Relevant bibliographies by topics / Waste excretion

Academic literature on the topic 'Waste excretion'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 28 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Waste excretion"

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Wright, P. A., G. K. Iwama, and C. M. Wood. "AMMONIA AND UREA EXCRETION IN LAHONTAN CUTTHROAT TROUT (ONCORHYNCHUS CLARKI HENSHAWI) ADAPTED TO THE HIGHLY ALKALINE PYRAMID LAKE (pH 9.4)." Journal of Experimental Biology 175, no. 1 (February 1, 1993): 153–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.175.1.153.

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Earlier studies have reported that acute exposure to alkaline pH strongly inhibits ammonia excretion in freshwater rainbow trout, but the Lahontan cutthroat trout thrives in Pyramid Lake, Nevada, at pH 9.4. We investigated the rates and mechanisms of ammonia and urea excretion in this species in Pyramid Lake water to determine whether special strategies are employed to excrete nitrogenous wastes in an environment unfavourable for ammonia excretion. The majority of nitrogen wastes (N-wastes) were excreted as ammonia (56 % through the gills, 10 % through the kidney), while urea excretion accounted for 34 % (32 % gills, 2 % kidney). Ammonia excretion was dependent on the NH3 partial pressure gradient (deltaPNH3) across the gills and independent of Na+ influx and acidification of the gill water boundary layer. Acute exposure to more alkaline water (pH 10) decreased ammonia excretion by 52 %, while exposure to neutral water (pH 7.6) increased ammonia excretion by 200 %. When fish were held in a ‘closed system’ for 8 h, ammonia excretion decreased as water ammonia levels increased over the first 6 h. However, after 6 h a marked increase in ammonia excretion occurred which may have been associated with an increase in the PNH3 gradient and/or activation of a carrier-mediated transporter. We conclude that Lahontan cutthroat trout, adapted to pH 9.4 water, maintain N-waste excretion by modifying mechanisms common to other teleosts. These modifications include lower rates of ammonia excretion, a higher ratio of urea excretion to ammonia excretion, a higher rate of renal ammonia excretion, greater plasma pH and greater total ammonia level (increased plasma PNH3), which facilitate the diffusive excretion of NH3 across the gills, and a lack of dependence of ammonia excretion on Na+ influx.
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Kühnel, Christian, Falk Gühne, Philipp Seifert, Robert Freudenberg, Martin Freesmeyer, and Robert Drescher. "Transarterial Radioembolization Planning and Treatment with Microspheres Containing Holmium-166: Determination of Renal and Intestinal Radionuclide Elimination, Effective Half-Life, and Regulatory Aspects." Cancers 15, no. 1 (December 22, 2022): 68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers15010068.

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After transarterial radioembolization (TARE) with microspheres loaded with holmium-166, radioactivity is excreted from the body. The aim of this study was to evaluate radioactive renal and intestinal excretions after TARE planning and treatment procedures with holmium-166-loaded microspheres and to correlate the findings with the intratherapeutic effective half-life. Urinary and intestinal excretions of patients who underwent TARE procedures were collected during postinterventional intervals of 24 h (TARE planning) and 48 h (TARE treatment). Whole-body effective half-life measurements were performed. Calibrations of the 166Ho measuring system showed evidence of long-living nuclides. For excretion determination, 22 TARE planning procedures and 29 TARE treatment procedures were evaluated. Mean/maximum total excretion proportions of the injected 166Ho were 0.0038%/0.0096% for TARE planning procedures and 0.0061%/0.0184% for TARE treatment procedures. The mean renal fractions of all measured excretions were 97.1% and 98.1%, respectively. Weak correlations were apparent between the injected and excreted activities (R2 planning/treatment: 0.11/0.32). Mean effective 166Ho half-lives of 24.03 h (planning) and 25.62 h (treatment) confirmed low excretions. Radioactive waste disposal regulations of selected jurisdictions can be met but must be reviewed before implementing this method into clinical practice. Inherent long-living nuclide impurities should be considered.
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Wood, C., T. Hopkins, C. Hogstrand, and P. Walsh. "Pulsatile urea excretion in the ureagenic toadfish Opsanus beta: an analysis of rates and routes." Journal of Experimental Biology 198, no. 8 (January 1, 1995): 1729–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.198.8.1729.

