Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Water use – Economic aspects – Australia'

In South Africa, precipitation is extremely variable and water is scarce. South Africa is also a country with great welfare needs. Challenging economic development targets and plans therefore need to be implemented successfully within the constraints of limited water supply and unreliable water availability. These economic development plans are underpinned by the development and growth of economic activities such as agriculture, mining, energy production and many types of small, medium and micro enterprises, which are some of the largest water using sectors in the economy. Within these activities, increased competition places pressure on water users to keep supplying their markets with competitively priced goods, while rising costs of new water supplies puts pressure on water users to allocate sufficient water to their production processes. These market forces and the relative scarcity of water as an economic production factor, impact on financial viability and imply that the economic efficiency of water use becomes increasingly important. The National Water Act of 1998 (NWA) is a legislative response to this situation, and promotes a radical shift towards efficiency and equity goals in water allocation. Water users who require water as an input to economic activities are consequently seriously revising their water use patterns in response to one of the major implications of the NWA and its related principal strategy: water demand management. Water demand management strives to adhere to the principles of equity, social justice, economic efficiency and environmental sustainability, which are central to the NWA. This study evaluates the costs and benefits of water use in order to simulate the effects of water demand management activities on a catchment economy. The results of a number of studies were combined to generate an economy-wide model: a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM), for the case study area and to simulate the direct and indirect effects of water demand management on the people, the economy and the natural environment in the area. Water demand management (WDM) is defined as consisting of two phases. In the first phase, goals of full cost recovery, improving water use efficiency and allocating water optimally are targeted. The second phase of WDM arrives when a situation of absolute water scarcity is reached within a catchment. In this phase water demand outweighs water supply and water has to be allocated according to its scarcity value. Water markets play a large role here. The SAM was used to simulate the direct and indirect impacts on the economy and the environment of a number of WDM related scenarios. Water e-allocation decisions and the effects of various WDM policy instruments, such as reduction of water use subsidies and increases in water tariffs were simulated. Unintended consequences of other environmental policies on water use, in this case, carbon tax, were explored. Water scarcity predictions were done, and some of the transaction costs involved in water trading was quantified. The study concludes with a discussion on the indirect effects on the economy, the environment and people of changes affecting the agricultural (including forestry) activities. The direct and indirect impacts of WDM policies on the economy and the environment, and the importance of environmental-economic models in water cost benefit modeling are also discussed. Implications for policy and management are highlighted. This study shows specifically how, through modelling various scenarios, policy decisions aimed at managing specific variables (e.g. water use, carbon emissions) have an economic and environmental impact much wider than the sector in which the policy was targeted for. Each scenario shows how a water transaction, or a change in subsidy in the agricultural (including forestry) sector, could impact on the output of other economic sectors, and therefore the economy as a whole. It is therefore evident that policy decisions, which are implemented at a macro level, and could have a major direct impact on a wider range of economic sectors, should be carefully considered as they could have large, undesirable, unintended consequences.
Dissertation (MSc (Agricultural Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2004.
Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development
MSc (Agric)
unrestricted

The focus of the thesis is a critique of the form and function of the federal institutions governing the development of Rural Australia. In undertaking this study two cycles of a systemic action research were followed, the first to explore the policy development environment and the second to validate and expand on findings of the first cycle of enquiry. The thesis follows the historical development of policy institutions and the deliberations of poicy actors that have lead to normative, strategic and program change within these institutions. These institutional changes have then been critiqued from theoretical perspective of governance for sustainable development. Conclusions from this critique indicate that that the pace of policy change is very slow and after 20 years from the Rural Policy green paper of 1974 the federal institutions have taken on board a rhetoric of sustainable rural development that encapsulates much of the principles espoused in the Green Paper.This includes principles that aim to empower rural communities to find local solutions to their natural resource management and local economic development problems. The downside is found in institutional conflict over resource dependencies and spheres of responsibility and an apparent lack of community economic development facilitation skills within the service organisations of rural institutions.
Master of Science (Hons)

Water management is a challenge in the Middle East today because of increasing population, decreasing water quality, political instability and security concerns. Israel and the Palestinian Authority share the three major freshwater sources in an inequitable and unsustainable manner. This study details the hydro-geological, political, cultural and legal challenges to equitable and sustainable water resource management in the region.

