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1
Law, Ian B., Jurgen Menge, and David Cunliffe. "Validation of the Goreangab Reclamation Plant in Windhoek, Namibia against the 2008 Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 5, no. 1 (August 19, 2014): 64–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2014.138.
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Australia has had Guidelines in place for water recycling (for all uses other than the augmentation of drinking water supplies) since 2006. These Guidelines were extended to cover potable reuse in May 2008 and have been applied to two potable reuse projects in Australia – one a trial plant in Perth, Western Australia and the second for a large AUD$2.6 × 109 scheme in Brisbane, Queensland. All reclamation plants in Australia must be ‘validated’ against the Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling prior to being put into operation. The majority of advanced reuse schemes incorporate the dual membrane process – microfiltration or ultrafiltration followed by reverse osmosis (RO) – in the treatment trains and while this membrane based treatment has been shown to produce a very high quality of product water, it does come at a cost and there is renewed interest in alternative treatment technologies that offer cost savings and are more sustainable. This paper uses data gathered in Australia from a range of advanced reclamation plants, as well as design and actual performance criteria from the Goreangab Plant, to ‘validate’ the latter and, given the longevity of the Windhoek direct potable reuse experience, lend support to more serious consideration of non-RO based plants for potable reuse applications.
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Hurlimann, A., D. Hes, M. Othman, and T. Grant. "Charting a new course for water—is black water reuse sustainable?" Water Supply 7, no. 5-6 (December 1, 2007): 109–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2007.107.
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The world is facing a water crisis, and Australia is no exception. New regimes for the supply, use, and delivery of water are needed to ensure a sustainable water future. Black water reuse through ‘sewer mining’ or onsite treatment, proposes to be one initiative that may possibly offer a viable and sustainable alternative approach to water provision in many contexts. However, despite the potential benefits of black water reuse, its feasibility is not yet fully understood. In particular, there is much uncertainty surrounding the following issues: (1) community acceptance, (2) policy complexities, (3) performance impacts of these localised systems, and (4) environmental balance over the full life cycle. This paper outlines research needs surrounding black water reuse with a focus on these four major issues. The paper presents a research agenda to address these important issues. This research agenda involves two Australian commercial case studies: the Council House 2 building in Melbourne, and the Bendigo Bank building in Bendigo.
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Ho, G., S. Dallas, M. Anda, and K. Mathew. "On-site wastewater technologies in Australia." Water Science and Technology 44, no. 6 (September 1, 2001): 81–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0346.
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Domestic wastewater reuse is currently not permitted anywhere in Australia but is widely supported by the community, promoted by researchers, and improvised by up to 20% of householders. Its widespread implementation will make an enormous contribution to the sustainability of water resources. Integrated with other strategies in the outdoor living environment of settlements in arid lands, great benefit will be derived. This paper describes six options for wastewater reuse under research by the Remote Area Developments Group (RADG) at Murdoch University and case studies are given where productive use is being made for revegetation and food production strategies at household and community scales. Pollution control techniques, public health precautions and maintenance requirements are described. The special case of remote Aboriginal communities is explained where prototype systems have been installed by RADG to generate windbreaks and orchards. New Australian design standards and draft guidelines for domestic greywater reuse produced by the Western Australian State government agencies for mainstream communities are evaluated. It is recommended that dry composting toilets be coupled with domestic greywater reuse and the various types available in Australia are described. For situations where only the flushing toilet will suffice the unique “wet composting” system can be used and this also is described. A vision for household and community-scale on-site application is presented.
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Law, Ian B. "An Australian perspective on DPR: technologies, sustainability and community acceptance." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 6, no. 3 (December 11, 2015): 355–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2015.180.
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Australia has had guidelines in place for water recycling (for all uses other than potable reuse) since 2006. These guidelines were extended in May 2008 to cover potable reuse and have since been applied to two potable reuse schemes – one in Brisbane (Queensland) in 2011 and the second in Perth (Western Australia) in 2013. These guidelines cover both indirect potable reuse and direct potable reuse (DPR) and outline the steps that must be followed in the planning and validation of such schemes. This paper summarizes: (i) recent work carried out in Australia on treatment trains and technologies suitable for DPR; (ii) sustainability considerations of DPR and how it compares with other water supply options; and (iii) developments in community education and engagement in the potable reuse space.
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Crisp, Gary Jon. "Desalination and water reuse — sustainably drought proofing Australia." DESALINATION AND WATER TREATMENT 42 (2012): 323–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2012.2836.
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Brammer, Timothy, Cameron Staib, Partha Susarla, and Dale Rohe. "Water Reuse Relieves Drought Effects in Queensland, Australia." IDA Journal of Desalination and Water Reuse 2, no. 3 (July 2010): 60–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/ida.2010.2.3.60.
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Crisp, Gary Jon. "Desalination and water reuse—sustainably drought proofing Australia." Desalination and Water Treatment 42, no. 1-3 (April 2012): 323–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2012.683250.
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Anderson, J. "The environmental benefits of water recycling and reuse." Water Supply 3, no. 4 (August 1, 2003): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2003.0041.
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The world's supply of fresh water is finite and is threatened by pollution. Rising demands for water to supply agriculture, industry and cities are leading to competition over the allocation of limited fresh water resources. This paper examines how water reuse increases the available supply of water and enables human needs to be met with less fresh water. The paper is illustrated with water reuse case studies in agriculture, urban areas, industry and water resource supplementation in Australia and other countries. The links between water reuse and sustainable water management are examined. Water conservation and water reuse produce substantial environmental benefits, arising from reductions in water diversions, and reductions in the impacts of wastewater discharges on environmental water quality. Some examples are presented demonstrating the environmental benefits in quantitative terms. The paper also describes the economic and environmental benefits identified in a number of recent integrated water cycle planning studies in Australia.