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This study focused on the rates and routes of urea-N and ammonia-N excretion in the ureagenic toadfish and on the possibility that urea-N excretion occurs in pulses. Experimental approaches included the following: confinement in small individual containers with automated hourly sampling of water to follow temporal excretion patterns; divided chambers to separate excretion from the anterior and posterior parts of the fish; collection of urine and rectal fluid via chronic indwelling catheters; and gavage with [14C]-labelled polyethylene glycol 4000 to detect regurgitation of gastrointestinal fluids. When a standardized 'crowding' pre-treatment was employed to induce ureotelic behaviour, the fish exhibited significant elevations in the activity of glutamine synthetase in liver, kidney and gills, elevated plasma and bile urea-N levels, but unchanged ammonia-N and urea-N levels in most other body fluids. Unencumbered ureotelic fish confined in small containers excreted 82 % of their waste-N as urea-N and 18 % as ammonia-N; almost all (94 %) of this urea-N excretion occurred in a single pulse of less than 3 h duration about once every 24 h. This daily pulse did not occur by regurgitation of gut fluids, by excretion through prominent pores behind the pectoral fins or by discharge of rectal fluid or urine. Intestinal and urinary excretion accounted for less than 10 % of whole-body urea-N excretion and a negligible fraction of ammonia-N excretion. Pulsatile urea-N excretion occurred at the head end across the gills and/or body surface. Ammonia-N excretion, which was not pulsatile, also occurred largely through the head end. However, once the toadfish had been placed in divided chambers, urea-N excretion became continuous rather than pulsatile, and ammonia-N excretion increased greatly. A severe stress response was indicated by high levels of plasma cortisol, and the skin, which lacks scales, became a significant route of both ammonia-N and urea-N excretion. We speculate that the normal adaptive significance is that ureotelism facilitates cryptic behaviour, allowing the toadfish to virtually eliminate N-waste excretion during long periods while it remains sheltered in burrows. However, during severe stress, the effects of extremely high cortisol levels overwhelm the ammonia and urea retention mechanisms, and both substances leak across the general body surface.
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Legiawan, Mohamad Kany, and Dina Agustina. "Application of Augmented Reality Technology for Human Excretion System as Android-Based Learning Media." Media Jurnal Informatika 13, no. 1 (June 30, 2021): 17. http://dx.doi.org/10.35194/mji.v13i1.1488.

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The excretion system is a process of removing metabolic waste that is no longer used by the body. These remnants of metabolism in the form of compounds that are toxic (poison) so that if not removed can cause disruption of the function of organs in the body. Organs that play a role in the excretion system are the kidneys, lungs, skin and liver. Kidney is the main component making up the human excretion system, namely urine. The lungs produce residual respiratory processes in the form of gas CO2 (carbon dioxide) and H2O (water vapor). The skin is able to produce residual substances in the form of sweat. The liver produces waste products in the form of bile sap from an overhaul of red blood cells that have been damaged and destroyed in the spleen. Augmented Reality Human Excretion System is an application that can facilitate teachers and class XI MA Tanwiriyyah students in learning about the human excretion system. This application is made based on Android by applying augmented reality technology in its implementation. In this application the teacher and students can see 3D objects and know the process of removing residual substances in the excretory system organs. The design of this application uses the MDLC method and also uses UML diagrams, navigation structures and application interface design.
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Brauer, V. F. H., H. Below, A. Kramer, D. Führer, and R. Paschke. "The role of thiocyanate in the etiology of goiter in an industrial metropolitan area." European Journal of Endocrinology 154, no. 2 (February 2006): 229–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje.1.02076.

