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Dobanovacki, Dusanka, Ljiljana Milovanovic, Andjelka Slavkovic, Milanka Tatic, Skeledzija Miskovic, Svetlana Skoric-Jokic, and Marija Pecanac. "Surgery before common era (B.C.E.)." Archive of Oncology 20, no. 1-2 (2012): 28–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/aoo1202028d.
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Based on skeleton examination, cave-paintings and mummies the study of prehistoric medicine tells that the surgical experience dated with skull trepanning, male circumcision and warfare wound healing. In prehistoric tribes, medicine was a mixture of magic, herbal remedy, and superstitious beliefs practiced by witch doctors. The practice of surgery was first recorded in clay tablets discovered in ancient rests of Mesopotamia, translation of which has nowadays been published in Diagnoses in Assyrian and Babylonian Medicine. Some simple surgical procedures were performed like puncture and drainage, scraping and wound treatment. The liability of physicians who performed surgery was noted in a collection of legal decisions made by Hammurabi about the principles of relationship between doctors and patients. Other ancient cultures had also had surgical knowledge including India, China and countries in the Middle East. The part of ancient Indian ayurvedic system of medicine devoted to surgery Sushruta Samhita is a systematized experience of ancient surgical practice, recorded by Sushruta in 500 B.C.E. Ancient Indian surgeons were highly skilled and familiar with a lot of surgical procedures and had pioneered plastic surgery. In the ancient Egyptian Empire medicine and surgery developed mostly in temples: priests were also doctors or surgeons, well specialized and educated. The Edwin Smith Papyrus, the world?s oldest surviving surgical text, was written in the 17th century B.C.E., probably based on material from a thousand years earlier. This papyrus is actually a textbook on trauma surgery, and describes anatomical observation and examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous injuries in detail. Excavated mummies reveal some of the surgical procedures performed in the ancient Egypt: excision of the tumors, puncture and drainage pus abscesses, dentistry, amputation and even skull trepanation, always followed by magic and spiritual procedures. Various types of instruments were innovated, in the beginning made of stone and bronze, later of iron. Under the Egyptian influence, surgery was developed in ancient Greece and in Roman Empire. Prosperity of surgery was mostly due to practice in treating numerous battlefield injuries. Records from the pre-Hippocrates period are poor, but after him, according to many writings, medicine and surgery became a science, medical schools were formed all over the Mediterranean, and surgeons were well-trained professionals. Ancient surgery closed a chapter when Roman Empire declined, standing-by up to the 18th century when restoration of the whole medicine began.
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Munt, Harry. "Warfare and Poetry in the Middle East." Middle Eastern Literatures 18, no. 1 (January 2, 2015): 95–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1475262x.2015.1075290.
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Anastasiou, Evilena, Kirsi O. Lorentz, Gil J. Stein, and Piers D. Mitchell. "Prehistoric schistosomiasis parasite found in the Middle East." Lancet Infectious Diseases 14, no. 7 (July 2014): 553–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1473-3099(14)70794-7.
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Skeates, Robin. "Visual Culture in Prehistoric South-east Italy." Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 68 (2002): 165–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0079497x00001493.
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Using the approach of visual culture, which highlights the embeddedness of art in dynamic human processes, this paper examines the prehistoric archaeology of the Lecce province in south-east Italy, in order to provide a history of successive visual cultures in that area, between the Middle Palaeolithic and the Bronze Age. It is argued that art may have helped human groups to deal with problems in subsistence and society, including environmental changes affecting the cultural landscape and its resources, the breaking up of old social relations and the establishment and maintenance of new ones. More specifically, art appears to have become increasingly related to the expression of religious and even mythical beliefs, and in particular to the performance of ceremonies and rituals in selected spaces such as caves. This may reflect the existence of a long-term tradition of performance art in prehistory, involving performers and viewers, in which art helped to structure and heighten the sensual and social impact of the acting human body.
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Tusa, Francis. "Responses to low intensity warfare: Barrier defences in the Middle East." RUSI Journal 133, no. 4 (December 1988): 36–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03071848808445327.
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Campbell, Stuart, and Elizabeth Healey. "Diversity in obsidian use in the prehistoric and early historic Middle East." Quaternary International 468 (February 2018): 141–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.09.023.
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Campbell, John C., and Steve Posner. "Israel Undercover: The Secret Warfare and Hidden Diplomacy in the Middle East." Foreign Affairs 66, no. 4 (1988): 886. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/20043543.
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Oliver, Kelly. "Women: The Secret Weapon of Modern Warfare?" Hypatia 23, no. 2 (June 2008): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001.2008.tb01182.x.
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The images from wars in the Middle East that haunt us are those of young women killing and torturing. Their media circulated stories share a sense of shock. They have both galvanized and confounded debates over feminism and women's equality. And, as Oliver argues in this essay, they share, perhaps subliminally, the problematic notion of women as both offensive and defensive weapons of war, a notion that is symptomatic of fears of women's “mysterious” powers.