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Burgess, Jo, Melissa Meeker, Julie Minton, and Mark O'Donohue. "International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse." Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology 1, no. 5 (2015): 563–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5ew00165j.
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Kracman, B., R. Martin, and P. Sztajnbok. "The Virginia Pipeline: Australia's largest water recycling project." Water Science and Technology 43, no. 10 (May 1, 2001): 35–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0573.
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The need to conserve, reuse and recycle water is becoming increasingly important for both environmental and economic reasons. The Virginia Pipeline is Australia's largest water recycling project. More than half the output from (the capital of South Australia) Adelaide's largest wastewater treatment plant is further treated to achieve a product water quality fit for irrigation of vegetable crops with minimal public health restrictions. The project partners have a vision to achieve total reuse. To achieve this vision, recycled water will need to be stored during cool weather periods when the demand for water is low. Temporary storage of this water in poor quality aquifers is the subject of a major research project.
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Muston, M. H. "Changing of the water recycling paradigm in Australia." Water Supply 12, no. 5 (August 1, 2012): 611–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2012.034.
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The development of water recycling schemes in Australia has, in recent years, undergone a maturity characterised by some emerging trends in the paradigm of water reuse and its integration into the overall water supply strategies for large urban and peri-urban areas. This paper looks at case studies within the context of these observed trends and discusses the institutional frameworks as well as some technical aspects of the case studies to illustrate the trends. Comparison is made with some selected international examples to develop a better understanding of these recent Australian developments within the international context. While not a complete inventory of the many recent recycling schemes in Australia, the paper examines these emerging trends within the context of the growing number of larger-scale industrial, agricultural and dual reticulation urban recycled water systems in Australia and the trend to decentralised recycling schemes.
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Scholl, James E. "Reuse of Coal Seam Gas Brackish Water in Australia." Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 2014, no. 5 (October 1, 2014): 3650–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.2175/193864714815929715.
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Burgess, M. D. "Planning for Reuse. Developing a Strategy for the Northern Territory, Australia." Water Science and Technology 24, no. 9 (November 1, 1991): 31–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1991.0233.
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A harsh climate, extended dry periods and relatively expensive water resources underly the potential for effluent reuse in the Northern Territory, Australia. The cost of supplying potable water and the potential offsetting effects of utilising sewage effluent are reviewed. The need to firmly establish the true cost to the community of different supply options is identified. Major cost benefits accrue where reuse will enable deferment of either significant potable source augmentation or sewage treatment works upgrading and where horticultural prospects are good at a reuse site close to the treatment works. An overall strategy plan for increasing the potential of reuse is described. This plan includes firm cost management procedures, marketing activities, appropriate land planning measures and a commitment to research and development.
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Tortajada, Cecilia, and Sunil Nambiar. "Communications on Technological Innovations: Potable Water Reuse." Water 11, no. 2 (January 31, 2019): 251. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11020251.
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Water scarcity has prompted an increasing number of cities to look for non-conventional sources of clean water. One of these sources is reused water, or highly treated reclaimed or recycled wastewater, a worthy addition to the portfolio of water-resource alternatives that increasing cities are considering in view of demographic and environmental changes. In this paper, we analyse communications from the media, policymakers and utility managers on the technology used to produce reused water for potable purposes. The focus of our analysis is technology as a means for producing safe and reliable water supply in the long-term. Three places were selected because of their differing experiences with social acceptance: Singapore, Orange County (California, United States), and Queensland (Australia). We found distinct differences in the communications used in the three places, which we believe have strongly influenced public opinion on the provision of clean water through potable water reuse. In communicating technological innovations to the public, it is essential to also discuss the broader framework affecting reliable water supplies. In this light, planning, legal and regulatory frameworks, institutional coordination, financial sustainability, and operational aspects should also be communicated.
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Solley, David, Bradley Rhodes, Mark Hordern, and Annalie Roux. "Pretreatment for micro- or ultra-filtration/reverse osmosis water reuse: experience from Mid-Eastern Australia." Water Practice and Technology 8, no. 3-4 (September 1, 2013): 515–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2013.055.
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In the past decade, six micro- or ultra-filtration/reverse osmosis (RO) reuse treatment plants, ranging in capacity from 4 to 100 ML/d, have been constructed in South East Queensland, Australia. The plants produce water for a variety of purposes, from industrial use through to indirect potable reuse. The feed water for all these reuse plants is wastewater treated to a secondary biological nutrient removal standard with secondary clarification only. Two different pretreatment approaches have been adopted ahead of the membrane processes, with varying objectives and success. These pretreatment approaches fall into two broad process types; those that directly feed treated wastewater onto the MF or UF (without pretreatment other than micro-screening), and those with chemical clarification pretreatment prior to MF or UF. The reuse plants that include pretreatment ahead of MF/RO are designed to maximise the production of reuse water from the available wastewater. As a result, the recovery adopted is 82%, resulting in 83 to 85% recovery being required from the three-stage RO process. In comparison, the reuse plants that have no pretreatment prior to MF/RO generally operate at lower RO recovery of about 75%. The paper examines the design, performance and operational experience of these two different water reuse treatment plant types. Chemical clarification pretreatment provides stable operation of high recovery RO processes, with low CIP requirements. However, these processes may require design and operation that is outside normal practice. In comparison, the operation of reuse plants without pretreatment has resulted in lower RO and plant recovery rates being adopted, and potentially higher RO CIP requirements. Long-term operation appears possible, with low maintenance requirements for the MF system. Routine chemical cleans of both the MF/UF and RO membranes at these smaller plants, may lead to improved process performance.
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Abeysinghe, D. H., A. Shanableh, and B. Rigden. "Biofilters for water reuse in aquaculture." Water Science and Technology 34, no. 11 (December 1, 1996): 253–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1996.0287.