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Objective: Thiocyanate (SCN−) has concentration dependent antithyroid properties and a role in the etiology of goiter has been suggested in several studies. In 1991 an epidemiological survey conducted in the region of Halle/Leipzig (Saxony), an area with significant air pollution, suggested an inverse relationship between urinary iodine (I−)/SCN− excretion and goiter prevalence. 10 years later, we reinvestigated the same industrial area to clarify if the situation has changed after the elimination of most industrial waste products and moreover, if SCN− excretion levels alone or in combination with air pollution or smoking as a SCN− source are critical for thyroid function. Design and methods: We investigated a cohort of 708 probands for I−, SCN− and creatinine excretion in spot urine samples and determined the prevalence of goiter and thyroid nodules by high resolution ultrasonography. Results: Probands with goiter (n = 79, 11%) had significantly higher urinary SCN− excretions than probands without (3.9 ± 2.8 vs 3.1 ± 3.4 mg SCN−/g creatinine) and significantly lower urinary I−/SCN− ratios than patients without thyroid disorders (41 ± 38 vs 61 ± 71 μg I−/mg SCN−/l). Mean urinary I− excretions were not different between probands with or without goiter. Smokers showed significantly elevated urinary SCN−/creatinine ratios in comparison to non-smokers (4.3 ± 4.3 vs 2.4 ± 2.1 mg SCN−/g creatinine). ANOVA revealed a prediction of thyroid volume through age (P < 0.001), gender (P < 0.001), body weight (P < 0.05) and smoking (P < 0.05). Conclusions: In our investigation, age, gender and smoking (raising SCN− levels by CN− inhalation) were predictive for thyroid volume and the urinary I−/SCN− ratios were able to detect probands with an increased risk of developing goiter in contrast to urinary I− excretion levels alone. These data suggest, that in an era and area of decreased cyanide pollution, SCN− may remain a cofactor in the multifactorial aetiology of goiter.
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Varley, D., and P. Greenaway. "NITROGENOUS EXCRETION IN THE TERRESTRIAL CARNIVOROUS CRAB GEOGRAPSUS GRAYI: SITE AND MECHANISM OF EXCRETION." Journal of Experimental Biology 190, no. 1 (May 1, 1994): 179–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.190.1.179.

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The rate and mechanism of nitrogen excretion were examined in Geograpsus grayi. This species excretes waste nitrogen as gaseous NH3 in periodic bursts. The mean concentration of total ammonia ([NH3]+[NH4+]) in the primary urine during bursts of excretion (1.72 mmol l-1) was similar to that of haemolymph (2.07 mmol l-1) but was significantly lower (P&lt;0.005) than that of branchial fluid (80.6 mmol l-1). The effects of ion exchange inhibitors on the apical membrane of the gill epithelium in Geograpsus grayi were examined. The presence of an amiloride-sensitive Na+/NH4+ exchanger was confirmed and a SITS-sensitive Cl- influx suggested Cl-/HCO3- exchange. Thus, the site of nitrogenous excretion in this species is the branchial chamber, which is also the site of reprocessing of urine for ion regulation in other terrestrial crabs. Gaseous ammonia excretion is achieved by volatilisation of NH3 from the branchial fluid. High partial pressures of ammonia in the branchial fluid are produced by apical Na+/NH4+ exchange and elevation of the pH.
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Brusilow, Saul W. "Phenylacetylglutamine May Replace Urea as a Vehicle for Waste Nitrogen Excretion." Pediatric Research 29, no. 2 (February 1991): 147–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1203/00006450-199102000-00009.

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Samson, Jaypee S. "Oral Administration of Pulverized Wood Charcoal on Growth, Feed Utilization, Survival and Waste Excretion of Red Tilapia Oreochromis Sp." International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development Volume-3, Issue-4 (June 30, 2019): 417–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.31142/ijtsrd23724.