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Knopová, Martina, and Eva Knopová. "The Third World War? In The Cyberspace. Cyber Warfare in the Middle East." Acta Informatica Pragensia 3, no. 1 (June 20, 2014): 23–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.18267/j.aip.33.
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Hughes, Geraint. "Militias in internal warfare: From the colonial era to the contemporary Middle East." Small Wars & Insurgencies 27, no. 2 (March 3, 2016): 196–225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2015.1129171.
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Faheem, Farrukh, Sajjad Hussain, and Wang Xingang. "SECTARIAN WAR IN THE MIDDLE EAST: IRAN, SAUDI ARABIA, PAKISTAN AND AN UNENDING WAR FOR REGIONAL HEGEMONY." Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews 9, no. 3 (June 25, 2021): 1230–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2021.93121.
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Purpose: This paper aims to explore the current chaotic condition of the Middle East that was fueled by the traditional competition between Saudi Arabia and Iran. s state and society in every field of life.
Principal Findings: The paper argues that the Saudi-Iran’s sectarian proxy warfare in the Middle East is a means to counter each other’s regional influence that has adverse implications for the internal security of Pakistan that can destroy its economy as well.
Methodology: This research is based on a qualitative approach and deductive method. The paper answers four main queries: To what extent the Iran–Saudi Rivalry a result of sectarian aspirations? How are both countries using proxy warfare methods in the region to realize their interests vis a vis each other? What is the role of external powers like the United States or Russia in proxy warfare? How does the competition between Iran and Saudi Arabia impact Pakistan?
Applications: The study concludes that the outcome of the predicament in the Middle East has produced policy challenges for Pakistan vis-à- vis its relations with Saudi Arabia and Iran. The growing threats of sectarianism, violent extremism, domestic Polarization, and danger to the economic development of Pakistan make it an important player in this competition.
Novelty: The traditional Conflict between Saudi and Iran affects the entire region of the Middle East. Sectarianism is one of the serious concerns of all Muslim countries today. It truly has both internal and external sources in other neighbouring Muslim states. Thus, this research provides an understanding to comprehend Pakistan’s internal and as well as external problems.
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Kuzmin, Yaroslav V., Alexander A. Vasilevski, Sergei V. Gorbunov, G. S. Burr, A. J. Timothy Jull, Lyobov A. Orlova, and Olga A. Shubina. "Chronology of Prehistoric Cultural Complexes of Sakhalin Island (Russian Far East)." Radiocarbon 46, no. 1 (2004): 353–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200039655.
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A chronological framework for the prehistoric cultural complexes of Sakhalin Island is presented based on 160 radiocarbon dates from 74 sites. The earliest 14C-dated site, Ogonki 5, corresponds to the Upper Paleolithic, about 19,500–17,800 BP. According to the 14C data, since about 8800 BP, there is a continuous sequence of Neolithic, Early Iron Age, and Medieval complexes. The Neolithic existed during approximately 8800–2800 BP. Transitional Neolithic-Early Iron Age complexes are dated to about 2800–2300 BP. The Early Iron Age may be dated to about 2500–1300 BP. The Middle Ages period is dated to approximately 1300–300 BP (VII–XVII centuries AD).
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Boyd, C. Clifford, and Donna C. Boyd. "A Multidimensional Investigation of Biocultural Relationships among Three Late Prehistoric Societies in Tennessee." American Antiquity 56, no. 1 (January 1991): 75–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/280974.
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Interrelations among three roughly contemporaneous late prehistoric Mississippian societies in Middle and East Tennessee are reexamined in terms of currently available biological, archaeological, and ethnohistoric data. Previous researchers have suggested a close relation between two of those cultures—Mouse Creek and Middle Cumberland—to the exclusion of the third, Dallas. However, multivariate analyses of craniofacial and mandibular dimensions of individuals from the three groups suggest a greater biological relation between Dallas and Mouse Creek than between Mouse Creek and Middle Cumberland. In addition, a comparison of intrasite settlement patterning, ceramic and mortuary variability, and ethnohistoric data across the three groups support the skeletal analysis. Relations between Dallas and Mouse Creek may mirror similar processes of sociopolitical reorganization occurring throughout the Southeast in the late prehistoric period.
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Bennett, Huw. "‘Words are cheaper than bullets’: Britain’s psychological warfare in the Middle East, 1945–60." Intelligence and National Security 34, no. 7 (June 18, 2019): 925–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02684527.2019.1628454.
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Sheffy, Yigal. "The Chemical Dimension of the Gallipoli Campaign: Introducing Chemical Warfare to the Middle East." War in History 12, no. 3 (July 2005): 278–317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1191/0968344505wh317oa.
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Ellis, Patricia. "Glanders: re-emergence of an ancient zoonosis." Microbiology Australia 41, no. 1 (2020): 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ma20011.