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Aquaculture is a rapidly expanding industry in Australia and around the world. The majority of aquaculture operations employ flow through systems whereby residual feed and metabolic products are discharged to a nearby water body. In many countries, the discharge of nutrients rich aquaculture waters has contributed to the degradation of water quality in receiving water bodies. Aquaculture's dependency on water resources ultimately makes water recycling an attractive waste management option. Submerged flow biofilters, utilising a filter media with specific surface area of approximately 141m2/m3, were used to remove nitrogen and phosphorus from a synthetic fish farm water. Three biofilter systems were tested for nitrification, nitrification followed by denitrification, and combined nutrients removal. Successful carbon removal and nitrification were achieved in the nitrification system. The nitrification/denitrification biofilters achieved complete denitrification and nitrogen removal. The cyclic aerated/unaerated combined nutrients removal system achieved approximately 40 percent phosphorus removal, complete nitrification and 40 percent denitrification. The study demonstrated the viability of using biofilters for nutrients removal from fish farm waters. Biofilters are readily designed and constructed in modular form which makes such systems particularly useful for water quality management in aquaculture.
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Byrne, J. J., M. Anda, and G. E. Ho. "Water sustainable house: water auditing of 3 case studies in Perth, Western Australia." Water Practice and Technology 14, no. 2 (April 16, 2019): 435–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2019.028.
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Abstract Householders in cities face water-related issues due to the increasing cost and restrictions in water use, especially during drought. They respond in many different ways, ranging from installing water efficient appliances, adopting water-saving behavior and implementing greywater reuse, to being water self reliant (off-mains supply). The latter approach should consider using only rainwater falling on the property boundaries, and if self-supply is from groundwater it should be derived from rainwater falling on the property. Therefore, sustainability depends on the annual rainfall, size of property and availability of storage for water to be used during periods without rainfall. In principle any house can be retrofitted to rely solely on rainwater, because technologies exist to treat subsequent wastewater to any quality desired for reuse. However, the energy requirement and investment needed may negate overall sustainability. Very few studies have assessed water use in households to determine whether relying solely on rainwater is practical or sustainable in the long-term. Three case studies in Perth, Western Australia are reported here, where water auditing has been used for sustainability assessment.
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Aitken, Victoria, Sarah Bell, Sian Hills, and Lucy Rees. "Public acceptability of indirect potable water reuse in the south-east of England." Water Supply 14, no. 5 (May 20, 2014): 875–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.051.
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Public controversy over planned indirect potable reuse of wastewater has been a significant obstacle to implementing proposed schemes in the United States and Australia. Surveys of public attitudes to water reuse have generally shown lower acceptance of indirect potable reuse compared with other reuse options, such as irrigation. The south-east of England is projected to experience a shortfall in water supply by 2020 and the largest water utility in the region, Thames Water, is investigating indirect potable reuse as a potential new supply option. The indirect potable reuse feasibility studies include evaluation of the technology options and water quality as well as detailed consideration of public perception issues. As part of the work to address the latter, 2,000 Thames Water customers participated in an on-line survey of their attitudes to indirect potable reuse. The survey showed overall support for the idea of indirect potable reuse. The only demographic factor to show any significant difference from the whole sample was belief system, with Muslim respondents showing significantly less support than other groups. The survey results indicate that indirect potable reuse may be socially acceptable in the south-east of England, but that public engagement and participation in future decision making about indirect potable reuse will be important for the success of any particular proposal.
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Marks, J., N. Cromar, H. Fallowfield, and D. Oemcke. "Community experience and perceptions of water reuse." Water Supply 3, no. 3 (June 1, 2003): 9–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2003.0002.
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The experience and perceptions of 80 people residing in four separate sites, which feature reclaimed water systems, are considered in this paper in relation to the benefits and costs of residential water reuse applications. Reclaimed water is used for non-potable applications by residents in Florida mainly for garden irrigation and in Australia for both irrigation and toilet flushing. All respondents value reclaimed water and although the benefit of water conservation is identified they are more enthusiastic about the personal cost benefit involved in using this cheaper alternative to potable water. Many are willing to handle the water but the extent to which this increased exposure is seen as a good development depends on the quality of information provided to users. In relation to reclaimed water for toilet flushing, there is a strong indication that the water conservation and cost saving benefit is small compared to the initial cost and the increased cross connection risk.
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Khan, S. J., and J. A. McDonald. "Quantifying human exposure to contaminants for multiple-barrier water reuse systems." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 77–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.760.
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Reliance upon advanced water treatment processes to provide safe drinking water from relatively compromised sources is rapidly increasing in Australia and other parts of the world. Advanced treatment processes such as reverse osmosis have the ability to provide very effective treatment for a wide range of chemicals when operated under optimal conditions. However, techniques are required to comprehensively validate the performance of these treatment processes in the field. This paper provides a discussion and demonstration of some effective statistical techniques for the assessment and description of advanced water treatment plant performance. New data is provided, focusing on disinfection byproducts including trihalomethanes and N-nitrosamines from a recent comprehensive quantitative exposure assessment for an advanced water recycling scheme in Australia.
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Sinclair, M., J. O'Toole, M. Malawaraarachchi, and K. Leder. "Household greywater use practices in Melbourne, Australia." Water Supply 13, no. 2 (March 1, 2013): 294–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2013.022.
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Research on the potential of greywater reuse to reduce urban tap water demand has focused mainly on permanently installed greywater treatment or irrigation systems. These may be readily implemented in new housing developments, but experience in Australia shows their uptake by established households in urban areas is low. The majority of households employ simple and temporary methods for greywater collection and use, but their behaviour has not been well documented. We characterised the greywater use practices of over 1,000 Melbourne households during a 5-year period (2007 to 2011) which included 3 years of severe drought with stringent restrictions on outdoor tap water use. Greywater was most frequently collected from the laundry and bathroom, and generally used within 24 hours. Garden watering was the most common end use, and treatment of greywater to reduce microbial contamination was very rare. Volume estimates by householders suggest that on average around 10% of tap water used in the home was being collected for reuse. When drought conditions and water restrictions eased, over 40% of user households discontinued greywater use. Widespread adoption of permanent greywater collection, treatment and storage systems by households would be required to achieve a lasting effect on urban water consumption.