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WOOD, CHRIS M., R. G. BOUTILIER, and D. J. RANDALL. "The Physiology of Dehydration Stress in the Land Crab, Cardisoma Carnifex: Respiration, Ionoregulation, Acid-Base Balance and Nitrogenous Waste Excretion." Journal of Experimental Biology 126, no. 1 (November 1, 1986): 271–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.126.1.271.

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Air-breathing Cardisoma carnifex, collected in Moorea, French Polynesia, were held in fresh water similar in chemical composition to that in their burrows. Under control conditions, which allowed branchial chamber flushing but not ventilation of the medium, crabs demonstrated net Na+ and Cl− uptake, and ammonia, urea and base excretion (= acidic equivalent uptake). Throughout 192 h of water deprivation, crabs dehydrated slowly at a rate of 0.55 g H2O kg−1 h−1, eventually reaching a near lethal 18% loss of total body water. Increases in haemolymph osmolytes were quite variable (0–29%); electrolyte excretion was negligible. MOO2 and MCOCO2 both decreased by approximately 55%, maintaining an unusually low gas exchange ratio (R = 0.53), and suggesting general metabolic depression. There was no evidence of internal hypoxia as haemolymph lactate remained at hydrated levels and PaOO2 actually increased. The dominant acid-base response was a progressive metabolic alkalosis accompanied by a partially compensating rise in PaCOCO2. Alkalosis was probably caused by blockage of the normal aquatic excretion of base produced by the metabolism of this herbivore. Other possible causes were eliminated: i.e. alkalaemia due to contraction of the ECFV; entrainment via strong ion shifts; CaCO3 mobilization; and ammonia accumulation in the haemolymph. In the absence of water, net ammonia production and excretion both appeared to cease, and alternate end products (urea, uric acid) did not generally accumulate. Within 2h of rehydration, crabs regained more than half the lost water, MOO2 and MCOCO2 increased above control levels, and ammonia excretion and haemolymph concentration both exhibited a prolonged (56 h) 4- to 6-fold rise. At the same time, metabolic alkalosis was reversed in association with elevated net base excretion into the water; the latter was correlated with an increase in the strong ion difference (SID) flux ([Na+ + K+ + Ca2+ + Mg2+ - Cl−]). Note:
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Gitelman, Hillel J. "Aluminum exposure and excretion." Science of The Total Environment 163, no. 1-3 (February 1995): 129–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(95)04483-h.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Waste excretion"

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Inglis, David. "Scatological investigations : excreta and excretion in modernity." Thesis, University of York, 1998. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/14013/.

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WIE, WEI-MING, and 謝偉明. "Studies on reducing waste excretion by adjusting feed composition in pigs and broilers." Thesis, 1992. http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/handle/87804391144443488464.

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Kingston, Kim. "Digestive and feeding physiology of Grape Phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae Ftch)." Phd thesis, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/1885/49425.

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Grape phylloxera (Daktulosphaira vitifoliae Fitch, Hemiptera: Phylloxeridae) is a worldwide pest of the viticulture industry due to damage caused to the root system of the European grapevine, Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae). The main management option for radicicolae grape phylloxera is the use of resistant rootstocks, however due to the success of this management option a range of questions relating to the biology, nutrition and feeding behaviour of the pest insect remain unanswered. This thesis addressed a number of these questions in order to extend the current knowledge of the biological characteristics of grape phylloxera and the possible influences on host-plant responses...
Grape and Wine Research Corporation
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Books on the topic "Waste excretion"

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Lankford, Ronald D. Human waste. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2012.

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George, Rose. The big necessity: Adventures in the world of human waste. London: Portobello Books, 2008.

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George, Rose. Big Necessity: Adventures in the World of Human Waste. Portobello Books, 2009.