[Truncated abstract] The Disability-Adjusted Life Year index, developed by the Global Burden of Disease Study, is used extensively to compare disease burden between locations and over time. While calculation of the fatal component of this measure, Years of Life Lost, is relatively straight-forward, the non-fatal component, Years Lived with Disability, is based on parameters that are challenging to estimate. This thesis pioneers the use of the Western Australian Data Linkage System to enhance epidemiological parameters underpinning Years Lived with Disability, providing, by way of illustration, a robust quantitative profile of burden of stroke in the state of Western Australia at the turn of the 21st century. The principal methodological objective was to utilise data linkage analytic methods for the specific requirements of burden of disease estimation. The principal stroke-related objectives were: 1. To estimate the parameters underpinning the non-fatal burden of stroke (Years Lived with Disability) in Western Australia in 2000. 2. To estimate the total burden of stroke (Disability-Adjusted Life Years) in Western Australia in 2000. 3. To investigate differentials in stroke burden between different sub-populations in Western Australia. 4. To calculate projections of stroke burden for Western Australia in 2016. Years Lived with Disability from stroke were calculated for Western Australia from nonfatal stroke incidence, expected duration and disability (severity) weights. Non-fatal incidence was estimated using linked hospital and death records of first-ever hospitalised stroke 28-day survivors in 2000. This was then adjusted for out-of-hospital cases determined from the population-based Perth Community Stroke Study. iv Analysis of mortality in hospitalised 28-day survivors using linked data revealed that the excess mortality in prevalent, rather than incident cases was the main disease-specific parameter required for modelling stroke duration using DisMod II specialised software. ... Access to data linkage and population-based stroke studies in Western Australia allowed more accurate estimation of non-fatal stroke burden, with previous reports most likely underestimating disability as a contributor to total burden. Although predominantly affecting the growing aged population, stroke also affects a sizable number under the age of 65 years, the age group where differentials in stroke burden are the greatest. The findings highlight the continued need for primary prevention efforts for all ages, targeting especially younger people in disadvantaged groups. The shift to greater disability burden in the future and the needs of disadvantaged groups must be considered when planning stroke services. The multiple studies undertaken for this thesis contribute to ongoing improvement of data quality and methodological refinements underpinning estimates of Years Lived with Disability, specifically for stroke, but applicable also to other diseases. Similar linked data approaches can be used in other Australian states in the future once infrastructure is developed, thereby improving estimates of disease burden for health policy and planning in the future.

With the emergence of the new field of resource economics, one now has the ability to value and to include natural resources in decision making. This thesis aims to explore the valuation of natural resources by reviewing the economic values, techniques, methods and ecological aspects of restoration. Assegaaibos mountain catchment in the Western Cape Province has been used as a case-study example. A cost-benefit analysis of the restoration of the mountain catchment, in terms of the direct benefits of water and tourism, has been performed. The costs of restoration were observed to see whether they outweighed the benefits (income) derived (water and tourism). The results show that the water and tourism benefits did outweigh the costs of a basic restoration scenario. However, the basic restoration scenario did not fulfil the ecological requirements of the project. The results also illustrated that in the moderate restoration scenario, costs only outweighed the benefits when a three percent discount rate was applied. With the optimistic restoration scenario, costs outweighed benefits only when an eight percent discount rate was used. In the comprehensive restoration scenario, costs were shown to outweigh by far the water and tourism benefits over a thirty-year time frame. However, it should be noted that the deterioration of the environment (accelerated erosion, reinvasion, reduced water quality) was not factored into the costs of failure to rehabilitate.

1.1 Background to, and motivation for, the study: The Working for Water programme (WfW) is a public works programme designed to clear South Africa of water-consuming invasive alien tree and plants, and to replace them with low water consuming indigenous species. This would prevent a loss of more than 4000 million cubic metres water per annum from the hydrological cycle (DWAF, 1998). The economic viability of the programme has been established in the Western Cape and Kwazulu-Natal (van Wilgen, Little, Chapman, Görgens, Willems and Marais, 1997; Gilham and Haynes, 2001), but questioned in the Eastern and Southern Cape (Hosking, du Preez, Campbell, Wooldridge and du Plessis, 2002). Hosking et al. (2002) investigated the economic case for the programme by performing a Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA), based on increased water yield and livestock potential, on six selected sites in the Eastern and Southern Cape, viz. Albany, Kat River, Pot River, Tsitsikamma, Kouga and Port Elizabeth Driftsands.

Orientador: Jose Euclides Stipp Paterniani
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura Urbanismo
Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-11T05:52:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silva_Gilmarda_D.pdf: 1379544 bytes, checksum: 0d9b64a9ed4597bda7a5c803f18d9c33 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007
Resumo: Hoje é de vital importância se criar alternativas que levem ao racionamento ou economia de água potável, e uma dessas medidas é fazer uso da água de chuva disponível na natureza. Para tanto, foi necessário avaliar mediante estudo de caso a possibilidade da economia de água, aproveitando-se da água de chuva de maneira qualitativa e econômica num complexo industrial e escolar. O complexo industrial escolhido foi a Fábrica de mancais de deslizamento Grafimec, localizada no município de Araras/SP e a Escola Estadual Dom Idílio José Soares de Limeira/SP que se caracteriza pela formação educacional de jovens. Realizou-se a coleta de água de chuva na Fábrica Grafimec ao longo de um ano, em 4 pontos distintos (telhado, calha, cisterna e cisterna filtrada) para avaliar os aspectos físico-químicos e bacteriológicas dessa água. Uma vez que não existe uma Portaria ou Resolução que discorra sobre o tema aproveitamento de água de chuva, foram adotadas para efeito de comparação dos resultados qualitativos às Resoluções 274 e 357 mais à Portaria 518 do Ministério da Saúde. Paralelamente foi realizado um estudo econômico da Fábrica Grafimec juntamente com à Escola Estadual, para verificar o que um sistema de aproveitamento de água de chuva pode representar em termos de ganhos ambientais para às futuras gerações. Apesar de existirem contaminações bacteriológicas quando os resultados foram suficientemente comparados com a Portaria 518, a qualidade da água atendeu à exigência de uso da Fábrica Grafimec de Araras/SP. A utilização da cisterna nos dois estudos de caso proporcionou uma economia significativa de água da rede pública, ou seja, água essa que sairia dos nossos rios para atividades que não haveria necessidade, tais como: descarga de vasos sanitários, lavagens de piso, irrigação de jardins e plantas, dentre outras. Esse projeto de pesquisa contribuiu de maneira significativa para que novas pesquisas possam surgir no âmbito do aproveitamento da água de chuva, baseado nas práticas adotadas pela Fábrica e pela Escola
Abstract: Today it is essential to find out new alternatives for rationing or saving drinking water, and one of them is to make use of the rainwater available in nature. To achieve this, it was necessary to evaluate through a case study the possibility of water saving, by recovering rainwater with economy and quality in an industry and in a school. The industrial complex chosen was the sliding bearings factory called Grafimec, located in the town of Araras, SP, and the State Public School Dom Idílio José Soares in the town of Limeira, SP, where the activities aim at young people¿s education. The rainwater collection was done at Grafimec factory at 4 different spots (roof, spout, cistern and filter-cistern) to evaluate the physicalchemical and bacteriological aspects of this water. Since there is no Decree or Resolution on the rainwater recovery theme, for the purpose of comparing quality results, Resolutions 274 and 357, and also Decree no. 518 of the Health Ministry were adopted. At the same time, an economics study of Grafimec Factory and of the public school was carried out to assess how much benefit can be obtained in terms of environment for future generations. Although there was bacteriological contamination, when the results were sufficiently compared with Decree no. 518, the water quality met the use requirements established by Grafimec Factory in Araras, SP. The use of the cistern in both case studies provided a significant economy of the public water, which means that some of the water that would be taken from our rivers to activities where it was not essential, such as: toilet flushing, floor washing, gardens and plants irrigation, among others, was saved. This research project has significantly contributed towards the start of many other research studies in the field of rainwater recovery, based on the actions adopted by the factory and the school
Doutorado
Saneamento e Ambiente
Doutor em Engenharia Civil