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Law, Ian B. "Rouse Hill – Australia's first full scale domestic non-potable reuse application." Water Science and Technology 33, no. 10-11 (May 1, 1996): 71–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1996.0663.
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There has been increasing interest in reuse of effluent from sewage treatment plants in Australia in recent years, not only for agricultural or land irrigation purposes but also for the provision of dual water supplies to residential areas for the non-potable purposes of toilet flushing, car washing, garden watering and park or other open space irrigation. The Rouse Hill development in the north west of Sydney is Australia's first full scale application of domestic non-potable reuse, with the sewage treatment plant and the dual water distribution system being commissioned in late 1994. This paper describes the Rouse Hill project as a whole including the reasoning behind the installation of the dual water supply system, the design of the sewage treatment plant, the effluent qualities achieved, the design of the dual water distribution system and the requirements of the regulatory authority, the NSW Environmental Protection Authority.
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Ching, Leong, and David J. H. Yu. "Turning the tide: informal institutional change in water reuse." Water Policy 12, S1 (March 1, 2010): 121–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2010.117.
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This paper examines the impact of public opinion, time, and the ‘yuck’ factor in influencing the formation of water reuse norms based on an analysis of newspaper content observed in two locations: Singapore and Queensland, Australia. A simple regression analysis shows that time and the ‘yuck’ factor were significant factors in norm formation but, surprisingly, public opinion was not found to be a significant factor. The results show that public opinion, long held to be an important factor, may not be significant in the sense in which it is commonly conceived. It also shows how perception can be shaped to promote water reuse policies in the urban sector. The formation of water norms was found to be crucial in determining the different outcomes in the implementation of water reuse policies in the two countries.
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Poussade, Y., A. Roux, T. Walker, and V. Zavlanos. "Advanced oxidation for indirect potable reuse: a practical application in Australia." Water Science and Technology 60, no. 9 (November 1, 2009): 2419–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2009.665.
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December 2008 marked the completion of Stage 2B of the Western Corridor Recycled Water (WCRW) Project in South East Queensland, Australia. With a maximum combined production capacity of 232 million litres of purified recycled water a day, it is the third largest recycled water scheme in the world and the largest in southern hemisphere. A seven-barrier approach has been used to ensure very highest quality, safe water is produced at all times for the purpose of indirect potable reuse. Three of these barriers occur in the advanced water treatment section of the WCRW Project: micro- or ultra-filtration (MF), reverse osmosis (RO), and H2O2/UV advanced oxidation. In addition to providing very efficient disinfection, the advanced oxidation process specifically aims at destroying compounds not fully rejected by RO that are potential health hazards. This includes N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), which is a potential carcinogenic product likely to be formed by chlorination or chloramination of wastewaters. As in many other countries, Australia has adopted a stringent guideline limit for this compound of 10 ng/L in purified recycled water. After 16 months of operations of the WCRW Project's first plant, the advanced oxidation system has been proven effective in removing NDMA and ensuring 100% compliance with the regulation at a controlled cost.
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Anderson, John M. "Current water recycling initiatives in Australia: scenarios for the 21st century." Water Science and Technology 33, no. 10-11 (May 1, 1996): 37–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1996.0659.
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Australia is a relatively dry continent with an average runoff of 50 mm per year. The use of water resources in some river basins is approaching the limits of sustainability. Some adverse environmental impacts have been observed resulting from water diversions and from both reclaimed water and stormwater discharges. The paper describes current water recycling initiatives in Australia. These include: beneficial reuse of reclaimed water for urban, residential, industrial and agricultural purposes; recycling of greywater and stormwater; advanced treatment using membrane technology; and water efficient urban design. Some possible water recycling scenarios for Australia in the 21st century are examined. The implications of these scenarios are discussed.
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Dinesh, N., and G. C. Dandy. "A decision support system for municipal wastewater reclamation and reuse." Water Supply 3, no. 3 (June 1, 2003): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2003.0001.
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Wastewater reclamation and reuse is being viewed increasingly as a sustainable approach to integrated water resources management in many countries including Australia. The technical feasibility of reclamation and reuse has been demonstrated by a number of successful projects. The current state-of-the art of reclamation technologies can produce water of any desired quality (including potable quality). However, the increasing number of efficient treatment processes has made the selection of an optimum treatment train a difficult task for planners and decision-makers. A decision support system (DSS) can be particularly useful in wastewater reclamation and reuse as it can provide assistance in the evaluation and selection of treatment alternatives for a given reuse application before exhaustive simulation or pilot studies are conducted. This paper highlights the ongoing research on the development of a computer based DSS named MOSTWATAR(©) (which stands for Model for Optimum Selection of Technologies for WAstewater Treatment And Reuse). MOSTWATAR(©) has a database of the performance characteristics and costs of commonly used reclamation technologies and an optimization module based on genetic algorithms to generate and optimize treatment trains. It also contains detailed reuse guidelines applicable in the various Australian States. This model is intended to assist planners and decision-makers in the techno-economic assessment of reclamation technologies and aid in the selection of the best 5 treatment trains for a given end use and location, wastewater characteristics, and flow rate. This paper describes salient features of the MOSTWATAR(©) package and demonstrates its application to a case study. The results from user-generated options are presented and it is shown that this model can be a very useful tool for selecting the best treatment trains for wastewater reclamation and reuse.
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Barton, A. B., and J. R. Argue. "Integrated urban water management for residential areas: a reuse model." Water Science and Technology 60, no. 3 (July 1, 2009): 813–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2009.401.