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George, Rose. Big Necessity: The Unmentionable World of Human Waste and Why It Matters. Holt & Company, Henry, 2009.

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George, Rose. Big Necessity: The Unmentionable World of Human Waste and Why It Matters. Holt & Company, Henry, 2009.

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George, Rose. The Big Necessity: The Unmentionable World of Human Waste and Why It Matters. Holt Paperbacks, 2009.

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Burton, Derek, and Margaret Burton. Excretion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198785552.003.0008.

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Excretion is the removal of metabolic wastes such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, ions and water as well as toxic xenobiotics and metals. The process involves the gills, kidney, liver and rectal gland (elasmobranchs and coelacanth). In the liver, amino acids, haemoglobin, steroids and molecules resulting from human activities are transformed to excretable products. The rectal gland excretes ions, notably Na+ and Cl−. The kidney in teleosts has a distinction between an anterior head-kidney containing haematopoietic tissue and endocrine tissue and the posterior region with nephrons (kidney tubules). Fish nephrons generally have a Malphigian corpuscle with a glomerulus but the structure varies between fish taxa and some marine teleosts lack a glomerulus. Control systems for fish excretion are unclear but it is expected that various hormones influence excretory homeostasis.
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Winyard, Paul. Human kidney development. Edited by Adrian Woolf. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0343.

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The kidneys perform diverse functions including excretion of nitrogenous waste products, homeostasis of water, electrolytes and acid–base balance, and hormone secretion. The simplest functional unit within the kidneys is the nephron, which consists of specialized segments from glomerulus, through proximal tubule, loop of Henle, and distal tubule. Human nephrogenesis starts with two stages of transient kidneys, termed the pronephros and mesonephros, and ends with development of a permanent organ from the metanephros on each side. The latter consists of just a few hundred cells when it is formed in the fifth week of pregnancy but progresses to a nephron endowment of between 0.6 to 1.3 million by the time nephrogenesis is completed at 32–36 weeks of gestation. Key events during this process include outgrowth of the epithelial ureteric bud from the mesonephric duct, interactions between the bud and the metanephric blastema (a specific region of mesenchyme) that cause the bud to branch and mesenchyme to condense, epithelialization of the mesenchyme to form proximal parts of the nephron, and differentiation of segment specific cells. Molecular control of these events is being unpicked with data from human genetic syndromes and animal models, and this chapter highlights several of the most important factors/systems involved. Increased understanding of development is not just relevant to congenital kidney malformations, but may also be important in designing rational therapies for diseases of the mature kidney where recapitulation of developmental pathways is common.
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Ho, Kwok M. Kidney and acid–base physiology in anaesthetic practice. Edited by Jonathan G. Hardman. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642045.003.0005.

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Anatomically the kidney consists of the cortex, medulla, and renal pelvis. The kidneys have approximately 2 million nephrons and receive 20% of the resting cardiac output making the kidneys the richest blood flow per gram of tissue in the body. A high blood and plasma flow to the kidneys is essential for the generation of a large amount of glomerular filtrate, up to 125 ml min−1, to regulate the fluid and electrolyte balance of the body. The kidneys also have many other important physiological functions, including excretion of metabolic wastes or toxins, regulation of blood volume and pressure, and also production and metabolism of many hormones. Although plasma creatinine concentration has been frequently used to estimate glomerular filtration rate by the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) equation in stable chronic kidney diseases, the MDRD equation has limitations and does not reflect glomerular filtration rate accurately in healthy individuals or patients with acute kidney injury. An optimal acid–base environment is essential for many body functions, including haemoglobin–oxygen dissociation, transcellular shift of electrolytes, membrane excitability, function of many enzymes, and energy production. Based on the concepts of electrochemical neutrality, law of conservation of mass, and law of mass action, according to Stewart’s approach, hydrogen ion concentration is determined by three independent variables: (1) carbon dioxide tension, (2) total concentrations of weak acids such as albumin and phosphate, and (3) strong ion difference, also known as SID. It is important to understand that the main advantage of Stewart over the bicarbonate-centred approach is in the interpretation of metabolic acidosis.
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Book chapters on the topic "Waste excretion"

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Chew, Shit F., and Yuen K. Ip. "Nitrogen Metabolism and Nitrogenous Waste Excretion." In Fishes Out of Water, 167–94. Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2017. | Series: CRC marine science series: CRC Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315119861-7.