[Truncated abstract. Please see the pdf format for the complete text. Also, formulae and special characters can only be approximated here. Please see the pdf version for an accurate reproduction.] This thesis examines the water use, ecophysiology and hydraulic architecture of Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah) growing on bauxite mine rehabilitation sites in the jarrah forest of south-western Australia. The principal objective was to characterise the key environment and plant-based influences on tree water use, and to better understand the dynamics of water use over a range of spatial and temporal scales in this drought-prone ecosystem. A novel sap flow measurement system (based on the use of the heat pulse method) was developed so that a large number of trees could be monitored concurrently in the field. A validation experiment using potted jarrah saplings showed that rates of sap flow (transpiration) obtained using this system agreed with those obtained gravimetrically. Notably, diurnal patterns of transpiration were measured accurately and with precision using the newly developed heat ratio method. Field studies showed that water stress and water use by jarrah saplings on rehabilitation sites were strongly seasonal: being greatest in summer when it was warm and dry, and least in winter when it was cool and wet. At different times, water use was influenced by soil water availability, vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and plant hydraulic conductance. In some areas, there was evidence of a rapid decline in transpiration in response to dry soil conditions. At the end of summer, most saplings on rehabilitation sites were not water stressed, whereas water status in the forest was poor for small saplings but improved with increasing size. It has been recognised that mature jarrah trees avoid drought by having deep root systems, however, it appears that saplings on rehabilitation sites may have not yet developed functional deep roots, and as such, they may be heavily reliant on moisture stored in surface soil horizons. Simple predictive models of tree water use revealed that stand water use was 74 % of annual rainfall at a high density (leaf area index, LAI = 3.1), high rainfall (1200 mm yr-1) site, and 12 % of rainfall at a low density (LAI = 0.4), low rainfall (600 mm yr-1) site, and that water use increased with stand growth. A controlled field experiment confirmed that: (1) sapling transpiration was restricted as root-zone water availability declined, irrespective of VPD; (2) transpiration was correlated with VPD when water was abundant; and (3) transpiration was limited by soil-to-leaf hydraulic conductance when water was abundant and VPD was high (> 2 kPa). Specifically, transpiration was regulated by stomatal conductance. Large stomatal apertures could sustain high transpiration rates, but stomata were sensitive to hydraulic perturbations caused by soil water deficits and/or high evaporative demand. No other physiological mechanisms conferred immediate resistance to drought. Empirical observations were agreeably linked with a current theory suggesting that stomata regulate transpiration and plant water potential in order to prevent hydraulic dysfunction following a reduction in soil-to-leaf hydraulic conductance. Moreover, it was clear that plant hydraulic capacity determined the pattern and extent of stomatal regulation. Differences in hydraulic capacity across a gradient in water availability were a reflection of differences in root-to-leaf hydraulic conductance, and were possibly related to differences in xylem structure. Saplings on rehabilitation sites had greater hydraulic conductance (by 50 %) and greater leaf-specific rates of transpiration at the high rainfall site (1.5 kg m-2 day1) than at the low rainfall site (0.8 kg m-2 day1) under near optimal conditions. Also, rehabilitation-grown saplings had significantly greater leaf area, leaf area to sapwood area ratios and hydraulic conductance (by 30-50 %) compared to forest-grown saplings, a strong indication that soils in rehabilitation sites contained more water than soils in the forest. Results suggested that: (1) the hydraulic structure and function of saplings growing under the same climatic conditions was determined by soil water availability; (2) drought reduced stomatal conductance and transpiration by reducing whole-tree hydraulic conductance; and (3) saplings growing on open rehabilitation sites utilised more abundant water, light and nutrients than saplings growing in the forest understorey. These findings support a paradigm that trees evolve hydraulic equipment and physiological characteristics suited to the most efficient use of water from a particular spatial and temporal niche in the soil environment.

