan Azahar, Wan Nur Aifa, Mastura Bujang, Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya, Mohd Rosli Hainin, Norzita Ngadi, and Mardhiah Mohamad. "Chemical Identification of Waste Cooking Oil as Additive in Bitumen." Key Engineering Materials 700 (July 2016): 207–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.700.207.
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The behavior and performance of waste cooking oil (WCO) as an additive and replacement of neat bitumen through the modification of asphalt binder is influenced by its chemical structure and composition. Therefore, the identification of chemical composition inside the WCO-modified bitumen should be identified before any modification is taken that later on will affect its performance. Thus, this paper has emphasized and explained about the chemical composition inside modified bitumen by using WCO. The characterization of each chemical element and functional group of WCO-modified bitumen are conducted by using Gas Chromatography-Mass Selective (GC-MS) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). GCMS result showed that the presence of Free Fatty Acid (FFA) in WCO while from the FTIR observation, there are same type of functional group existed in all sample which is C-H bond (alkyl). Through the chemical observation conducted, therefore the chemical alteration is required to improve the performance of WCO in modified bitumen in the future.
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De Feo, Giovanni, Carmen Ferrara, Luana Giordano, and Libero Sesti Ossèo. "Assessment of Three Recycling Pathways for Waste Cooking Oil as Feedstock in the Production of Biodiesel, Biolubricant, and Biosurfactant: A Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Approach." Recycling 8, no. 4 (August 20, 2023): 64. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/recycling8040064.
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The management of waste cooking oil (WCO) often poses significant challenges. The improper disposal of WCO results in negative environmental impacts and economic losses. However, from a circular economy perspective, WCO can be recycled and used as a sustainable feedstock for numerous industrial products, replacing virgin vegetable oils. This approach enables the recovery of resources while simultaneously addressing the problem of WCO disposal. By employing a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) approach, the study assesses three alternative recycling pathways for WCO used as a feedstock in the production of (A1) biodiesel, (A2) biolubricant, and (A3) biosurfactant. The aim is to identify the optimal alternative, taking into account environmental, economic, and technical factors. The procedure involved a team of chemical engineers working in the WCO recycling sector who were selected as decision makers. The ‘priority scale’ combined with the Paired Comparison Technique was employed as a weighting method to evaluate the selected criteria. The results revealed that the decision makers considered environmental sustainability as the most crucial evaluation criterion, followed by the economic criterion. In contrast, the aspect of process management was deemed less significant. Among the compared alternatives, utilizing WCO as a feedstock for biosurfactant production was assessed as the optimal WCO recycling solution. This alternative not only demonstrated the lowest coefficient variation but was also deemed the most favourable option. Biolubricant production was determined to be the second-best alternative. The adopted MCDA approach proved to be a reliable and effective tool, enabling the clear identification of the preferred WCO recycling alternative among those assessed. This was achieved through the utilization of the decision makers’ expertise and knowledge.
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Han, Cheon Goo, Min Cheol Han, Jin Guang Huang, and Tae Cheong Kim. "Effect of Emulsified Waste Oil on Micro-Structure and Autogenous Shrinkage of the High Strength Concrete." Advanced Materials Research 919-921 (April 2014): 1899–902. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.919-921.1899.
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This paper presents an investigation of the effect of emulsified waste cooking oil on the porosity, EDEX results and the reduction of autogenous shrinkage of the high strength concrete with W/B of 20% incorporating 20% of fly ash and 10% of silica fume. Two different types of shrinkage reducing agents, the existing glyeol based shrinkage reducing agent (SR) and the waste cooking oil (WCO) were applied and compared. The effect of emulsification of the WCO with two emulsifying speeds, 2000 rpm and 4000 rpm were also investigated. It is found that the emulsified WCO has desirable shrinkage reduction effect than un-emulsified WCO and existing SR. Test results also indicated that emulsified WCO could also reduce pore volume due to saponification reaction
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MOZER, SERGEI. "ORGANIZATIONAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES MEMBERSHIP IN THE WORLD CUSTOMS ORGANIZATION AS A PRECEDENT FOR CUSTOMS AND ECONOMIC UNIONS." Sociopolitical Sciences 12, no. 4 (August 2022): 152–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.33693/2223-0092-2022-12-4-152-161.
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A task. To systematize the EC (EU) experience in terms of obtaining rights and obligations akin to those enjoyed by the WCO members, including highlighting the actions and stages in connection with the consideration of the EC application for membership in the World Customs Organization. Conclusions. The research article is devoted to the issues of the EC (EU) legal status of in the WCO and the use of the EC precedent for the implementation of the Strategic Directions for the Development of Eurasian Economic Integration until 2025 (Strategic Directions) in terms of joint actions with Member States aimed at obtaining the Union’s membership status in the WCO. The subject of the study is the activities and stages passed by the EC in the framework of interaction with the WCO to change the legal status from an observer to akin to the WCO membership. The research paper presents in abstract form the legal instruments and legal structures that have been developed at the expert level to satisfy the EC application. The identified activities, by analogy, can be used to develop an action plan (roadmap) for the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) to obtain the WCO member status. Based on the results of the study, conclusions and recommendations were formed within the framework of cooperation between the Eurasian Economic Commission and the WCO. Social consequences. Conducting a study of the legal status of customs and economic unions in the WCO is associated with the implementation of paragraph 11.7.5. of Strategic Directions [6] in terms of cooperation with this international organization. Practical value. The results of the study are of interest to the customs cooperation block of the Eurasian Economic Commission (EEC), and can be used by specialists from customs and other executive authorities in the EEU member states, EEC experts to organize and implement mutually beneficial customs cooperation between the EEC and the WCO. The article is recommended to researchers, teachers, students, graduate students and other categories of students in the Russian Customs Academy, in other universities and the WCO regional training centers in the specialties “Customs” and “Jurisprudence”. Originality/value. The research material is based on an analysis of the practical aspects of the activities of the EEC, the WCO and is the result of a comprehensive study of the issue of the legal and organizational basis for obtaining the WCO member status by economic and customs unions.