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Linton, Stuart M., Jonathan C. Wright, and Caitlin G. Howe. "Nitrogenous Waste Metabolism Within Terrestrial Crustacea, with Special Reference to Purine Deposits and Their Metabolism." In Acid-Base Balance and Nitrogen Excretion in Invertebrates, 25–59. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-39617-0_2.

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Fountoulaki, Eleni, Morgane Henry, and Fotini Kokou. "Plant and Novel Aquafeed Ingredient Impact on Fish Performance and Waste Excretion." In Sustainable Aquafeeds, 91–112. London: CRC Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780429331664-5.

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Van Vuuren, A. M., and J. A. C. Meijs. "Effects of herbage composition and supplement feeding on the excretion of nitrogen in dung and urine by grazing dairy cows." In Animal Manure on Grassland and Fodder Crops. Fertilizer or Waste?, 17–25. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-3659-1_2.

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Randall, D. J. "NITROGENOUS-WASTE BALANCE | Excretion of Ammonia." In Encyclopedia of Fish Physiology, 1437–43. Elsevier, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-374553-8.00032-0.

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Jonietz, Fabian. "Indecent Creativity and the Tropes of Human Excreta." In Indecent Bodies in Early Modern Visual Culture. Nieuwe Prinsengracht 89 1018 VR Amsterdam Nederland: Amsterdam University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/9789463725835_ch08.

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This essay explores depictions and descriptions of bodily excretion in light of theories of creativity and artistic practices. References to physical effluxes and excretions by early seventeenth-century Northern painters, I argue, pursue sixteenth-century concepts which connect lower body parts and physical activities to visual perception and human production. The visual arts were inclined to reflect on such ideas not only because of ubiquitous metaphors comparing the absorption of intellectual matter and their subsequent mental digestion to the conversion of food, but also because waste products had a fundamental role in artist’s workshops. The dual quality of excrements as indecent waste and as fertilising manure was predestined to mirror concepts of imitation, and lead to a reconsideration of the general relation of artworks to the products of nature.
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Sharma, Gargi, and Pravin Kumar Mutiyar. "Human Overpopulation and Water Pollution." In Waste Management, 1587–601. IGI Global, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-1210-4.ch073.

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The increased human population is threatening the natural water resources by reducing flows and deteriorating quality. High levels contamination of fecal microbes in Indian water resources is one of the worst impact on natural environment. The incomplete sewage treatment in existing STPs is the root cause it, along with disposal of untreated sewage. Fecal microbes even after the secondary treatment demands the further reduction, hence, an alternative method of vertical flow constructed wetland was adopted to examine the efficiency of the system. The study was aimed to primarily to suggest the suitability and comparative performance of wetland species, P. australis and C. indica. Study revealed the importance of fibrous rooting system of C. indica which helps to enhance aerobicity within the system and cause the reduced number of microbes. The additive enhancement of physical mechanism as well as competition among microflora within the wetland system and excretions from roots of C. indica plant might have been the reason of the significant highest removal of microbial indicators.
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Atkinson, Martin E. "The gastrointestinal system." In Anatomy for Dental Students. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199234462.003.0012.