CAPES
A escassez, deterioração da qualidade dos mananciais e o aumento da demanda por água tem sido problema global. Diante desses problemas o uso de fontes alternativas é citado como solução, com destaque para o aproveitamento de água da chuva. Em alguns locais, a água da chuva escoada de telhados tem sido utilizada para fins potáveis e não potáveis e a água da chuva in natura tem qualidade superior ao de águas superficiais e subterrâneas. Embora a água da chuva tenha qualidade físico-química dentro dos padrões de potabilidade, é necessário melhorar sua qualidade para utilizá-la. Assim neste trabalho é avaliado o tratamento da água da chuva por filtro ascendente (volume de 35,4 L) com meio suporte de 0,50 m de seixo rolado e camada filtrante composta de 0,15m de brita, 0,25 m de areia e 0,55 m de carvão ativado e desinfecção por radiação UV. Para melhorar a qualidade da água antes de chegar ao filtro foi instalado um dispositivo de primeiro descarte com volume de 41,4 L. A avaliação do tratamento foi realizada através da análise dos parâmetros pH, temperatura, cor, oxigênio dissolvido, turbidez, amônia, nitrito, nitrato, fosfato, sulfato, DQO e coliformes. Os valores médios obtidos para os parâmetros físico-químicos da água após o tratamento foram de 6,7 para o pH, 22,3 °C para a temperatura, 12,5 UPC para cor, 6,7 mg/L para OD, 0,5 UNT para turbidez, 0,2 mg/L para amônia, 0,01 mg/L para nitrito, 1,7 mg/L para nitrato, 0,2 mg/L para fosfato, 0,7 mg/L para sulfato e 1,3 mg/L para DQO. O tratamento proposto obteve resultados de eficiência para remoção de cor de 22,4%, turbidez de 28,6%, amônia de 50,0%, nitrito de 23,1%, nitrato de 37,0%, fosfato de 95,1% sulfato de 41,7% e DQO de 66,7% e reduziu o numero de microrganismos para um valor menor que o limite detectável do método de análise. Todos os valores médios obtidos para os parâmetros físico-químicos atendem aos padrões exigidos pela portaria 2914/2011 do Ministério da Saúde para água potável.
The scarcity, quality deterioration of water sources and increasing demand for water has been global problem. Faced with these problems the use of alternative sources is cited as a solution, especially taking advantage of rainwater. In some places, rainwater drained roofs have been used for potable and non-potable purposes and rainwater in nature has superior quality to the surface water and groundwater. Although rainwater has physicochemical quality within the potability standards, it is necessary to improve their quality to use it. Thus this work is evaluated treatment of rainwater by upflow filter (35,4 L volume) with support means of 0,50 m of Boulder and filter layer of 0,15 m of crushed stone, 0,25 m of sand and 0,55 m of activated carbon and UV disinfection. To enhance the water quality before reaching the filter was installed a first-flush device with volume of 41,4 L. The characterization of the water before and after treatment was performed through analysis of parameters pH, temperature, color, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate, COD and coliforms. The mean values obtained for the physicochemical parameters of the water after treatment were 6,7 to pH 22,3 °C for temperature, 12,5 UPC for color, 6,7 mg/L to OD, 0,5 NTU for turbidity, 0,2mg/L for ammonia, 0,01 mg/L for nitrite, 1,7 mg/L for nitrate, 0,2 mg/L for phosphate,0,7 mg/L for sulfate and 1,3 mg/L for COD. The obtained results proposed treatment for color removal efficiency of 22,4%, haze 28,6%, 50,0% ammonia, 23,1% nitrite, nitrate 37,0%, Phosphate 95,1%, sulfate 41,7% and COD of 66,7% and reduced the number of microorganisms to a value less than the detectable limit of the analysis method. All mean values obtained for the physicochemical parameters meet the standards required by the Order 2914/2011 of the Ministry of Health for drinking water.