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Global concern over growing urban water demand in the face of limited water resources has focussed attention on the need for better management of available water resources. This paper takes the “fit for purpose” concept and applies it in the development of a model aimed at changing current practices with respect to residential planning by integrating reuse systems into the design layout. This residential reuse model provides an approach to the design of residential developments seeking to maximise water reuse. Water balance modelling is used to assess the extent to which local water resources can satisfy residential demands with conditions based on the city of Adelaide, Australia. Physical conditions include a relatively flat topography and a temperate climate, with annual rainfall being around 500 mm. The level of water-self-sufficiency that may be achieved within a reuse development in this environment is estimated at around 60%. A case study is also presented in which a conventional development is re-designed on the basis of the reuse model. Costing of the two developments indicates the reuse scenario is only marginally more expensive. Such costings however do not include the benefit to upstream and downstream environments resulting from reduced demand and discharges. As governments look to developers to recover system augmentation and environmental costs the economics of such approaches will increase.
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Byrne, Josh, Stewart Dallas, Martin Anda, and Goen Ho. "Quantifying the Benefits of Residential Greywater Reuse." Water 12, no. 8 (August 17, 2020): 2310. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12082310.
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There is paucity of data on the quantification of the benefits of residential greywater reuse via direct diversion. While estimates have been made based on modelling the potential mains water savings, it is also recognised that the practicalities of system operation and occupant behaviour introduce substantial variation to these estimates. Three single residential housing projects in Fremantle, Western Australia, undertaken over ten years with a substantial focus on water efficiency and mains water substitution, have provided an opportunity to quantify these benefits. All three dwellings were intensively metered and documented. This paper describes the learnings generated along the way, including the methodology developed to effectively integrate direct diversion greywater reuse into a productive garden, along with other water sources to satisfy landscape water demand. Importantly a robust quantification of actual greywater volumes and associated mains water savings was made. The publication of actual greywater volumes will significantly contribute to this field and go a long way towards validating the merits of residential greywater reuse on mains water savings when systems are properly installed and operated. Brief considerations are also provided for energy efficiency and financial assessment.
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Bell, Sarah, and Victoria Aitken. "The socio-technology of indirect potable water reuse." Water Supply 8, no. 4 (October 1, 2008): 441–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2008.104.
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Public acceptability is widely acknowledged as a key factor in the success of indirect potable water reuse (IPR) schemes. Social research has provided useful insights into the factors that influence public attitudes to IPR and guidelines for engaging the public. Recent IPR developments in Australia demonstrate that clear democratic processes for decision making are yet to be devised. The distinction between technology and society which underpins work in this field does not adequately reflect the nature of IPR and limits possibilities for more robust decision making processes. IPR is not simply a technology to be accepted or rejected by society. IPR is a complex socio-technology which cannot exist unless its technologies become embedded in social, institutional, infrastructural and ecological networks. Reconsidering IPR as a complex socio-technology provides a new grounding for devising processes and institutions for decision making. Based on the formulations of Bruno Latour for bringing the sciences into democracy such processes will include four main tasks: 1) Perplexity—identifying propositions to be taken into account; 2) Consultation—evaluating the strength of the propositions; 3) Hierarchy—ordering the propositions into relative merit and importance; and 4) Institution—stabilising the outcomes through appropriate institutions.
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Greenway, Margaret, and John S. Simpson. "Artificial wetlands for wastewater treatment, water reuse and wildlife in Queensland, Australia." Water Science and Technology 33, no. 10-11 (May 1, 1996): 221–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1996.0678.
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Queensland, Australia has a subtropical-tropical climate with dry winters and wet monsoonal summers. Arid climatic conditions prevail inland with hot dry days and cold nights. The climatic conditions are conducive to high plant growth rates and hence offer great potential for constructed wetlands for water pollution control. The water (a scarce resource during the dry season and in arid regions) can also be used to irrigate crops, playing fields, parks and gardens or golf courses. The water discharged from the wetlands is also of an acceptable quality to flow into estuarine and riverine environments. Many natural wetlands are only seasonally inundated and during the dry season wildlife has to seek alternative refuges. Artificial wetlands receiving sewage effluent provide permanent wildlife habitats and improve the landscape amenity. The Queensland government's Department of Primary Industries has initiated an Artificial Wetlands for Water Pollution Research Program. Under this scheme 10 experimental pilot artificial wetlands have been established and a further 6 university research projects are being conducted on various aspects of artificial wetlands including nutrient and heavy metal uptake and bioavailability in wetland plants, sediment biogeochemistry and mass balances. One gold mine rehabilitation project has an artificial wetland to treat mine leachate. This paper presents 3 case studies which include significant results with respect to wastewater polishing and re-use.
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Jonasson, Olof J., and Jaya Kandasamy. "Decentralised water reuse in Sydney, Australia: drivers for implementation and energy consumption." Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science 13, no. 1 (March 2018): 2–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jenes.17.00012.
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Radcliffe, John C., and Declan Page. "Water reuse and recycling in Australia — history, current situation and future perspectives." Water Cycle 1 (2020): 19–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watcyc.2020.05.005.
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Kayaalp, N. Mehlika. "Regulatory framework in South Australia and reclaimed water reuse options and possibilities." Desalination 106, no. 1-3 (August 1996): 317–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0011-9164(96)00125-7.
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Abeysuriya, Kumi, Dena Fam, and Cynthia Mitchell. "Trialling urine diversion in Australia: technical and social learnings." Water Science and Technology 68, no. 10 (October 24, 2013): 2186–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2013.473.