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Glanders, although known to be endemic in certain regions/countries of the Old and New Worlds for centuries, had been largely overlooked as a threat to equine and human health until the disease re-emerged in the Middle East in 2004. The exponential growth in international horse movements, both legal and illegal, mainly for performance purposes, has enhanced the risk of global spread of glanders in the Middle East and elsewhere. Ever since the First World War, the glanders bacillus has been recognised as a potential biological warfare agent.
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McDougall, James. "Sacral Suicides, Unpunishable Killings, Rites of Power." International Journal of Middle East Studies 45, no. 4 (October 15, 2013): 810–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743813000974.
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Studies of violence relating to the Middle East have sometimes done more harm than they have explained. Like the intended effects of the U.S. military's doctrine of “rapid dominance,” compared by its proponents to “tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes . . . famine and disease,” violence in the Middle East would appear to be “incomprehensible,” though less to “the people at large” who are affected by it than to its prolific theoreticians. Over the past two decades, much of the literature on the region as a “cauldron of war”—generating five times its share (by population size) of total global conflict since the mid-20th century—has tended to update and propagate well-known mythologies of primitivism, authoritarian personalities, and ancient hatreds. The significance of such mythopoeia has been its capacity to realize, at least in part, the conditions of its own truthfulness by shaping perception and policy, framing and enabling the infliction of a new wave of warfare on the region. Much contemporary writing on post–Cold War global crisis, the geopolitics of instability, regional conflict, and the future of warfare has not only signally failed to understand the dynamics of the Middle East but has actively contributed to the spread of violence in the region.
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Gdaniec, Kasia. "A miniature antler bow from a Middle Bronze Age site at Isleham, (Cambridgeshire), England." Antiquity 70, no. 269 (September 1996): 652–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00083782.
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A little bow — at less than half a metre long too small to be a practical tool — comes from the later prehistoric Fenland of east England. Along with the wristguards, fine arrowheads and smoothing stones of the British Bronze Age, it tells of the special meaning of archery in later prehistory — whether in the animal chase or in human combat.
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Perttula, Timothy K. "A Compendium of Radiocarbon and Oxidizable Carbon Ratio Dates from Archaeological Sites in East Texas, with A Discussion of the Age and Dating of Select Components and Phases." Radiocarbon 39, no. 3 (1997): 305–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200053297.
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This paper presents a compilation of the >520 radiocarbon and oxidizable carbon ratio dates obtained since the early 1950s from archaeological sites in East Texas. Many of the dates are from difficult-to-obtain sources, such as archaeological sites investigated during the course of cultural resource management projects. An analysis of the age ranges in the dates indicate that most pertain to prehistoric and protohistoric Caddoan Indian occupations, particularly the Early (ad 1000–1200) and Middle Caddoan (ad 1200–1400) periods when prehistoric Caddoan settlements were widely distributed throughout the region.
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Salamé, Ghassan. "Middle Easts, old and new1." Contemporary Arab Affairs 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17550910903471181.
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This article is the text of an address given by Ghassan Salamé at the ‘Oil and Money’ Conference convened in London, UK, on 21 October 2009. In it, the author deals with what the ambiguous, amorphous, elastic and politically expedient term ‘Middle East’ has connoted historically and what it may or may not denote in political formulations of a given moment. In particular, American, European, Turkish, Iranian, Israeli and Arab views – and the serious implications of these – are examined with superb economy of style. Whether as part of the US-delimited region of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) or whether as affiliated to the European Union via a Mediterranean Union based on trade relations, the exclusion or inclusion in the Middle East is not a simple matter where regional players such as Iran and Turkey have historical extraterritorial ambitions which would, yet again, appear to be coming to the fore – even when such may threaten internal balances. The author argues that Israel's position is increasingly problematic due not only to Palestinian demographics, but also to its recent experience against Hezbollah which has mastered asymmetrical warfare at a time when the ability of the United States to defend its primary ally in the region has been cast into doubt. The states of the Arab World have proved ineffectual and certain of them are looking to ‘escape’ from the Middle East into Africa (Libya) or looking to formulate a new regional constellation in which Turkey and Iran will play leading roles (Syria).
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Al-Rizzo, Hasan M. "The undeclared cyberspace war between Hezbollah and Israel*." Contemporary Arab Affairs 1, no. 3 (July 1, 2008): 391–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17550910802163889.
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The self explanatory title of this article adds a new dimension to the regional conflict. The use of cyberspace warfare in the Middle East is a topic that has been rarely addressed and the article provides interesting insights into various aspects and developments in this new type of conflict.
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Satia, Priya. "Sideshows at the Center - British Campaigns in the Middle East during the Great War." Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales (English edition) 71, no. 01 (March 2016): 79–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s2398568217000048.