A região do Vale do Ribeira, rica por suas características minerais e remanescentes expressivos de Mata Atlântica permaneceu parte de sua história às margens do desenvolvimento paulista, e hoje é tradicionalmente considerada uma das regiões mais pobres do estado de São Paulo. Razões históricas, dificuldade de acesso e condições naturais adversas às atividades econômicas são apontadas como responsáveis por seu isolamento econômico. Visando contribuir para o manejo sustentável da região do Vale do Ribeira de Iguape, esta pesquisa teve como objetivo analisar e avaliar os aspectos sócio-econômicos e ambientais da sub-bacia do rio Jacupiranga, e os impactos decorrentes de sua ocupação na qualidade das águas do rio e na condição de vida dos moradores. Neste estudo foram estudadas variáveis limnológicas em 11 estações amostrais nos meses de janeiro, abril, julho e outubro de 2007, e a comunidade bentônica em 3 estações no mês de outubro. Para caracterização da sub-bacia foram realizadas pesquisas com relação ao histórico de ocupação da região, analisados os aspectos sociais e econômicos dos municípios e realizadas entrevistas com a população. Como resultado, observou-se que o rio Jacupiranga vem passando por processo de degradação, com margens desmatadas e presença de bancos de areia, e alteração da qualidade de suas águas. A poluição difusa é decorrente do escoamento superficial das áreas agrícolas marginais e a poluição pontual, do lançamento de efluente industrial e de esgoto doméstico bruto e tratado. Os valores encontrados para sólidos suspensos, turbidez, formas fosfatadas, condutividade elétrica e coliformes estão em desacordo com os limites estipulados pela legislação para rios de classe 2, e comprometem o uso das águas do rio Jacupiranga pela população. Os municípios pertencentes a sub-bacia do rio Jacupiranga estão inseridos na região administrativa de Registro que tem uma economia baseada principalmente na agropecuária, extrativismo vegetal e mineral. Os parâmetros sócio-econômicos e demográficos tais como mortalidade infantil, nível de escolaridade, geração de emprego e níveis de renda são indicativos de uma situação contrastante com o resto do Estado de São Paulo. Se já não bastasse a estagnação econômica e social, a região depara-se constantemente com os problemas das cheias de seus rios. As inundações são episódios naturais na área de estudo, no entanto, a ausência das matas ciliares e o assoreamento dos rios estão aumentando a dimensão dos estragos. Nestas situações, as pessoas perdem seus pertences e a produção agrícola é prejudicada. Com os resultados, percebe-se a necessidade de investimentos federais, estaduais e privados para implantação de políticas que visem à inclusão social e a promoção integral do ser humano, que proporcionem oportunidade de emprego e renda, e preservação do meio ambiente.
The Ribeira Valley region, rich in minerals and expressive Atlantic Forest remaining, remained part of its development history marginalized, and today is considered one of the poorest regions of Sao Paulo State. Historical reasons, difficult access, natural conditions and environmental policy adverse to economic activities are identified as responsible for economic isolation. To contribute to the sustainable management of the Ribeira de Iguape Valley, this research aims to analyze and evaluate the socio-economic and environmental aspects of Jacupiranga river, and the impacts due its occupation process on Jacupiranga river water quality and residents living conditions. The limnological variables were assessed through 11 sampling sites in January, April, July and October 2007, and macroinvertebrates, in 3 sampling sites in October. To characterize the sub-basin, historical occupation of the region and social and economic aspects of municipalities were investigated and interviews with population were done. As a result, it was possible to verify that Jacupiranga river is being degraded: with deforested margins, presence of sand banks and changes on river water quality. Diffuse pollution is caused by agricultural superficial runoff and point source pollution by the release of in natura and treated sewage and industrial effluent. The results found for suspended solids, turbidity, phosphate forms, electrical conductivity and coliforms are not in accordance with the limits set by brazilian rivers law, and affect the use of the waters of Jacupiranga river by population. The municipalities belonging to Jacupiranga river sub-basin are inserted in Registro administrative region that has an economy based mainly on farming, vegetable and mineral extraction. The parameters for socioeconomic and demographic factors, such as infant mortality, education, employment generation and income levels have a contrasting picture with the rest of Sao Paulo State. Besides this social and economic stagnation, the region has problems of flooding from rivers. Floods are natural events in study area, however, the absence of riparian vegetation and river aggradation are increasing the damage. In these situations, people lose their belongings and agricultural production is impaired. The results present that its necessary federal, state and private resources to implement policies aimed at social inclusion and promotion of integral human being, providing opportunities for employment and income, and environmental preservation.

Recent studies in water management policy point to insufficient recognition of water as a scarce commodity and the failure of pricing policies to account for the full economic costs of its production and supply. These costs include opportunity costs related to alternative uses of water; user costs associated with managing a scarce resource; and costs of externalities such as ground water depletion, pollution of waterways, and greenhouse gas emissions. Existing cost recovery based pricing policies may lead to inefficiencies such as excess consumption, under-investment in water infrastructure, and unnecessary subsidisation. Water scarcity can be managed in several ways. We can increase supply by investment in additional harvesting capabilities or new technologies such as desalination; we can constrain consumption so that existing supplies last longer; or we can use water in more efficient ways. As a short term measure, most countries adopt water restrictions when supplies are at critical levels. In the future, as urban population growth continues, harvesting of storm water and reuse of grey water may become part of a sustainable water management strategy. Water trading can be used to move water to where the marginal benefits are highest. Considerable water savings are possible through the use of more efficient industrial and domestic appliances. There is evidence in some countries that higher water tariffs have reduced consumption and promoted awareness of conservation. If we accept that water is an economic good, then we need to understand the costs related to its production, the patterns of its use, and the benefits received by different users. This thesis is an examination of theoretical and applied aspects of urban water pricing based on analysis of cost, demand, and welfare. We present theoretical models of cost that include economies of scale as a parameter, and a model of water demand by households with heterogeneous preferences. We determine marginal cost at the efficient level of output based on a partial equilibrium of supply and demand. We also show that when water is produced with increasing returns to scale, the efficient price will be insufficient to recover all costs, and therefore a form of second best pricing is required. We contrast conventional notions about water suppliers being cost minimisers with an alternative frontier model of cost efficiency. Two case studies examine the provision of water services under different forms of ownership. The first case study examines the provision of water to domestic households in the state of Victoria, Australia. The second case study examines the supply of water to the residents of Manila, one of the world’s largest cities that privatised its water service in 1997 under a form of concession agreement. A third case study derives an efficient cost frontier for a sample of water utilities from Asia and Australia and proposes a form of best practice pricing. The thesis concludes with a summary of the main results and policy conclusions, and ideas for future research.
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Thesis (PhD) -- School of Economics, 2007