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This paper discusses a urine diversion (UD) trial implemented within the institutional setting of the University of Technology Sydney that sought to identify key issues for public UD and reuse systems at scale in the Australian urban context. The trial was novel in its transdisciplinary action research approach, that included consideration of urine diverting toilets (UDTs) as socio-technical systems where interactions between users' practices and perceptions and the performance of the technology were explored. While the study explored a broad range of issues that included urine transport, reuse, and regulations, amongst others, the boundary of the work presented in this paper is the practicalities of UD practice within public urban buildings. Urine volume per urinal use, an important metric for sizing tanks for collecting urine from waterless urinal systems in commercial buildings, was also estimated. The project concluded that current UDTs are unsuitable to public/commercial spaces, but waterless urinals have a key role.
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Macreadie, Ian, and Jo Macreadie. "From the Editors." Microbiology Australia 30, no. 5 (2009): 210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ma09210.
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This is the last Microbiology Australia issue for 2009. The Editorial Board works hard to ensure that there is an array of topics of interest for ASM members and this year?s issues provide examples of the diversity of our discipline. The first issue (March) focused on the Microbiology of water reuse and alternative supplies. This topic not only remains a high priority for Australia, but its importance continues to increase, as our population grows and our water supplies decrease in many areas.
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Baskaran, K., L. M. Palmowski, and B. M. Watson. "Wastewater reuse and treatment options for the dairy industry." Water Supply 3, no. 3 (June 1, 2003): 85–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2003.0012.
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Milk-processing plants generate significant quantities of wastewater with relatively high organic matter concentrations on a daily basis. In addition to environmental damage that can result from the discharge of these wastewaters into the natural waterways, the presence of products such as milk solids into wastewater streams represents a loss of valuable product for the plants. This paper presents a review of wastewater management practices employed by six milk-processing plants in Victoria, Australia. In all six plants investigated, milk powder represents a major product. During the milk powder production, water is evaporated, condensed and can be reused for various purposes with a significant impact on water usage. Other major products are anhydrous milk fat, cheese, butter, and UHT milk. The effectiveness of the practices was assessed through two main criteria: first through the water to milk intake ratio, and the waste volume coefficient. Both parameters characterise the plant efficiency in regard of water consumption and water reuse. Information on cleaning chemical usage and recovery was also assessed as part of the review. Significant discrepancies emerge between the plants first due to the products manufactured and water reuse possibilities available in each plant. Second the type of treatment technologies used for condensate and cleaning solution influences the figures. One of the investigated plants is almost self-sufficient for water, emphasising the benefits gained from the use of technologies like membrane separations for condensate and cleaning solution treatment. In some cases, less cost-intensive technologies such as a clarifier are successful to improve cleaning agent recovery.
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McAlister, T., M. Stephens, and A. Allen. "Aura, the city of colour – Australia's shining example of widescale integrated water cycle management." Water Practice and Technology 12, no. 3 (August 1, 2017): 737–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2017.078.
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Aura, the ‘City of Colour’, is a 48,000 person masterplanned community on Queensland's Sunshine Coast. Aura commenced construction in 2015 and will be developed over the next 25 years. Aura sets a benchmark in Australia regarding large scale urban water sustainability through the application of techniques such as rainwater capture and reuse, construction and operational stormwater treatment, water conservation, advanced sewer system designs and potentially a major stormwater harvesting and indirect potable reuse scheme. This paper outlines the journey taken in seeing Aura advance from ‘concept’ to ‘reality’, describes data collection undertaken and modelling tools applied and outlines activities being implemented at Aura to protect sensitive downstream environments and simultaneously deliver water cycle and project sustainability benefits.
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Anda, M., K. Mathew, and G. Ho. "Evapotranspiration for domestic wastewater reuse in remote indigenous communities of Australia." Water Science and Technology 44, no. 6 (September 1, 2001): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0327.
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In the past sewage ponding in indigenous settlements was commonplace as a result of overcrowding combined with inappropriate septic tank and leach drain design, installation and operation. The response over the past 10 years has been to develop reticulated sewerage systems to lagoons when the funds become available. These are often successful in terms of operation, improved public health and low maintenance but are expensive and wasteful of limited water supplies. Evapotranspiration (ET) is an effective method for on-site domestic effluent disposal in areas of Western Australia with soils of low permeability. Evapotranspiration systems have been established in a number of communities both for research/demonstration and as specified by architects. The systems usually follow two septic tanks for the disposal of all domestic effluent. A case study will be presented for a remote indigenous community where the ET systems installed for greywater only have been monitored over the last two years since installation. The use of evapotranspiration has enabled reuse of effluent for successful examples of revegetation and food production and points to the need for a holistic approach to design and service delivery in these communities that includes a total environmental management plan.
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Blackbeard, Judy, James Lloyd, Mirela Magyar, John Mieog, Karl G. Linden, and Yaal Lester. "Demonstrating organic contaminant removal in an ozone-based water reuse process at full scale." Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology 2, no. 1 (2016): 213–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5ew00186b.
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Wati, Satiya, Bret S. Robinson, John Mieog, Judy Blackbeard, and Alexandra R. Keegan. "Chlorine inactivation of coxsackievirus B5 in recycled water destined for non-potable reuse." Journal of Water and Health 17, no. 1 (September 25, 2018): 124–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2018.393.
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Abstract Currently guidelines for disinfection of water with free chlorine, while primarily developed for potable water, are often used for virus disinfection of nitrified recycled water of >1 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit). More information is needed on the disinfection efficacy of free chlorine for viruses in waters of varying turbidity and pH due to significant reuse of treated wastewater of varying quality. In this study, disinfection efficacy in nitrified/denitrified activated sludge treated wastewater was investigated for coxsackievirus B5 (CB5), an enterovirus known to be highly resistant to free chlorine. The required chlorine contact times (CT) values (mg.min/L) for inactivation of CB5 were established in treated wastewater at 10 °C and of varying turbidity (0.2, 2, 5 and 20 NTU) and pH (7, 8 and 9). CTs were calculated to achieve 1 to 4 log10 inactivation. Robust data is presented in support of the chlorine CT values required to inactivate a chlorine-resistant virus in a range of turbidities and pHs in treated wastewaters. The testing method used a conservative approach and the data presented have been used to develop the free chlorine virus inactivation guildelines for recycled water in Victoria and South Australia, Australia.