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Gong, Jie, Fan Jing, Ruikang Zhao, Chenxuan Li, Jun Cai, Qingjun Wang, and Hongfeng Xie. "Waste Cooking Oil-Modified Epoxy Asphalt Rubber Binders with Improved Compatibility and Extended Allowable Construction Time." Molecules 27, no. 20 (October 19, 2022): 7061. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27207061.
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The application of crumb rubber from end-of-life tires and waste cooking oil (WCO) in road pavements is of significant importance from an economic and environmental viewpoint. However, the incorporation of crumb rubber greatly shortens the allowable construction time of epoxy asphalt binders due to the high viscosity of the epoxy asphalt rubber (EAR) binder and poor compatibility between crumb rubber and asphalt binder. To lower the viscosity of asphalt rubber, extend the allowable construction time and improve the compatibility of EAR binder, waste cooking oil (WCO) was introduced. The effect of WCO on the viscosity–time behavior, thermal stability, dynamic modulus, glass transitions, crosslink density, damping ability, compatibility, mechanical properties and phase separation of WCO-modified EAR binders was investigated by using the Brookfield viscometer, thermogravimetric analysis, dynamic mechanical analysis, universal testing machine and laser confocal microscopy. The test results demonstrated that the incorporation of WCO declined the viscosity and extended the allowable construction time of the unmodified EAR binder. The inclusion of WCO improved the compatibility between asphalt and crumb rubber and the damping ability and elongation at the break of the unmodified EAR binder. The presence of WCO had a marginal effect on the thermal stability of the unmodified EAR binder. Confocal microscopy observation revealed that asphalt rubber particles aggregated in the epoxy phase of the unmodified EAR binder. With the inclusion of WCO, co-continuous asphalt rubber particles became more spherical.
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Seelmann, Carola S., Max Willistein, Johann Heider, and Matthias Boll. "Tungstoenzymes: Occurrence, Catalytic Diversity and Cofactor Synthesis." Inorganics 8, no. 8 (July 31, 2020): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/inorganics8080044.
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Tungsten is the heaviest element used in biological systems. It occurs in the active sites of several bacterial or archaeal enzymes and is ligated to an organic cofactor (metallopterin or metal binding pterin; MPT) which is referred to as tungsten cofactor (Wco). Wco-containing enzymes are found in the dimethyl sulfoxide reductase (DMSOR) and the aldehyde:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (AOR) families of MPT-containing enzymes. Some depend on Wco, such as aldehyde oxidoreductases (AORs), class II benzoyl-CoA reductases (BCRs) and acetylene hydratases (AHs), whereas others may incorporate either Wco or molybdenum cofactor (Moco), such as formate dehydrogenases, formylmethanofuran dehydrogenases or nitrate reductases. The obligately tungsten-dependent enzymes catalyze rather unusual reactions such as ones with extremely low-potential electron transfers (AOR, BCR) or an unusual hydration reaction (AH). In recent years, insights into the structure and function of many tungstoenzymes have been obtained. Though specific and unspecific ABC transporter uptake systems have been described for tungstate and molybdate, only little is known about further discriminative steps in Moco and Wco biosynthesis. In bacteria producing Moco- and Wco-containing enzymes simultaneously, paralogous isoforms of the metal insertase MoeA may be specifically involved in the molybdenum- and tungsten-insertion into MPT, and in targeting Moco or Wco to their respective apo-enzymes. Wco-containing enzymes are of emerging biotechnological interest for a number of applications such as the biocatalytic reduction of CO2, carboxylic acids and aromatic compounds, or the conversion of acetylene to acetaldehyde.
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Mohd Tahir, Syuhada, Wan Norfirdaus Wan Salleh, Nur Syahamatun Nor Hadid, Nor Fatihah Enderus, and Nurul Aina Ismail. "Synthesis of Waste Cooking Oil-Based Polyol Using Sugarcane Bagasse Activated Carbon and Transesterification Reaction for Rigid Polyurethane Foam." Materials Science Forum 846 (March 2016): 690–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.846.690.
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This study was carried out to determine the potential of waste cooking oil (WCO) in preparation of rigid polyurethane (PU) foam. The raw WCO was first filtered and adsorbed by using sugarcane bagasse activated carbon in order to purify the oil. Next, the adsorbed WCO was used to synthesize polyol via transesterification reaction. The WCO-based polyol was then combined with other chemicals at various ratios to form PU rigid foam. The adsorbed WCO showed the decrease in both free fatty acid percentage and viscosity, from 4.3 % to 0.77 % and from 106 mPa.s to 72.5 mPa.s, respectively. No alteration of functional group observed after adsorption as proven by FTIR spectroscopy. The FTIR spectrum of WCO-based polyol showed the formation of OH absorption peak and supported by the increase in hydroxyl value from 0 to 148.79 mgKOH/g after reaction. The formation of urethane linkages (NHCO) backbone in PU foam was confirmed using FTIR. The properties of PU foam are highly dependent on the chemical composition. The density and compressive strength of 60:54:90:40 of glycerol:water:polyol:amine polyurethane foam are 277.7 kg/m3 and 0.10 MPa, respectively. This study showed that WCO exhibit promising potential as raw material for PU formation.