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This article places the Middle East campaigns at the heart of the effort to understand the First World War's cultural impact in Britain. By doing so, it shows that the effects typically attributed to the western front—loss of faith in technology and heroism—were mediated in important ways by lessons emerging from the Middle Eastern fronts in Palestine and Mesopotamia, where the British found their faith in technology strengthened. By incorporating that cultural legacy, we can better understand why Britons remained committed to the war and why they maintained their faith in industrial development and imperial warfare after the war had ended. The heroic image of T. E. Lawrence and of the infrastructural development undertaken by the British military in Mesopotamia bolstered faith in technology and imperialism just when the western front was revealing their darker side. The article begins with a study of the unique military tactics the British adopted in the region, shaped by particular cultural notions about a largely imaginary “Arabia”: deception, irregular warfare, and airpower were used to an unprecedented degree in these campaigns. It goes on to show how the British government strove to capitalize on the propaganda effects of these “sideshows” as they became successful. In particular, they stressed the notion that the empire could find redemption in the restoration of the ancient “cradle of civilization.” Such ideas sustained idealistic notions even as the western front unleashed a new kind of cynicism.
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Beydoun, Z. R. "PREHISTORIC, ANCIENT AND MEDIAEVAL OCCURRENCES AND USES OF HYDROCARBONS IN THE GREATER MIDDLE EAST REGION." Journal of Petroleum Geology 20, no. 1 (January 1997): 91–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-5457.1997.tb00757.x.
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Cronin, Stephanie. "Importing Modernity: European Military Missions to Qajar Iran." Comparative Studies in Society and History 50, no. 1 (January 2008): 197–226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0010417508000108.
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In the first decades of the nineteenth century, when the Middle East and North Africa first began to attract the sustained attention of European imperialism and colonialism, Arab, Ottoman Turkish, and Iranian polities began a protracted experiment with army modernization. These decades saw a mania in the Middle East for the import of European methods of military organization and techniques of warfare. Everywhere, in the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, Egypt, and Iran, nizam-i jadid (new order) regiments sprang up, sometimes on the ruins of older military formations, sometimes alongside them, unleashing a process of military-led modernization that was to characterize state-building projects throughout the region until well into the twentieth century. The ruling dynasties in these regions embarked on army reform in a desperate effort to strengthen their defensive capacity, and to resist growing European hegemony and direct or indirect control by imitating European methods of military organization and warfare. Almost every indigenous ruler who succeeded in evading or warding off direct European control, from the sultans of pre-Protectorate Morocco in the west to the shahs of the Qajar dynasty in Iran in the east, invited European officers, sometimes as individuals, sometimes as formal missions, to assist with building a modern army. With the help of these officers, Middle Eastern rulers thus sought to appropriate the secrets of European power.
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Shikaki, Khalil I. "Israel's Nuclear Capability: Nuclear Warfare in the Middle East: Dimensions and Responsibilities. . Taysir N. Nashif." Journal of Palestine Studies 15, no. 4 (July 1986): 156–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/jps.1986.15.4.00p0330s.
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Meaden, G. Terence. "Editorial: Advances in understanding megaliths and related prehistoric lithic monuments." Journal of Lithic Studies 4, no. 3 (November 3, 2017): 1–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.2218/jls.v4i3.1945.
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Standing stones and megalithic monuments are impressive remains from a remote prehistoric world that for the British Isles began some 6000 years ago and led to a cultural flowering that peaked in the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age with the rise of fine megalithic monuments like Newgrange, Knowth, Drombeg, Maeshowe, Avebury and Stonehenge. Nearby on the European continent, what may be called an era involving megalithic culture had begun a few centuries earlier (as at Carnac and Locmariaquer), and still earlier in the Mediterranean lands and islands (e.g., the Tarxien Temple in Malta), south-eastern Europe, the Near and Middle East, and India beyond.
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Smith, Maria Ostendorf, and Tracy K. Betsinger. "Caries as an archaeological problem-solving tool: reconstructing subsistence patterns in late prehistoric west-central Tennessee." Dental Anthropology Journal 32, no. 2 (July 19, 2019): 51–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.26575/daj.v32i2.299.
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The dentition from two Middle Mississippian period (~AD 1100-1350) site samples (Gray Farm [~AD 1150-1400], Link/Slayden [~AD 1200-1400]) from the Kentucky Lake Reservoir of west-central Tennessee area are examined for the presence of caries to assess whether a maize-intensive subsistence economy is evident or the retention of the cultivation of domesticated native seeds (i.e., the Eastern Agricultural Complex). Given the absence of archaeological context, the caries prevalence operates as an archaeological problem-solving tool. The caries prevalence by tooth type are compared to a Late Woodland period (~AD 400-900) site sample (Hobbs) from the Kentucky Lake Reservoir as well as three unequivocal maize-intensive site samples from the Late Mississippian period (~AD 1300-1550) of East Tennessee. The Gray Farm site aligns statistically with the maize-intensive samples; Link/Slayden does not and resembles the caries prevalence of the Hobbs sample. The Mississippianization process in the Kentucky Lake Reservoir clearly varies in the adoption of maize as a primary cultigen. This may reflect the difference in geo-political location of Gray Farm and Link/Slayden relative to neighboring Mississippian economies, particularly to the east (Middle Cumberland Culture), or it may reflect potential temporal differences among the Middle Mississippian period settlements within the Kentucky Lake Reservoir.