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McTaggart, Craig, Leanne Farago, Veeriah Jegatheesan, and Li Shu. "Storm water harvesting and reuse in Australia: enhanced sand filtration for the treatment of storm water." Desalination and Water Treatment 54, no. 4-5 (March 28, 2014): 1327–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2014.903871.
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Hostetler, Stephen, and Tom Loutit. "The Deep Australian Water Resource Information System (DAWRIS) and the petroleum." APPEA Journal 49, no. 2 (2009): 599. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/aj08072.
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The total sustainable yield of groundwater in Australia is not known even though many regions of Australia rely on groundwater for urban and rural water supply. Knowledge of deep groundwater resources is particularly poor, with little known about reservoirs below about 100 metres depth. The resource industries often discover and produce large volumes of groundwater that is subsequently evaporated, reinjected, cleaned and discharged into the ocean or streams, or supplied to urban and rural users. In addition, geothermal power and carbon capture and storage projects are also reliant on understanding groundwater processes at depth. Despite this need, Australia as a nation does not have an information system that provides data and interpretation on all groundwater reservoirs from the basement to the surface. The Deep Australian Water Resource Information System (DAWRIS) is designed to integrate existing groundwater knowledge with previously under-utilised datasets (such as basin analysis, petroleum wells, seismic sections and geophysics) to place deep groundwater within existing government water frameworks. In addition, DAWRIS will also use technologies developed and applied within the petroleum industry to assess groundwater resources. The challenge for DAWRIS is to build a consistent tectonostratigraphic framework (geofabric) in which to place observations on reservoir properties, groundwater sustainability and water quality. The geofabric will then act as a basis in which to predict these properties away from control points. The petroleum industry will be able to use DAWRIS to predict the volume and quality of groundwater co-production, plan remediation and reuse strategies, and to help shape Australia’s water agenda.
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Hatt, B. E., A. Deletic, and T. D. Fletcher. "Stormwater reuse: designing biofiltration systems for reliable treatment." Water Science and Technology 55, no. 4 (February 1, 2007): 201–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.110.
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Stormwater reuse is increasing in popularity as a technique for overcoming water shortages in urban Australia. However, technology for the reliable treatment of stormwater for reuse is still not fully developed. This paper presents the first steps in refining biofilters for stormwater reuse. Six different filter media were selected, to target specific stormwater pollutants, as well as support plant growth. They were tested in the laboratory, where the filters were dosed three times per week with semi-synthetic stormwater for five weeks. Pollutant removal performance was monitored, and revealed that all soil-based filters performed similarly (while sand filters behaved somewhat differently). All filters removed more than 80% of solids and greater than 90% of lead, copper, and zinc. Three filter types were able to remove some phosphorus (particularly in the top 30 cm of the media). Apart from sand, all filter media were net producers of nitrogen, leading to an important conclusion that non-vegetated, soil-based filters are not suitable for targeting nutrients. However, since heavy metals are the primary pollutant of concern with respect to stormwater reuse for irrigation (the most popular end-use), it was concluded that biofilters may be promising technologies for treatment of stormwater for reuse.
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White, S. B., and S. A. Fane. "Designing cost effective water demand management programs in Australia." Water Science and Technology 46, no. 6-7 (September 1, 2002): 225–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0683.
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This paper describes recent experience with integrated resource planning (IRP) and the application of least cost planning (LCP) for the evaluation of demand management strategies in urban water. Two Australian case studies, Sydney and Northern New South Wales (NSW) are used in illustration. LCP can determine the most cost effective means of providing water services or alternatively the cheapest forms of water conservation. LCP contrasts to a traditional approach of evaluation which looks only at means of increasing supply. Detailed investigation of water usage, known as end-use analysis, is required for LCP. End-use analysis allows both rigorous demand forecasting, and the development and evaluation of conservation strategies. Strategies include education campaigns, increasing water use efficiency and promoting wastewater reuse or rainwater tanks. The optimal mix of conservation strategies and conventional capacity expansion is identified based on levelised unit cost. IRP uses LCP in the iterative process, evaluating and assessing options, investing in selected options, measuring the results, and then re-evaluating options. Key to this process is the design of cost effective demand management programs. IRP however includes a range of parameters beyond least economic cost in the planning process and program designs, including uncertainty, benefit partitioning and implementation considerations.
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Schwecke, M. A., and B. Simmons. "The use of alternative water sources on urban playing fields: are they acceptable from a community stance?" Water Supply 8, no. 6 (December 1, 2008): 603–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2008.111.
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Many cities in Australia are experiencing the effects of the current drought. This drought has illustrated the unsustainable nature of the Australian community's water consumption patterns. In order to change this unsustainable water consumption the community needs to be aware of and encouraged to make use of alternative water sources. This paper draws upon a series of community questionnaires conducted with people who live adjacent to playing fields and golf courses within the Manly Local Government Area, inside the Sydney Metropolitan Area. The questionnaires explored the communities’ attitudes towards and awareness of the use of alternative water sources on public and private recreational land. Using results from the questionnaires this paper outlines the community's attitudes towards the necessity to use alternative water sources. It also examines the need the community has to be assured that this water does not present a hazard to public health or the environment. Through development of an understanding of community attitudes and awareness, local government and relevant authorities can implement water reuse projects with support from the community.
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Luthy, Richard G., and David L. Sedlak. "Urban Water-Supply Reinvention." Daedalus 144, no. 3 (July 2015): 72–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_00343.