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The mouth and pharynx are the first parts of the digestive system; they are the principal areas of the gastrointestinal system of interest to dental students and practitioners and are fully described in Chapters 25 and 28. The anatomy of the remainder of the system is described briefly to provide a working knowledge for applications in other aspects of undergraduate dental courses such as nutrition. In essence, the digestive tract is a long convoluted tube illustrated in Figure 6.1. It extends from the mouth, via the pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine to the anal canal. It is formed along most of its length by longitudinal and circular layers of smooth muscle. It is lined throughout by epithelium which shows marked structural differences from region to region to match different functional requirements of secretion of digestive enzymes, absorption of nutrients, and excretion of waste products. The liver and pancreas are large organs essential to the function of the gastrointestinal system. Food is ingested through the mouth and then prepared for swallowing by being broken up and mixed with saliva by the chewing action of the teeth. Saliva has a major lubricant and minor digestive function. The food is formed into a pellet or bolus and is then swallowed by being moved back by the tongue into the pharynx. Once food is in the pharynx, swallowing becomes a reflex mechanism designed to coordinate contraction of muscles to push the food through the pharynx and oesophagus to the stomach as well as ensuring food and drink do not enter the lower respiratory tract. Swallowing is complex, involving several sets of muscles in the head and neck and is described in more detail in Section 29.1. The passage of food along the remainder of the digestive tract is achieved by regular contractions (peristalsis) of the smooth muscle layers in its walls. The oesophagus is a muscular tube about 25 cm in length. It begins in the neck as a continuation of the pharynx and lies posterior to the trachea as it enters the thorax.
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Phillips, A. O., and Steve Riley. "Structure and function of the kidney." In Oxford Textbook of Medicine, 3809–16. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199204854.003.2101_update_001.

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The kidney is responsible for control of water, electrolyte (particularly sodium and potassium), and acid–base balance and for excretion of metabolic wastes, and it has important functions as an endocrine organ, including key roles in renin, vitamin D, and erythropoietin production or metabolism. The nephron—beginning at the glomerulus, the functional unit of the kidney is the nephron, through which glomerular filtrate passes to be finally excreted as urine. The nephron is divided into anatomically and functionally distinct sections that work together to maintain homeostasis....
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"Urinary system." In Oxford Assess and Progress: Medical Sciences, edited by Jade Chow, John Patterson, Kathy Boursicot, and David Sales. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199605071.003.0022.

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The kidneys are responsible for maintaining the constant chemical composition of body fluids. This process begins with high-pressure filtration in specialized glomerular capillaries located in the renal cortex. The pressure filtration produces an ultrafiltrate of plasma made up of the water and smaller molecules. As the fluid passes along the renal tubules, water, electrolytes, and non-electrolytes are reabsorbed in the required amounts by a process of selective reabsorption. Some active secretion of unwanted substances also occurs. Following this reabsorption the remaining tubule fluid is passed to the renal pelvis and then down the ureters to the bladder for storage until voided. The effort involved in all this is quite staggering. One-fifth of the daily cardiac output, about 1400 litres of whole blood, including 840 litres of plasma, passes through the kidneys. Of the 540 litres of plasma (the effective renal plasma flow) passing each day through the glomerular capillaries, one-fifth of the plasma water and small molecules are freely filtered at the glomeruli to produce about 170–180 litres per day of glomerular filtrate for the renal tubules. Since typically only 1–2 litres of urine are passed each day (that is about 1 ml per minute) 99 % of the initial filtrate is reabsorbed as the fluid passes along the renal tubules. In oliguria, urine production can fall below 300ml per day, as in severe dehydration. In situations causing polyuria, urine output can rise to several litres per day, or more, as in excessive water intake or untreated diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus. The kidney’s main functions are osmoregulation, acid–base balance, and the excretion of waste products of metabolism, notably urea. Osmoregulation is mostly under endocrine control by antidiuretic hormone and the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system. Acid–base balance is driven mainly by the carbon dioxide partial pressure in renal tubule cells, although kidneys work together with lungs and the control of breathing in overall acid–base balance. The kidney has important endocrine functions. It is the source of erythropoietin, the hormone that stimulates red blood cell production in hypoxia.
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