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Kerig, Tim. "Prehistoric mining." Antiquity 94, no. 375 (May 21, 2020): 802–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2020.75.
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Prehistoric copper mining in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula continues the previous work on copper mining by the editors and main authors N. Rafel Fontanals, M.A. Hunt Ortiz, I. Soriano and S. Delgado-Raack. The site La Turquesa, a deposit mainly of Gossan type (iron cap), belongs to the same fault zone and mining basin as the already published Solano del Bepo (Rafel Fontanals et al. 2017). Mining of copper and lead (galena) at the site cannot certainly be traced back into prehistory, let alone to the Neolithic, and the earliest radiometric dates point to mining beginning before the early Middle Ages. The typo-chronology of mining tools is inconclusive, as is usual at these sites, and as the reader may infer from the comprehensive 80-page catalogue of hammerstones and picks. In his archaeo-metallurgical chapter, Montero Ruiz concludes convincingly that, currently, the most reliable date for mining at La Turquesa is in the Copper Age or the Early Bronze Age: the isotope signature of the mine's ore seems to accord with isotope ratios measured in a handful of artefacts from that period. The geology and mineralogy of the deposit is instructively summarised, adding archaeologically relevant information on visibility, accessibility and workability (with A. Andreazini and J.C. Melgarejo as co-authors). Traces of prehistoric opencast copper mining in small and irregular shafts have been heavily damaged by nineteenth- or twentieth-century mining of turquoise and variscite (with accessory chalcopyrite and malachite). The archaeological documentation of shafts and galleries from recent and pre-industrial times is cursory and does not fully attend to the three-dimensionality of the deposit. The use of more up-to-date measurement technology would have offered a clearer understanding of the site in its excavation, analysis and publication. No traces of tools were documented, making it impossible to combine the mineralogy of the deposit with the practical mining work. Without any quantitative information on heap material the mine's productivity cannot be estimated. The discovery of evidence for fire-setting using thermoluminescence (detailed in the chapter by A.L. Rodrigues et al.) seemed a promising test for archaeological hypotheses. Unfortunately, the palynological sediment sample gives a terminus ante quem of the seventh or eighth century AD (chapter by S. Pérez Díaz and J.A. López Sáez). Alongside unpublished indeterminate pottery, 117 mining tools are described in detail (including use-wear, lithology and surface types). Comparison with material from nearby Solana del Bepo (Rafel Fontanals et al. 2017) reveals that the artefacts from La Turquesa are less sophisticated and more opportunistic: mainly hammerstones modified during use or simple picks, sometimes with a picked groove that indicates hafting. Delgado-Raack argues convincingly that the tools were used in a context of direct extraction, for crushing the rock as well as for fragment-crushing copper ore at the site.
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Hashim, Ahmed. "The state, society, and the evolution of warfare in the middle east: The rise of strategic deterrence?" Washington Quarterly 18, no. 4 (December 1995): 53–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01636609509550170.
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Antanaitis, Indre R. "Interpreting the Meaning of East Baltic Neolithic Symbols." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 8, no. 1 (April 1998): 55–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095977430000130x.
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Three sets of symbolic material from sites of the East Baltic Neolithic non-Corded Ware culture c. 6500–3500 bp are presented and compared in order to interpret certain aspects of the ideology of these prehistoric communities, specifically as it relates to their faunal environment and gender distinctions. Approaches taken consist of: 1) statistical analysis of a data base of anthropomorphic and zoomorphic symbols, and grave good inventories as they relate to gender; 2) comparison of frequencies of faunal types represented in the economy and in zoomorphic symbols; and 3) a cross-cultural comparison of contexts of the most frequently occurring Neolithic animal symbols in East Baltic historic mythology, folkore, and ethnography. It is hoped that the results of these multiple and varied approaches can serve as a middle ground between vague abstract theorizing about Neolithic ideology on the one hand, and a wealth of infrequently addressed symbolic material on the other.
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Orhan, Mehmet. "Political violence and insurgencies in the Middle East: Social movements, diffusion of armed conflicts, and proxy wars." Irish Journal of Sociology 27, no. 3 (March 12, 2019): 251–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0791603519835430.
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Political violence is a key theme in understanding the historical and contemporary Middle East characterized by different religious, social, and political revolts. It is thus salient to analyze why political violence emerges, how it is diffused, and why it takes different configurations during insurgencies. In order to study these questions, this article establishes three analytical frameworks: interdependency among violence and social movements, diffusion of violence, and proxy warfare. First, I argue that political violence and mobilization are interdependent processes which are shaped by personal, local, and historical dynamics. Secondly, violence is more likely to spread among the societies displaying similar political, religious, or ethnic characteristics, in particular, if there are individuals and militant organizations who take it as a model in order to affect the conflict. Finally, this violence, which depends on local and regional factors, often intersects with global politics and its path is altered as a result.