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Maniyam, Maegala Nallapan, Hazeeq Hazwan Azman, Hasdianty Abdullah, and Nor Suhaila Yaacob. "Conversion of waste cooking oil by rhodococcal lipase immobilized in gellan gum." E3S Web of Conferences 277 (2021): 03001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202127703001.
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Recently, the application of lipase enzyme as biocatalyst in the conversion of waste cooking oil (WCO) to free fatty acids and glycerol has been trending well. Therefore, the present study attempts to use WCO which is found in abundance in Malaysia as the substrate for halal microbial lipase conversion to glycerol which can be exploited in the food industry. The workability of free lipase for WCO conversion, however suffers severely due to potential denaturation of the enzyme and extended reaction time. Thus, this study embraced the immobilization method to encapsulate crude lipase extracted from Rhodococcus pyridinivorans strain UCC 0009 in gellan gum and calcium alginate, respectively and compared their ability for WCO conversion to free crude lipase. The gellan gum and calcium alginate-immobilized crude lipase evidently exhibited greater WCO conversion, demonstrating 2.18-fold and 1.61-fold enhanced lipase activity, respectively in comparison to free crude lipase. The repeated reuse of the gellan gum-immobilized crude lipase maintained reasonable lipase activity for 9 cycles, retaining an average 85 % WCO conversion for the first seven cycles and 67 % conversion in the subsequent batches. Thus, the immobilized halal lipase can be foreseen as a green substitute to chemical catalyst for WCO conversion which meets the worldwide demand for clean technologies.
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Maharaj, Rean, Vitra Ramjattan-Harry, and Nazim Mohamed. "Rutting and Fatigue Cracking Resistance of Waste Cooking Oil Modified Trinidad Asphaltic Materials." Scientific World Journal 2015 (2015): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/385013.
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The influence of waste cooking oil (WCO) on the performance characteristics of asphaltic materials indigenous to Trinidad, namely, Trinidad Lake Asphalt (TLA), Trinidad Petroleum Bitumen (TPB), and TLA : TPB (50 : 50) blend, was investigated to deduce the applicability of the WCO as a performance enhancer for the base asphalt. The rheological properties of complex modulus (G∗) and phase angle (δ) were measured for modified base asphalt blends containing up to 10% WCO. The results of rheology studies demonstrated that the incremental addition of WCO to the three parent binders resulted in incremental decreases in the rutting resistance (decrease inG∗/sinδvalues) and increases in the fatigue cracking resistance (decrease inG∗sinδvalue). The fatigue cracking resistance and rutting resistance for the TLA : TPB (50 : 50) blends were between those of the blends containing pure TLA and TPB. As operating temperature increased, an increase in the resistance to fatigue cracking and a decrease in the rutting resistance were observed for all of the WCO modified asphaltic blends. This study demonstrated the capability to create customized asphalt-WCO blends to suit special applications and highlights the potential for WCO to be used as an environmentally attractive option for improving the use of Trinidad asphaltic materials.
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Saad, Idris, Wardatul Hayah Ab Rashid, and Nur Hidayah Saidon. "Effect of Adding RON97 Into Waste Cooking Oil as an Alternative Fuel for Diesel Engine." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 7, no. 3.11 (July 21, 2018): 113. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i3.11.15941.
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Petroleum-based fuel reserves are drastically depleting due to a high demand on sustaining a better lifestyle. This paper presents the utilization of waste cooking oil (WCO) as an alternative fuel for diesel engine. Although WCO and conventional diesel fuel have similar physiochemical properties, the properties of WCO is considered inferior than conventional diesel fuel. It is due to higher viscosity and density of WCO while its calorific value is lower than conventional diesel fuel. In this research, unmodified WCO was blended with petrol fuel grade RON97. Five blended fuels samples were prepared from five to 25 percent volume base with five percent step increment. The density and calorific value of all fuel blend samples together with unmodified WCO were measured and compared to the conventional diesel and RON97 fuels. Each of the blended fuel and conventional diesel were used to run a single cylinder diesel engine. The performance characteristic of the engine was recorded at different engine speeds ranging between 1500 and 3000 rpm. Results showed that the properties of blended fuel were inferior compared to the conventional diesel fuel; however, by adding 15 percent of RON97 into the unmodified WCO, the results were comparable to the conventional diesel fuel.
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De Feo, Giovanni, Aurelio Di Domenico, Carmen Ferrara, Salvatore Abate, and Libero Sesti Osseo. "Evolution of Waste Cooking Oil Collection in an Area with Long-Standing Waste Management Problems." Sustainability 12, no. 20 (October 16, 2020): 8578. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12208578.