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Cities in drought-prone regions of the American West and Australia provide examples of innovative approaches to utilizing local water resources to achieve more resilient water supplies. Geographical realities, population growth, and favorable economic conditions can create the impetus for investments in new technologies, while support by activist groups and NGOs can encourage more sustainable approaches using locally sourced water. New approaches–whether desalination, stormwater use, water recycling, or potable reuse–share a common path to mass adoption. After a period of piloting and demonstration-scale projects, water providers with few options become early adopters of new technologies. And after the early adopters have gained experience and have used it to support the new approaches, the costs and risks of failure decrease for other providers. Thus, a wider cross section can adopt the new approach. The pioneering projects described herein are the first stage of the reinvention of our urban water systems.
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Shoushtarian, Farshid, and Masoud Negahban-Azar. "Worldwide Regulations and Guidelines for Agricultural Water Reuse: A Critical Review." Water 12, no. 4 (March 29, 2020): 971. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12040971.
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Water reuse is gaining momentum as a beneficial practice to address the water crisis, especially in the agricultural sector as the largest water consumer worldwide. With recent advancements in wastewater treatment technologies, it is possible to produce almost any water quality. However, the main human and environmental concerns are still to determine what constituents must be removed and to what extent. The main objectives of this study were to compile, evaluate, and compare the current agricultural water reuse regulations and guidelines worldwide, and identify the gaps. In total, 70 regulations and guidelines, including Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO), the United States (state by state), European Commission, Canada (all provinces), Australia, Mexico, Iran, Egypt, Tunisia, Jordan, Palestine, Oman, China, Kuwait, Israel, Saudi Arabia, France, Cyprus, Spain, Greece, Portugal, and Italy were investigated in this study. These regulations and guidelines were examined to compile a comprehensive database, including all of the water quality monitoring parameters, and necessary treatment processes. In summary, results showed that the regulations and guidelines are mainly human-health centered, insufficient regarding some of the potentially dangerous pollutants such as emerging constituents, and with large discrepancies when compared with each other. In addition, some of the important water quality parameters such as some of the pathogens, heavy metals, and salinity are only included in a small group of regulations and guidelines investigated in this study. Finally, specific treatment processes have been only mentioned in some of the regulations and guidelines, and with high levels of discrepancy.
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Brodie, Ian M. "Stormwater reuse treatment requirements and screening-level risk assessment at two urban spatial scales." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 2, no. 1 (March 1, 2012): 13–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2012.072.
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Monitoring was conducted at two urban spatial scales (lot-scale road surface and residential subdivision) to assess treatment requirements for non-potable stormwater reuse by irrigation. A screening-level risk assessment was also made focusing on metals, nutrients, cations and pesticides. Composite stormwater samples were taken at two locations in Toowoomba, Australia. Road runoff had higher treatment requirements for suspended solids but less for disinfection. No organic load or salinity reduction is generally needed, and pH adjustment is an occasional requirement for road runoff only. For both stormwaters, hardness was rated at very soft, which may potentially increase corrosion of irrigation equipment. Sodium adsorption ratios were also low indicating a limited risk of soil degradation under irrigation. Nutrient and metal concentrations also pose a low risk. High turbidity and low alkalinity of road runoff makes it easier to treat with coagulants compared to the subdivision runoff. Pesticide analysis of 121 compounds found road runoff concentrations below levels of detection, except for Simazine and Hexazinone. Although detectable, these pesticide concentrations were within Australian drinking water guidelines.
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Iqbal, Asif, Md Mizanur Rahman, and Simon Beecham. "Spatial Analysis of the Water Harvesting Potential of Permeable Pavements in Australia." Sustainability 14, no. 23 (December 6, 2022): 16282. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su142316282.
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An increase in impermeable surface areas with urban development contributes to the rapid and large amount of surface runoff during rainfall. This often requires higher capacity stormwater collection systems, which can cause stress on the existing drainage system and this subsequently contributes to urban flooding. However, urban runoff can be reduced and managed for flood control and converted into a useful resource by harvesting and reusing the water. This can be achieved by switching from impermeable to permeable pavements. However, the amount of stormwater that can be harvested in a permeable pavement system depends on many factors, including rainfall, the water reuse demand and the materials used. This research aims to assess the requirements for permeable pavement design across Australia to balance demand, runoff reduction and construction requirements. A design approach employing the hydrological effects of the infiltration system was adopted for the analysis, along with a spatial analysis for a probabilistic prediction. A relationship was also established to predict a probable design thickness of pavement for various parameters. The research showed that in most Australian cities, for a 120 mm permeable pavement thickness, 40–80% of rainfall-runoff could be harvested, meeting about 10–15% of domestic water demand. The approach developed in this study can be useful for screening the potential of permeable pavements for water harvesting and for predicting spatially where a circular economic approach can be more efficient.
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Biswas, T. K., F. R. Higginson, and I. Shannon. "Effluent nutrient management and resource recovery in intensive rural industries for the protection of natural waters." Water Science and Technology 40, no. 2 (July 1, 1999): 19–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1999.0076.
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Intensive rural industry is developing rapidly in parts of inland Australia. The usually nutrient and salt rich effluent from these sources has traditionally been disposed to both land and water bodies. Since direct water discharge is no longer permitted, a challenge now exists when applying effluent to land especially where the rate of application exceeds crop requirements. Effluent of high volume and concentration of nutrients and/or salts can easily contaminate land and water resources. Predicting the optimum rate of land application of effluent is complicated by the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. This paper addresses the characteristics of effluents from various intensive rural industries and their potential environmental impacts when irrigated to agricultural land in New South Wales, Australia. To assess the environmental sustainability of effluent reuse in land application, a mathematical model (ERIM) has been developed based on a monthly water balance. ERIM includes historical rainfall and evaporation; the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus introduced; their yearly removal by plants to be grown; amount of applied organic matter; and water holding capacity of soil.