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Reno, William. "Fictional States & Atomized Public Spheres: A Non-Western Approach to Fragility." Daedalus 146, no. 4 (October 2017): 139–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/daed_a_00465.
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This essay explains why political order in some places gives way to especially persistent conflict and prolonged state institutional collapse. State failure is rooted in decades of personalist rule, as leaders have sought to fragment and disorganize institutions and social groups that they thought would be possible bases of opposition. This problem was considered particular to sub-Saharan Africa, but now parts of the Middle East and Central Asia exhibit this connection between a particular type of authoritarian rule and state failure. State failure in these countries produces multisided warfare that reflects the fragmentation upon which prewar regimes relied for their protection. Policy-makers are thus faced with the dilemma of propping up personalist regimes that present themselves as bulwarks against disorder at the same time that their domestic strategies of governance play a central role in creating the conditions of protracted multisided warfare in the event that they fail.
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Sbonias, Kostas, Iris Tzachili, Maya Efstathiou, Clairy Palyvou, Costas Athanasiou, Emeri Farinetti, and Dorina Moullou. "THE EARLY AND MIDDLE BRONZE AGE SETTLEMENT AT KOIMISIS, THERASIA: PERIODS OF HABITATION AND ARCHITECTURE." Annual of the British School at Athens 115 (June 11, 2020): 105–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0068245420000039.
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The study of the history of the first excavations on prehistoric Therasia in the nineteenth century, which were carried out in the context of contemporary scientific interest in the volcanic eruptions of Santorini, has led to the systematic archaeological investigation of the island from 2007 onwards. The intensive archaeological surface survey, the geological survey of the geological structure and palaeotopography of Therasia, and geophysical investigations, undertaken in conjunction with the ongoing excavation of the prehistoric settlement at the site of Panaghia Koimisis at the southern end of modern Therasia, have created the conditions for a more comprehensive approach to the archaeological landscape of the island. Based on the results from the excavation trenches in the south and south-east terraces of the Koimisis hill, which have been excavated down to the virgin soil, we present findings on the organisation, architecture and habitation phases of the Koimisis settlement. The site emerges as an important settlement located on the imposing hilltop rising on the west side of the pre-eruption Santorini caldera in the Early Bronze Age, with a long period of habitation to the end of the Middle Cycladic period, when it was definitively abandoned. The excavation of the settlement provides new information on its architecture and spatial organisation during the Early and Middle Bronze Age, completing the picture from Akrotiri, whose early phases are preserved in a piecemeal fashion under the buildings of the Late Cycladic town.
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Wengrow, David, Michael Dee, Sarah Foster, Alice Stevenson, and Christopher Bronk Ramsey. "Cultural convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: a prehistoric perspective on Egypt's place in Africa." Antiquity 88, no. 339 (March 2014): 95–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00050249.
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The African origins of Egyptian civilisation lie in an important cultural horizon, the ‘primary pastoral community’, which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese parts of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BC. A re-examination of the chronology, assisted by new AMS determinations from Neolithic sites in Middle Egypt, has charted the detailed development of these new kinds of society. The resulting picture challenges recent studies that emphasise climate change and environmental stress as drivers of cultural adaptation in north-east Africa. It also emphasises the crucial role of funerary practices and body decoration.
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Veebel, Viljar. "Is the European Migration Crisis Caused by Russian Hybrid Warfare?" Journal of Politics and Law 13, no. 2 (May 17, 2020): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jpl.v13n2p44.
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Recent developments in European security situation, starting with the Russia-Ukraine conflict, followed by the complicated Brexit and political instability in the Middle East and North Africa, have given rise to instability in the European Union. Yet, none of the other factors could be compared with the risks caused by the massive influx of refugees into the EU that challenges both solidarity and responsibility of the member states. In this context, it is extremely important to understand the actual security threats related to the refugee crisis and the root causes of growing refugee flows. This article discusses the roots of large-scale migration flows in the European Union (EU) over the present decade and investigates the potential link between migration flows and modern hybrid warfare, referring to the coordination of various modes of warfare, such as military and non-military means, conventional and non-conventional capabilities, state and non-state actors with an aim to cause instability and disarrangement. It is intriguing to investigate whether the increase in migration flows could be linked to present confrontation in the global arena on the Russia-West axis. Common patterns of migration flows from Syria and Ukraine to the EU are discussed, as well as policy recommendations are given to diminish the negative impact of similar events in the future.
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Lyman, R. Lee. "Late-Quaternary diminution and abundance of prehistoric bison (Bisonsp.) in eastern washington State, USA." Quaternary Research 62, no. 1 (July 2004): 76–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2004.04.001.