This thesis seeks to explain how trade develops, applying the ideas to the Australian water management and technology industry. Disparate explanations and gross generalisations at the macro-level of national economies have hindered the development of a unified theory of trade. While understanding trade at the macro-level is foundational, analysis at the level of the firm is necessary for a comprehensive understanding. Four main strands of explanation have been identified from the literature: competitive advantage and corporate strategy, innovation creation and acquisition, markets and networks, and state and institutional influence. The strands combined form a framework that can explain how and why trade occurs for firms in a particular industry. Innovation leads to competitive advantage which extends a firm’s spatial influence in the market. Networks interconnect the firm with its external environment. The state’s role is to facilitate various processes such as amplifying competitive advantage.
The framework is applied to firms representing the Australian water technology and management industry. This industry is diverse, encompassing small and large firms, and specialist manufacturers and producer services. The diversity is ideal for testing a comprehensive explanation. In addition, the water industry - as a subsector of the environmental goods and services sector – is a potentially valuable export activity.
The empirical work demonstrates that rethinking trade involves insights from the various explanatory strands. Creating competitive advantage and innovation involves processes internal and external to the firm. In the water industry, competitive advantage is a multifaceted concept and can be created by firms possessing a specialist product or service, or having a cultural affinity with clients. Corporate strategies such as inter-firm alliances and intra-firm multinational linkages also reinforce competitiveness. While the size of firms has some influence on competitiveness, size and age do not determine propensity to export. The use of innovation proxies by manufacturing firms increases propensity to export. A weak correlation is revealed between R & D proportion and export proportion; however, there is no evidence of a correlation between the proportion of patents and export proportion. Innovation expressed as appropriate technology, or embedded in specialist services, provides a more convincing explanation of export activity. Localised linkages between related and supporting industries are not a prerequisite for creating competitive advantage or innovative activity. Network theory explains how competitiveness transmits across space. Networks link the internal environment of the firm with external determinants, and explain how actual export contacts are made. Once networks and trust are established, spatial separation is not detrimental to sustaining relationships between key actors.
The quantitative evidence does not reveal significant relationships between innovation, competitive advantage and trade. Qualitative factors explain these relationships more satisfactorily. Cultural affinity, appropriate technology and networks help firms create competitive advantage, leading to trade. The state has a strong indirect influence in facilitating trade and should be an important part of a theory.
Thus an explanation of trade must shift networks to central importance and de-emphasise the role of localisation economies. The concept of innovation also needs to extend beyond an interpretation confined to technological change. The limitation of these interpretations is that they only apply to one industry in a particular place. However, the framework is flexible enough to be adapted to other industries, with certain strands being emphasised and de-emphasised accordingly. The empirical findings also have practical implications for the development of trade and industry policy; for example, flexible industry assistance that facilitates the creation of international networks by small and medium-size firms

Title page, table of contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University of Adelaide Library.
"The Lower Murray dairy swamps were once part of a series of freshwater wetlands stretching along the Murray to the Cooring. Of the original 5700 hectares of wetlands only 500 hectares remain today. While the dairy industry that has developed on the swamp has considerable commercial value, it has destroyed the natural water filtration function that the wetlands provided. The industry also causes high levels of dairly effluent to enter the River Murray, contributing to blue-green algae outbreaks and associated economic losses for the local tourism industry. This thesis provides valuable cost-benefit results on a set of three mutually exclusive land use and management options for dealing with the joint problems of water filtration and blue-green algae. The most important options examined involve the return of this area to wetlands for water filtration rather continuing to use it for dairy farming." --p. ix.
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Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Economics, 2007

"The Lower Murray dairy swamps were once part of a series of freshwater wetlands stretching along the Murray to the Cooring. Of the original 5700 hectares of wetlands only 500 hectares remain today. While the dairy industry that has developed on the swamp has considerable commercial value, it has destroyed the natural water filtration function that the wetlands provided. The industry also causes high levels of dairly effluent to enter the River Murray, contributing to blue-green algae outbreaks and associated economic losses for the local tourism industry. This thesis provides valuable cost-benefit results on a set of three mutually exclusive land use and management options for dealing with the joint problems of water filtration and blue-green algae. The most important options examined involve the return of this area to wetlands for water filtration rather continuing to use it for dairy farming." --p. ix.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Economics, 2007

The primary contributions of this thesis are the economic studies of proposed water use reductions and climate change, and the development of an integrated hydro-economic model for the Murray-Darling Basin, Australia. This water model not only simulates the land and water use in the Basin, but also optimises these uses for certain targets such as environmental flows. More importantly, this model can be applied to evaluate policy options for the Basin, such as water buybacks, and provide estimates of the possible impacts of climate change. The thesis consists of three main essays focusing on issues in water modelling and management in the Basin. The first essay describes the development of a water model. This model is applied to estimate the impacts of water use reductions in the second essay; and climate change in the third essay. Other issues related to the Basin's water management, such as a review of existing water modelling, the background of the Basin, water trading, possible policy implementations and future research are also discussed. The first essay (Chapter 4) describes the construction of the Integrated Irrigated Water Model (IIA WM) including the structure of llA WM and the data sources. Using the latest hydrological data and revised catchment boundaries, llA WM can simulate and optimise land and water use in the Basin. To address the criticism that existing models have failed to consider water trading barriers, the physical constraints on water trading have been incorporated in llA WM. The model can also evaluate various water policies and estimate the impacts of physical condition changes. The second essay (Chapter 5) evaluates the impacts of proposed water use reductions by the Australian government. To balance the use of water between irrigated industries and environmental purposes, the Australian government draft plan released October 2010 proposed to reduce the volume of used water in the Basin from 3,000 to 4,000 GL/year. Simulations from IIA WM indicate that the impacts from proposed water use reductions will be modest, although there may be substantial impacts in particular locations. The third essay (Chapter 6) investigates the impacts of climate change in the Basin. A full range of climate change scenarios from modest to severe have been applied using IIA WM. This thesis finds that with water trading, profit reductions are substantially smaller than the water use reductions.