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Waste cooking oil (WCO) can be a useful secondary raw material, if properly managed. On the contrary, uncontrolled disposal generates negative environmental impacts as well as economic loss. Therefore, improving WCO recovery rate, with the cooperation of citizens and effective collection programs, is fundamental. The aim of the study was to investigate the reason for the low recovery of WCO in those areas suffering serious waste management problems such as the Campania region in Southern Italy. For this purpose, the case of a WCO collection program adopted in Angri, a town of around 34,000 people with a high population density, was studied. In 2015, the collection program was managed by a social cooperative, while, in 2016, after the change of the local government, the collection of WCO was entrusted to a private company. In 2015, the households’ participation in the collection program was surveyed through a structured questionnaire. The results revealed that the collection of WCO was practiced by 53% of the respondents. Among those not collecting WCO, 76% of the sample wrongly disposed of WCO in their home (kitchen or toilet). Misinformation was the main reason why they did not adhere to the collection program. Therefore, it was suggested to support information and environmental education campaigns to promote environmental awareness of citizens. Unfortunately, the change of management, together with serious problems in the collection of municipal waste in the whole region, due to the continuous closures of the mechanical and biological plants, produced a sharp decline in the collection from 7730 kg in 2015 to an average of 3800 kg for the period 2016–2019, with a loss of more than 15,000 kg of WCO wrongly disposed with consequent environmental and economic damage. Therefore, information and awareness campaigns are important but the form of entrusting the collection service is equally important, especially in areas with long-standing waste management problems.
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S. V. S. R. Krishna, B., and Shivaraj B.K. "Estimation of properties of mixed waste cooking oil for production of biodiesel." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 7, no. 4.5 (September 22, 2018): 552. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i4.5.21155.
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The major drawback of production of biodiesel in large scale is the cost of raw materials. Raw material source of biodiesel is mostly plant oil (Jatropha, Pongamia, Mahua, Neem, Cotton seed oil etc.) which requires large land area to grow. One of the best methods to reduce the production cost of biodiesel is to employ low quality feedstock, for instance waste cooking oil (WCO). This also solves the disposal problem of WCO. This is socioeconomic and environment friendly, it does not compete with edible oil resources. This study represents the biodiesel production from mixed waste cooking oil. Waste cooking oil collected from different hotels around Manipal, Udupi district of Karnataka State, and India. Collected WCO from various sources (from palm oil and sunflower oil users) have different physical and chemical properties. These WCO has mixed in different ratios ie. 50:50, 75:25 and 25:75 to reduce free fatty acid content of WCO without any chemical pre-treatment. Physio-chemical properties of mixed WCO has been carried out.
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Mohamed, Marwa, Nourhan Sherif, Omar Aboelazayem, Hany A. Elazab, Mamdouh Gadalla, and Basudeb Saha. "Waste Cooking Oil Management in Egypt: Production of Biodiesel-Development of Rapid Test Method." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2305, no. 1 (August 1, 2022): 012035. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2305/1/012035.
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Abstract According to the United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC) report in 2017, Egypt produced 500,000 tonnes of WCO from various resources including food industries, restaurants and hotels. Based on our previous funded project, we have reported unique properties for Egyptian WCO as it has very high range acidity (≈18 mg KOH/ g oil) due to the extensive usage of oil in the cooking process. Further, the repeated heating of cooking oil for long time produces carcinogenic compounds that have significant impact on people health. On the other hand, high acidity WCO could be valorised into soap, biodiesel and value added chemicals. However, most of these industries requires costly pre-treatment for the WCO to reduce the acidity prior processing. Accordingly, the WCO should be produced within a guideline of specified properties that could detect if it has been extensively used. Low-acidity WCO will prevent several health consequences for Egyptian people and allow industries to easily valorise it into value added chemicals and fuels. The waste cooking oil was subjected to filtration before being fed to the reactor the produced biodiesel was treated to remove any methanol and the characteristics of the final product was compared with the international standards. This work develops a guideline for WCO quality testing to ensure that it has not been extensively used in cooking process. The work also applies supercritical conditions to convert WCO into biodiesel. The response surface methodology was used to conclude the optimum conditions to produce biodiesel.
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Jain, Shobhit, Sairam Dabbiru, and Anush K. Chandrappa. "Effects of Waste Cooking Oil on the Antiageing Ability of Bitumen." Advances in Civil Engineering 2023 (January 23, 2023): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2023/5155407.
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Ageing is considered one of the significant issues faced by bituminous mixtures. The short-term ageing phase involves a significant rise in the bitumen’s viscosity, which may lead to early raveling and cracking. Antiageing additives are prescribed to reduce the effects of short-term ageing. However, most antiageing additives have detrimental health effects and also affect water quality. In recent times, waste cooking oil (WCO) has gained attention as a potential antiageing additive considering its peptizing ability. In this study, the antiageing ability of WCO is investigated considering the rheological and chemical parameters of the bitumen (binder). The rheological test included oscillation, frequency sweep, and multiple stress creep recovery (MSCR). The chemical test included the extraction of asphaltene from the bitumen. PG 64-10 and VG30 binders were short-term aged and modified with 3.0 and 5.0% WCO, respectively. The master curves indicated the presence of optimum WCO content for the binders, where the WCO short-term aged modified binders overlapped with that of unaged binders. The Burger model fitted for the creep phase of the bitumen indicated a significant increase in the viscous strain when the WCO addition exceeded the optimum value. The ageing indices based on rheological and chemical parameters depicted an excellent correlation. The optimum values of WCO based on rheological, chemical, and ageing indices were found to be in tandem. Overall, WCO has the potential to function as an antiageing additive, and the optimum value should be identified meticulously, as adding beyond the optimum may lead to permanent deformation.
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Pan, Jeng-Shyang, Si-Qi Zhang, Shu-Chuan Chu, Hong-Mei Yang, and Bin Yan. "Willow Catkin Optimization Algorithm Applied in the TDOA-FDOA Joint Location Problem." Entropy 25, no. 1 (January 14, 2023): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/e25010171.