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Bison (Bisonspp.) occurred in eastern Washington state during the late Quaternary. This area is considered to be peripheral to the center of this taxon's natural range. Bison in the plains east of the Rocky Mountains, the heart of this range, underwent diminution during the late Quaternary, and apparently also did so in other, peripheral areas. A ratio diagram of measurement data derived from eight zooarchaeological collections of bison remains recovered from eastern Washington, in combination with the presence of both sexes and all age classes of individuals, indicate that local bison may have also undergone diminution there. There are, however, a relative paucity of bison remains during the middle Holocene and an apparent 2000-year absence of bison from eastern Washington at this time. As a result, the hypothesis that bison became smaller elsewhere and then immigrated to eastern Washington cannot be falsified. Both the diminution and the fluctuating abundance of bison appear to be responses to forage quality and quantity.
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Kocak, Ozdemir, and Omur Esen. "ROUTE DETERMINATION OF HISTORICAL ROADS BY LOCATION OF PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENTS: NORTH OF LAKE EBER." International Journal of Heritage, Art and Multimedia 4, no. 13 (June 15, 2021): 11–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.35631/ijham.413002.
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Prehistoric settlements are prominent among the most important representatives of the cultural heritage in Turkey. These settlements are important for understanding the social, cultural, and economic conditions of the people who had lived in the past. As a matter of fact, these ancient settlements (mounds) and their locations to each other are taken as a basis in understanding the prehistoric routes. In this study, a route is identified beginning from the settlements in the north of a lake called Eber Gölü, which is located in the western part of Turkey. In this project, the study methods of Ancient History, Archaeology and Geodesy, and Photogrammetry Engineering are used. According to that, first old settlements are identified, three-dimensional maps of these settlements are created and dating is carried on based on the ceramics (sherds) that are found on the settlements. All of this data is then overlapped. Successive settlements are observed in the east-west direction in the north of Lake Eber. These settlements reach a large mound called Üçhöyük in the westernmost part. In the east, it extends in different directions. Findings dating back to the 5th millennium BC (Chalcolithic Age) were found in these mounds. It is understood that the ceramics among these finds reflect a common tradition. This also supports the connection between these settlements. It is also possible to see some of these settlements from other settlements by the naked eye. Thus, it can be thought that the settlements in the north of the aforesaid lake have been in contact with each other since the prehistoric period. It can also be said that this relationship started in the Chalcolithic Age, continued during the Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age, Hellenistic Period, and Roman Period, because it is determined that the findings (especially sherds) belonging to these periods are very similar.
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Mattessich, Richard. "PREHISTORIC ACCOUNTING AND THE PROBLEM OF REPRESENTATION: ON RECENT ARCHEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF THE MIDDLE-EAST FROM 8000 B.C. TO 3000 B.C." Accounting Historians Journal 14, no. 2 (September 1, 1987): 71–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/0148-4184.14.2.71.
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Recent archeological research offers revolutionary insight about the precursor of abstract counting and pictographic as well as ideographic writing. This precursor was a data processing system in which simple (and later complex) clay tokens of various shapes were aggregated in hollow clay receptacles or envelopes (and later sealed string systems) to represent symbolically assets and economic transactions. Scores of such tokens (the recent explanation of which is due to Prof. Schmandt-Besserat) were found by archeologists all over the Fertile Crescent in layers belonging to the time between 8000 B.C. to 3100 B.C. — after this date cuneiform clay tablets emerged. The economic-philosophic implications of this discovery are important. First, it suggests that accounting preceded abstract counting as well as writing. Second, it suggests that conceptual representation emerged gradually. Third, it confirms the previous hypotheses that counting emerged in several stages. Fourth, it reveals the existence of an abstract input-output principle some 10,000 years ago and a kind of double entry over 5,000 years ago. Finally, it offers the earliest illustration of the (occasional) validity of the correspondence theory. To assist readers I have inserted at the beginning of the fifth section some explanatory paragraphs on Wittgenstein's work.
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Nesterov, Dmitrii Aleksandrovich. "Warfare against terrorism and colonial experience of European powers in the expert opinions of RAND Corporation." Конфликтология / nota bene, no. 3 (March 2020): 43–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0617.2020.3.32469.
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The subject of this research is the expert opinions of RAND Corporation prepared during the warfare against terrorism. Their characteristic feature consists in reference to the colonial experience of the leading European powers in counter-insurgency. Special attention is given to the analysis of two vectors in the activity RAND Corporation: publication of the articles of 1960s-1970s dedicated to the problems of anti-insurrection and adaptation of the colonial experience of counter-insurgency activity to the new conditions of warfare against terrorism in the Near and Middle East. The selected methodology demonstrates how the leading powers perceive the role of colonial knowledge in ensuring domestic security in the “third world” countries (it refers to the lessons of history analyzed on the expert level within the framework of historical modeling of asymmetric conflicts). The conclusion is made that the expert opinions of RAND Corporation virtually resemble the key expert opinions of the time of Vietnam War, but adjusted them to the current conditions of warfare against terrorism. The aforementioned works were rather used for justification of the decisions of political and military elites, and clarification of the context and origins of the new American anti-insurrection doctrine to mainstream audience, as well as to the U. S. officials and commanders inexperienced in subjection of the rebels.