This study is non-empirical and is based on the conceptualisations and theoretical foundations that gave rise to the global issue of sustainable development. It also traces the evolution and meaning of sustainable development in the South African socio-cultural context, and shows how the legacies of colonialism and apartheid contributed towards the national policy of sustainable development. This study explains the reasons for the presence (or lack) of sustainable development paradigms in apartheid and post-apartheid South Africa, as well as their implications for the future development of the country as a whole. There is also an analysis of the effects of the liberalisation of the water sector on the citizenry, and how this can disempower millions of poor South Africans. Finally, this study offers solutions for the lack of sustainable use of water in South Africa. Amongst the findings and conclusions are the deleterious effects of employment equity, cut-backs in municipal funding that resulted in the outsourcing of critical services such as water provision, and the deployment of party cadres to local councils.
Human Resources
M.A. (Development Studies)

Small hydro generation refers to generating capacity of less than 10 MW with the most common being Run-of-River. In South Africa, the level of rural electrification is approximately 50 percent with most of the energy needs being met with biomass fuels. The purpose of this study was to investigate the hydropotential regions that were identified by Eskom and the Department of Minerals and Energy in 2002 and determine sites for small scale development for rural electrification purposes. Technical and feasible analyses were carried out in order to assess the applicability of this kind of energy generating system. The aim of this study was to consider the Free Basic Electrification policy and Solar Home Systems to assess the electrical demand of rural households and possible funding transfer scheme respectively. Furthermore, to formulate an appropriate methodology that can be used given the available data and resources currently available in South Africa. In total, six sites were identified and analysed in this paper, namely: (1) Berg River at gauge G1H013, (2) Mzimvubu River at gauge T3H008, (3) Orange River at gauge D1H003, (4) Mlambonja River at gauge V1H041, (5) Thukela River at gauge V1H002 and (6) Mkomazi River at gauge U1H005 which are in the Eastern Cape, Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces. Flow gauge data were analysed in order to develop monthly mean Flow Duration Curves which were used to determine the design flow, power generation (through Power Duration Curve construction) and renewable energy potentially produced from each scheme. Costing functions were utilised in order to determine the initial capital cost of the system which was used to assess the project’s feasibility. In order to predict potential power output of the schemes, the streamflow and hydraulic head of the six rivers were assessed. The potential renewable energy production ranged from about 240 to 6060 MWh/year. Through this energy production, it was found between 165 and 10100 houses could be electrified depending on the electrical allowance provided. This significantly exceeds existing housing numbers. Costing bands ranged from 3 – 7 R/kWh which was high but within reason based on the community income and the transfer of the Solar Home Systems pricing policy. The results of this study provide a good foundation for future work in the estimation of hydropower potential in South Africa and will hopefully be a stepping stone to better estimation of both technical and exploitable hydropower potential for South Africa.
Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

The aim of this dissertation is to estimate the value of water in the commercial forestry in selected areas of Kwazulu-Natal. Furthermore, the essay focuses on two species:Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus patula. The estimation of the value of water is done using two types of water and they are evapo-transpiration (ET) and stream flow reduction (SFR). ET water is used because it has been discovered that there is a loss of water due to afforestation. On the other hand, SFR water is used because the existence of trees means that the water that is supposed to flow to the streams does not, as it is absorbed by the trees. Moreover, the essay develops two methods that can be used to estimate these two types of water in the commercial forestry. The methods are the residual method and the marginal value product (MVP) method. In the case of the residual method, the results are diverse. This means that the values of water for eucalyptus using the ET water, ranges from 05 cents to 23 cents. With the pinus patula, the values of water ranges from 01 cents to 03 cents. This is clear that the value of water for eucalyptus grandis using the ET water is higher than the pinus patula. The value of water using the MVP method using the ET water is decreasing. This means that the values of water starts from higher values to the lowest. This is due to the fact that we are estimating the marginal product. The values start from 72 cents and go down to 28 cents in the case of eucalyptus grandis. The values for the pinus patula start from 26 cents and go down to 12 cents. When estimating the value of water using SFR water, we do not use the residual method. We use the MVP method instead. The values obtained show that eucalyptus grandis values are higher than those of the pinus patula. They start from R5.1 0 cents and go down to R2.77 cents for eucalyptus grandis and from R2.39 to R1.03 for pinus patula. The methods used show that the economies of scale are present, because when we add more water, the value falls. Furthermore, The law of diminishing marginal retums is present because when we add more water; the values reach a maximum point and then start to fall. These two factors comply with the economic theory.
Thesis (M.Com.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2002.