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The heuristic optimization algorithm is a popular optimization method for solving optimization problems. A novel meta-heuristic algorithm was proposed in this paper, which is called the Willow Catkin Optimization (WCO) algorithm. It mainly consists of two processes: spreading seeds and aggregating seeds. In the first process, WCO tries to make the seeds explore the solution space to find the local optimal solutions. In the second process, it works to develop each optimal local solution and find the optimal global solution. In the experimental section, the performance of WCO is tested with 30 test functions from CEC 2017. WCO was applied in the Time Difference of Arrival and Frequency Difference of Arrival (TDOA-FDOA) co-localization problem of moving nodes in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). Experimental results show the performance and applicability of the WCO algorithm.
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MOZER , SERGEI. "ANALYSIS OF THE LEGAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION REGULATING ITS LEGAL STATUS IN THE WORLD CUSTOMS ORGANIZATION." Economic Problems and Legal Practice 18, no. 5 (November 7, 2022): 167–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.33693/2541-8025-2022-18-5-167-179.
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A task. To systematize and analyze the EU legal instruments and tools developed by authorized European institutions in connection with the consideration of an application for membership in the World Customs Organization. Conclusions. The research article is devoted to the issue of the EU legal status in the WCO and the use of the EU precedent for the implementation of the Strategic Directions for the Development of Eurasian Economic Integration until 2025 (Strategic Directions) in terms of joint actions with Member States aimed at obtaining the Union's membership status in the WCO. The subject of the study is the EU approaches to the legal status in the WCO; explanatory memorandum of the European Commission on WCO membership; Council decision on the accession of the European Communities to the World Customs Organization and the exercise of rights and obligations akin to membership ad interim; Declaration of competence by the European Communities in matters covered by the Convention establishing a Customs Co-operation Council. The analysis of the EU legal instruments in relation to the WCO membership can be used to develop legal tools for the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) to obtain the status of the WCO member in the course of implementing the Strategic Directions. Social Consequences. Conducting a study of the legal status of customs and economic unions in the WCO is associated with the implementation of paragraph 11.7.5. of Strategic Directions in terms of cooperation with this international organization. Practical value. The results of the study are of interest to the customs cooperation block of the Eurasian Economic Commission (EEC), and can be used by specialists from customs and other executive authorities in the EEU member states, EEC experts to organize and implement mutually beneficial customs cooperation between the EEC and the WCO. The article is recommended to researchers, teachers, students, graduate students and other categories of students in the Russian Customs Academy, in other universities and the WCO regional training centers in the specialties «Customs» and «Jurisprudence». Originality/value. The research material is based on an analysis of the practical aspects of the activities of the EU, the WCO and is the result of a comprehensive study of the issue of the legal and organizational basis for obtaining the WCO member status by economic and customs unions.
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Zhang, Zongwei, Keheng Wei, Junqi Li, and Zihan Wang. "Life-Cycle Assessment of Bio-Jet Fuel Production from Waste Cooking Oil via Hydroconversion." Energies 15, no. 18 (September 9, 2022): 6612. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15186612.
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A life-cycle assessment of bio-jet fuel from waste cooking oil (WCO) produced by hydrotreatment was performed and compared with petroleum-derived jet fuel. This study aimed to evaluate the sustainability and find out the bottleneck restricting the development of WCO-based jet fuel production. The carbon intensity of the WCO-based bio-jet fuel was 63.7% lower compared to the conventional jet fuel, and the proportion of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by hydrogen in the WCO was 18.7%. The feedstock stage proportion of GHG emissions of first-, second-, and third-generation biofuels increased. A sensitivity analysis found that the transportation distance of WCO was more sensitive to GHG emissions, and it is important to develop a detailed plan for feedstock collection. A scenario analysis was also performed according to China’s energy structure and hydrogen sources. Although the electric power structure derived from renewable energy will increase GHG emissions in the immediate future, it will eventually reduce emissions due to technical progress by 2050. The preparation of jet fuel from WCO can not only recycle waste but can also contribute to emission reduction for the aviation industry, which is a potential sustainable and feasible aviation fuel route.
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Manikandan, Gurunathan, P. Rajesh Kanna, Dawid Taler, and Tomasz Sobota. "Review of Waste Cooking Oil (WCO) as a Feedstock for Biofuel—Indian Perspective." Energies 16, no. 4 (February 9, 2023): 1739. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16041739.
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A detailed review was conducted to explore waste cooking oil (WCO) as feedstock for biodiesel. The manuscript highlights the impact on health while using used cooking oil and the scope for revenue generation from WCO. Up to a 20% blend with diesel results in less pollutants, and it does not demand more modifications to the engine. Also, this reduces the country’s import bill. Furthermore, it suggests the scope for alternate sustainable income among rural farmers through a circular economy. Various collection strategies are discussed, a SWOC (strength, weakness, opportunity, and challenges) analysis is presented to aid in understanding different countries’ policies regarding the collection of WCO, and a more suitable method for conversion is pronounced. A techno-economic analysis is presented to explore the viability of producing 1 litre of biodiesel. The cost of 1 litre of WCO-based biodiesel is compared with costs Iran and Pakistan, and it is noticed that the difference among them is less than 1%. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is mandatory to reveal the impact of WCO biodiesel on socio-economic and environmental concerns. Including exergy analysis will provide comprehensive information about the production and justification of WCO as a biodiesel.
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Liu, Mengyu, Yan Liu, Pengyu Wang, Wanying Ying, Qing Liu, Guanzhi Ding, and Shuoping Chen. "Synthesis and Properties of a Photocurable Coating Based on Waste Cooking Oil." Coatings 13, no. 9 (September 5, 2023): 1553. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings13091553.
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In order to provide a cost-effective solution for photocurable coatings and introduce a novel approach for utilizing waste cooking oil (WCO), a type of photocurable resin based on WCO was synthesized. This WCO-based coating incorporated epoxy waste oil methacrylate (EWOMA) derived from WCO and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) as a second monomer. It allowed for easy application and rapid curing when exposed to 405 nm purple light. The cured coating, with an optimized composition of EWOMA: HEMA = 4:1 in mass ratio, exhibited favorable mechanical properties (tensile strength: 9.3 MPa, elongation at break: 38.1%) and demonstrated good coating film performance. The coating film exhibited good adhesion (grade 2), high pencil hardness (2H), excellent impact strength (62 kg·cm−1) and low aldehyde content (0.34 μg·g−1). Moreover, it showcased excellent antismudge properties, with a low percentage of water-based ink residual (6.8%), which could be effortlessly and completely removed by wiping. Additionally, the WCO-based coating demonstrated impressive anticorrosive properties, as evidenced by the intact coating film on the tinplate that remained corrosion-free for over 20 days in brine. This cost-effective WCO-based coating offers a viable alternative to commercial photocurable coatings.
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Wahyuni, Deria, I. Ketut Satriawan, and Cokorda Anom Bayu Sandyasmara. "Model Dinamik Pengelolaan Limbah Minyak Goreng Bekas di Kota Denpasar." JURNAL REKAYASA DAN MANAJEMEN AGROINDUSTRI 10, no. 3 (November 23, 2022): 291. http://dx.doi.org/10.24843/jrma.2022.v10.i03.p06.
Full textAbstract:
Waste cooking oil (WCO) is oil that has been used for frying more than three times, so it is classified as dangerous which can endanger human health and also have a negative impact on the environment. The city of Denpasar every month produces approximately 604,629 liters/month of waste cooking oil until now it has not been clearly managed. WCO if managed properly will be a potential, because it can be processed into products and provide added economic value. The purposes of this research were to analyze the potential of WCO management in Denpasar City and develop a design model for WCO management in Denpasar City. This research was conducted using a dynamic system approach, and system simulations were carried out from 2020 to 2030. The development of a dynamic model of WCO utilizes secondary and primary data. The simulation results show the factors that influence the behavior of the model, namely the supply of household WCO, the supply of non-household WCO and waste treatment technology. The simulation results on existing conditions in 2030 show that the stock of waste cooking oil cannot meet the demand for waste cooking oil. Based on the simulation results of several scenarios, alternative policy recommendations that are in accordance with the objectives are scenario 4 (combined scenarios) which can produce a supply of used cooking oil of 229,897.75 liters in 2025 and increases to 253,348.94 liters in 2030.
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Lukic, Ivana, Zeljka Kesic, Miodrag Zdujic, and Dejan Skala. "Adsorptive pretreatment of waste cooking oil using quicklime for fatty acid methyl esters synthesis." Chemical Industry, no. 00 (2023): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/hemind220628005l.
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Synthesis of biodiesel from various plant oils is realized by the transesterification of triglycerides with methanol or by a reaction usually defined as methanolysis. The usage of low-quality oils, such as waste cooking oil (WCO), is followed by undesirable side reactions as a result of the increased content of free fatty acids (FFA), and water. The presence of FFA in WCO usually requires a pretreatment stage before subjecting it to methanolysis. In the present work, heterogeneously catalyzed methanolysis of WCO with and without pretreatment was investigated. Removal of FFA from WCO was conducted by using only quicklime or with the addition of a small amount of methanol (FFA to methanol = 1:3 molar ratio). The obtained results showed that pretreatment of WCO with quicklime at 30?C after 1 h reduces the FFA content by 72 %, while the adsorption capacity was determined to be 910 mg g-1. The adsorptive pretreatment, as a simple operation, using low-cost quicklime under mild conditions, had a positive effect on the transesterification rate with CaO?ZnO as a catalyst, enabling the achievement of over 96 % of biodiesel yield in only 15 min, compared to 1 h without the pretreatment. Furthermore, pretreated WCO allows an increase in repeated catalyst use and overall savings in the necessary amount of catalyst. The present study showed that quicklime is an economic, environmental-friendly, and sustainable material for FFA removal from WCO.