This study provides the first comprehensive quantitative assessment of Australia's pilot Hunter River Salinity Trading Scheme (PHRSTS). It casts new light on the relative merits of tradable permit system in terms of environmental and cost effectiveness under the PHRSTS, highlighting the potential benefits from an integrated regulatory instrument for management of natural resource and environmental quality. The PHRSTS was introduced by the New South Wales Environmental Protection Authority (NSW EPA) in 1995 to regulate the discharge of saline water from the coal mines and electric power generators into the Hunter River, which was affecting other uses of the River. It was made permanent in 2002, becoming the formalised HRSTS (FHRSTS). Allowing for the total permitted salt discharge to vary dynamically from day to day subject to river flow conditions, and for salt permits be traded among the mines and power generators, the Scheme is widely known as Australia's first active water quality trading program, and still appears to be the only dynamic tradable permits scheme operating in the world. The NSW EPA has claimed that the PHRSTS achieved significant environmental and economic benefits, but until now there has been no rigorous examination of its operational performance. To help fill this gap, this study investigates the origins, evolution and institutional arrangements of the PHRSTS, examines the performance of the salt credits trading market of the PHRSTS and the two credit auctions of the FHRSTS, and evaluates the environmental and economic effectiveness of the PHRSTS. In particular, this study finds that: (1) The credits trading market of the PHRSTS was active in terms of both volume of trading and number of participants, in spite of the high proportion of intra-company trading. The successful bidders in the credit auctions of the FHRSTS were a mix of sellers and buyers on the credit trading market of the PHRSTS. The low, narrowly-spread auction prices suggest that the firms did not value the credits highly and that the differentials in marginal cost of salt control across the participants are not large enough to yield significant savings from the credit trading. (2) The overall salinity objectives of the Hunter River were attained under the PHRSTS. However, the PHRSTS did not significantly improve the river salinity compared to the previous Trickle Discharge management system. The PHRSTS only generated trivial savings in social damage cost. (3) The PHRSTS generated measurable cost savings in the total control cost of saline water to its participants over its entire period. But this was minor in relation to the participants' sales revenues, and the tradability of the discharge permits accounted for only a very small proportion of the control cost savings. Dynamicism, instead oftradability, of the discharge permits was by far the main source of the cost savings. This study therefore concludes that neither the environmental effectiveness nor the economic effectiveness of the PHRSTS is as impressive as that claimed by the NSW EPA. Nevertheless, the valuable experience drawn from the experimental design and operation of the PHRSTS should prove useful for broader water quality management strategies in Australia and elsewhere.

The purpose of this dissertation was to identify factors that contribute to the sustainability of rural water supply facilities (WSFs). Twenty-four interviews were conducted: 16 from rural communities and 8 from water supply agencies. Key findings are that in order to achieve sustainability of WSFs, there is need to ensure that (1) there is an effective community organisation; (2) communities have the ability to operate and maintain WSFs; (3) communities are able to raise adequate user fees for purchasing spare parts; and (4) that there is a strong backup support at the district level to carry out major repairs. Major threats to the sustainability of WSFs include high poverty levels in communities, weak institutional framework and inability of communities to handle major breakdowns.
Social Work
M.A. (Social Work)

This thesis explores questions of gender equality in social welfare theory; methodologies; approaches and policymaking in the Global South in the context of land reforms. This stems from the realisation that gender equality issues in social welfare are increasingly receiving greater attention in the context of the Global North and less in the South. By adopting a Transformative Social Policy framework, the research departs from hegemonic livelihoods, poverty reduction and the ‘classical models’ of land reforms often designed from the mould of the neoliberal discourse of individual tenure to focus on land reform as a relational question. Empirical data was gathered using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach involving survey questionnaires; in-depths interviews; focus group discussions; key informant interviews and field observations. A total of 105 randomly selected households, comprising 56 male-headed households (MHHs) and 49 female-headed households (FHHs) participated in the quantitative component of the study, comprising a control group of nonland reform beneficiaries. Additionally, 30 purposively selected in-depths interviews comprising 20 FHHs and 10 MHHs were conducted in resettlement study sites. Findings from this this study indicates that despite the country’s depressed economic environment and the effects of climate change, transfer of land enhanced the productive capacities of individuals and rural households, including those headed by females. At micro-level, in-kind transfer of land to rural households proved to be a more superior social protection measure compared to either food or cash transfer. However, social relations and institutions proved resistant to change, posing a greater obstacle to social transformation. And more importantly, from a social reproductive perspective, the same land reform that enhanced the productive capacities of women, inadvertently, increased their social reproductive work with implications on the welfare of women relative to men. The thesis makes a contribution to social policy debates in Africa, which hitherto have been dominated by the introduction of cash transfers as witnessed in many countries across the continent. The transformative social policy approach brings novelty to the study of land reforms. By Conceptualising gender as a relational and social construct, the study adds knowledge on the nexus between gender, land reform and welfare using the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) as reference. With the FTLRP––as a leftist policy in a liberalised economy––there is a need for the government to re-align its social and economic policies to avoid inconsistencies in the country’s development path. On the gender front there is need to legislate resettlement areas as outside the jurisdiction of traditional structures; promulgate statutory instruments dealing with land and setting up designated land claims courts linked right up to the Constitutional Court. Specifically, for Chiredzi, there is a need to establish a corporate body to administer the affairs of Mkwasine following the pulling out of the Estate. Keywords: gender, land reforms, water reforms, transformative
Sociology
Ph. D. (Sociology)