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Li, Lin, Cheng Xin, Mingyang Guan, and Meng Guo. "Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation to Analyze the Feasibility of Using Waste Cooking Oil as an Alternative Rejuvenator for Aged Asphalt." Sustainability 13, no. 8 (April 14, 2021): 4373. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13084373.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate the regeneration effect of waste cooking oil (WCO) on aged asphalt with molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, comparing it with a rejuvenator. Firstly, the molecular models of virgin and aged asphalt were established by blending the four components of asphalt (saturate, aromatic, resin, and asphaltenes). Then, different dosages of the rejuvenator and WCO (6, 9, and 12%) were included in the aged asphalt model for its regeneration. After that, MD simulations were utilized for researching the mechanical and cohesive properties of the recycled asphalt, including its density, viscosity, cohesive energy density (CED), shear modulus (G), bulk modulus (K), and elastic modulus (E). The results show that the density values of the asphalt models were relatively lower than the existing experimental results in the literature, which is mostly attributed to the fact that the heteroatoms of the asphalt molecules were not considered in the simulation. On the other hand, the WCO addition decreased the viscosity, the shear modulus (G), the bulk modulus (K), and the elastic modulus (E) of the aged asphalt, improving its CED. Moreover, the nature of the aged asphalt was gradually restored with increasing rejuvenator or WCO contents. Compared with the rejuvenator, the viscosity of the aged asphalt was more effectively restored through adding WCO, while the effect of the CED and the mechanical properties recovery of the aged asphalt was relatively low. This implies that WCO could restore partial mechanical properties of aging asphalt, which proves the possibility of using WCO as an asphalt rejuvenator. Additionally, the MD simulation played an important role in understanding the molecular interactions among the four components of asphalt and the rejuvenator, which will serve as a guideline to better design a WCO rejuvenator and optimize its content.
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Shi, Shu, Zedong Teng, Jianwei Liu, and Tinggang Li. "Conversion of Waste Cooking Oil to Rhamnolipid by a Newly Oleophylic Pseudomonas aeruginosa WO2." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 3 (February 1, 2022): 1700. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031700.
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The components of waste cooking oil (WCO) are complex and contain toxic substances, which are difficult to treat biologically. Pseudomonas aeruginosa WO2 was isolated from oily sludge by an anaerobic enrichment–aerobic screening method, which could efficiently utilize WCO and produce rhamnolipid. The effects of nutrients and culture conditions on bacterial growth and lipase activity were investigated to optimize the fermentation of WCO. The results showed that strain WO2 utilized 92.25% of WCO and produced 3.03 g/L of rhamnolipid at 120 h. Compared with inorganic sources, the organic nitrogen source stabilized the pH of fermentation medium, improved lipase activity (up to 19.98 U/mL), and promoted the utilization of WCO. Furthermore, the WO2 strain exhibited inferior utilization ability of the soluble starch contained in food waste, but superior salt stress up to 60 g/L. These unique characteristics demonstrate the potential of Pseudomonas aeruginosa WO2 for the utilization of high-salinity oily organic waste or wastewater.
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Wang, L. C., Y. G. Wei, S. W. Zhou, B. Li, and H. Wang. "Matte separated behavior from slag during the cleaning process by using waste cooking oil as carbon neutral reductant." Journal of Mining and Metallurgy, Section B: Metallurgy, no. 00 (2021): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/jmmb210407034w.
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As a waste resource, waste cooking oil (WCO) has not been widely used. Based on the characteristics of WCO cracking, this study proposed to replace fossil-based reductant with WCO for copper slag cleaning, to solve the problem of carbon neutralization in this process. Copper slag cleaning experiments were carried out in a lab-scale electric furnace. The matte separated behavior from slag and the distribution of matte in slag were studied. The results showed that the Fe3O4 content decreases from 12.9 to 3.5 wt.% by injecting 2.2 mL of WCO into 300 g copper slag at 1250?C. The distribution of copper content in slag is gradient along the vertical direction. In the reduction stage, the excessive Fe3O4 is reduced and the fluidity of slag is improved. When the precipitation time above 60 minutes, the copper content in the middle and upper slag is reduced to 0.57 wt.%, which realizes the copper slag cleaning by using WCO.
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Yuarini, Dewa Ayu Anom, Ganda Putra, and AAPA Suryawan Wiranatha. "Production and added value of waste cooking oil product derivatives in the Bali Province." Advances in Food Science, Sustainable Agriculture and Agroindustrial Engineering 4, no. 1 (2021): 56–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.21776/ub.afssaae.2021.004.01.8.
Full textAbstract:
Waste cooking oil or waste cooking oil (WCO) is the remaining oil (or by-products) produced during food frying. In 2019, the cooking oil consumption in Bali Province was 4,735,057 L/month and the WCO produced was estimated about 3,314,540 L/month. The Government of Bali plans to manage WCO in an integrated manner WCO in an integrated manner by processing it as derivative products with economic value. The study aimed to transform WCO into high-value added products (i.e. aromatherapy candles, liquid soap, and biodiesel), and to analyze their economy valued added. The Hayami method was used to determine the economyvalue added of each product. The results showed that WCO was most widely used in producing biodiesel (84%), candle (17%), and liquid soap (10%). Based on the Hayami method, the added value from candle products was IDR. 4,838 / kg (or added value ratio of 9.68%), was classified as a low added product. The added value of liquid soap was IDR 8,495/kg (or added value ratio of 47.38%), classified as a high added value product. While, biodiesel products generating the added value of IDR 2,363/kg (or added value ratio of 25.57%), classified as a medium added value product.
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Buasri, Achanai, Suthita Lertnimit, Arnon Nisapruksachart, Issara Khunkha, and Vorrada Loryuenyong. "Box-Behnken Design for Optimization on Esterification of Free Fatty Acids in Waste Cooking Oil Using Modified Smectite Clay Catalyst." ASEAN Journal of Chemical Engineering 23, no. 1 (April 29, 2023): 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/ajche.77009.
Full textAbstract:
A potential alternative fuel option is biodiesel, which is produced mostly from natural resources due to the limited availability of petroleum supplies and environmental issues. Waste cooking oil (WCO) containing a high concentration of free fatty acid (FFA) can be transformed into biodiesel, which substantially benefits the environment and for reducing the fuel . The use of smectite clay as a catalyst in the esterification reaction of WCO with methanol was studied. Smectite was chemically activated by sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to obtain the acid-modified smectite. The utilization of an acid-catalyzed esterification procedure as a pre-treatment for WCO for biodiesel synthesis has been studied in some detail. However, there aren't many effective ways to optimize this operation. The process variables used in this study's esterification of FFAs in WCO were optimized using a Box-Behnken design (BBD). At atmospheric pressure, the catalyst amount of 5.03 wt%, the methanol to WCO molar ratio of 22.38, and the reaction time of 3.01 h are the optimal running parameters for accomplishing 97.96% FFA conversion. The catalyst was employed five times in a row without noticeably lowering its catalytic effectiveness. The results showed that smectite clay is an essential, low-cost, and recyclable catalyst for the esterification of FFA in WCO.
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Zahri, Khadijah Nabilah Mohd, Claudio Gomez-Fuentes, Suriana Sabri, Azham Zulkharnain, Khalilah Abdul Khalil, Sooa Lim, and Siti Aqlima Ahmad. "Evaluation of Heavy Metal Tolerance Level of the Antarctic Bacterial Community in Biodegradation of Waste Canola Oil." Sustainability 13, no. 19 (September 28, 2021): 10749. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su131910749.
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Heavy metal contamination is accidentally becoming prevalent in Antarctica, one of the world’s most pristine regions. Anthropogenic as well as natural causes can result in heavy metal contamination. Each heavy metal has a different toxic effect on various microorganisms and species, which can interfere with other pollutant bioremediation processes. This study focused on the effect of co-contaminant heavy metals on waste canola oil (WCO) biodegradation by the BS14 bacterial community collected from Antarctic soil. The toxicity of different heavy metals in 1 ppm of concentration to the WCO-degrading bacteria was evaluated and further analyzed using half maximal inhibition concentration (IC50) and effective concentration (EC50) tests. The results obtained indicated that Ag and Hg significantly impeded bacterial growth and degradation of WCO, while interestingly, Cr, As, and Pb had the opposite effect. Meanwhile, Cd, Al, Zn, Ni, Co, and Cu only slightly inhibited the bacterial community in WCO biodegradation. The IC50 values of Ag and Hg for WCO degradation were found to be 0.47 and 0.54 ppm, respectively. Meanwhile, Cr, As, and Pb were well-tolerated and induced bacterial growth and WCO degradation, resulting in the EC50 values of 3.00, 23.80, and 28.98 ppm, respectively. The ability of the BS14 community to tolerate heavy metals while biodegrading WCO in low-temperature conditions was successfully confirmed, which is a crucial aspect in biodegrading oil due to the co-contamination of oil and heavy metals that can occur simultaneously, and at the same time it can be applied in heavy metal-contaminated areas.
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Rasman, Maisarah, Norhidayah Abdul Hassan, Mohd Rosli Hainin, Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya, Yaacob Haryati, Nurul Athma Mohd Shukry, Mohd Ezree Abdullah, and Nurul Hidayah Mohd Kamaruddin. "Engineering properties of bitumen modified with bio-oil." MATEC Web of Conferences 250 (2018): 02003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201825002003.
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The current high price of crude oils for bitumen production has led to various studies on the most economical way in replacing or reducing the amount of virgin bitumen as a binder in road pavement while increasing their pavement performance. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of using bio-oil, particularly waste cooking oil, (WCO) on the engineering properties of bitumen. Both physical and rheological properties of the original bitumen and WCO modified bitumen were measured using penetration, softening point, viscosity, loss on heating and dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) tests. In this study, bitumen 80/100 pen was modified with WCO at different percentages i.e. 1%, 2% and 3% by weight of bitumen. Based on the results, it was found that addition of WCO in virgin bitumen has softened the bitumen, thus increase the temperature susceptibility. In terms of rutting resistance, the addition of WCO up to 2% has produced modified bitumen with performance grade of PG 64 which is comparable to the original bitumen.
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Awogbemi, Omojola, Emmanuel Idoko Onuh, and Freddie L. Inambao. "Comparative study of properties and fatty acid composition of some neat vegetable oils and waste cooking oils." International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 14, no. 3 (July 10, 2019): 417–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctz038.
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Abstract Vegetable oils have been used as a feedstock for fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) production. The high cost of neat vegetable oil and its impact on food security have necessitated its replacement as a feedstock for FAME by used vegetable oil, also known as waste cooking oil (WCO). This study compares the properties and fatty acid (FA) compositions of samples of neat vegetable oil with those of samples of WCO, collected from restaurants and takeaway outlets at the point of disposal. The samples were subjected to property determination and pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometer (PYGCMS) analysis. Analysis showed that degree of usage and the type of food items originally fried in the oil substantially affected its properties and FA composition. Density of neat vegetable oil varied between 904.3 and 919.7 kg/m3 and of WCO between 904.3 and 923.2 kg/m3. The pH of neat vegetable oil varied between 7.38 and 8.63 and of WCO between 5.13 and 6.61. The PYGCMS analysis showed that neat palm oil contains 87.7% unsaturated FA and 12.3% saturated FA, whereas neat sunfoil contains 74.37% saturated FA and 25% polyunsaturated FA. Generally, neat vegetable oils consisted mainly of saturated FAs and polyunsaturated FAs, whereas the WCO contained mainly of saturated FAs and monounsaturated FAs. This research confirms the suitability of WCO as feedstock for FAME.