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Kemp, Walter, and Leopold Schmertzing. "Threats and Challenges to the osce Area." Security and Human Rights 25, no. 2 (June 22, 2014): 242–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18750230-02502002.
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In regards to the next five to ten years, the erosion of the international rule of law and the laws of war, as well as the violent struggle over territorial integrity, self-determination and role of kin-states will probably be the most important threats for the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. Other challenges are increasing incentives for an international arms race coupled with the introduction of new modes of warfare, as well as the spill over of the brutal conflicts in the region of Middle East and North Africa, the rising aggressiveness of authoritarian systems, looming trade and energy confrontations and the failures of social integration and inequality.
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Harrison, R. M. "Amorium 1987: A Preliminary Survey." Anatolian Studies 38 (December 1988): 175–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3642849.
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Amorium is in eastern Phrygia, 170 km. south-west of Ankara, 70 km. north-east of Afyon, 12 km. east of the town of Emirdaǧ, and near the source of the Sakarya (Sangarius) (Fig. 1). It lies on the north-facing lower slopes of the mountains of Emirdaǧ (the Turkish town, previously called Aziziye, has the same name), and the ancient site of Amorium lies within the relatively recent village of Hisarköy. The mountain of Emirdaǧ gives rise to various streams which flow into a tributary of the Sakarya, and at Amorium the view to the north extends over some 50 km., showing, in the middle distance, the tree-lined course of the river, and the mountains of Sivrihisar beyond. The ancient town (which includes a large prehistoric hüyük) was mentioned by Strabo, and indeed the name of Amorium appeared earlier on coins, in the second or first century B.C. The site was rediscovered by W. J. Hamilton in 1836.
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Khvorykh, Gennady V., Oleh A. Mulyar, Larisa Fedorova, Andrey V. Khrunin, Svetlana A. Limborska, and Alexei Fedorov. "Global Picture of Genetic Relatedness and the Evolution of Humankind." Biology 9, no. 11 (November 10, 2020): 392. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biology9110392.
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We performed an exhaustive pairwise comparison of whole-genome sequences of 3120 individuals, representing 232 populations from all continents and seven prehistoric people including archaic and modern humans. In order to reveal an intricate picture of worldwide human genetic relatedness, 65 million very rare single nucleotide polymorphic (SNP) alleles have been bioinformatically processed. The number and size of shared identical-by-descent (IBD) genomic fragments for every pair of 3127 individuals have been revealed. Over 17 million shared IBD fragments have been described. Our approach allowed detection of very short IBD fragments (<20 kb) that trace common ancestors who lived up to 200,000 years ago. We detected nine distinct geographical regions within which individuals had strong genetic relatedness, but with negligible relatedness between the populations of these regions. The regions, comprising nine unique genetic components for mankind, are the following: East and West Africa, Northern Europe, Arctica, East Asia, Oceania, South Asia, Middle East, and South America. The level of admixture in every studied population has been apportioned among these nine genetic components. Genetically, long-term neighboring populations are strikingly similar to each other in spite of any political, religious, and cultural differences. The topmost admixture has been observed at the center of Eurasia. These admixed populations (including Uyghurs, Azerbaijanis, Uzbeks, and Iranians) have roughly equal genetic contributions from the Middle East, Europe, China, and India, with additional significant traces from Africa and Arctic. The entire picture of relatedness of all the studied populations unfolds and presents itself in the form of shared number/size of IBDs.
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Kuzmin, Yaroslav V., A. J. T. Jull, Lyobov A. Orlova, and Leopold D. Sulerzhitsky. "14C Chronology of Stone Age Cultures in the Russian Far East." Radiocarbon 40, no. 2 (1997): 675–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200018610.
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Ca. 150 unequivocal 14C dates from the prehistoric cultures in the Russian Far East can be used to elucidate chrono-cultural boundaries in that region. Microblade technology started as early as ca. 20,000 bp, and continued to exist in the middle Amur River basin until ca. 10,500 bp, and in Primorye until ca. 7800 bp. The emergence of pottery-making in the lower Amur River basin goes back to ca. 13,300 bp. The transition from Upper Paleolithic to Neolithic took place during the time interval 13,300–7800 bp and pottery was widely spread in the Russian Far East by ca. 6700–8400 bp. The first evidence of shellfish collection is estimated to ca. 6400 bp at Peter the Great Gulf coast, Sea of Japan. The beginning of agriculture in Primorye, based on finding of both millet seeds (Setaria italica L.) and pollen of cultivated cereals (Cerealia), is 14C-dated to ca. 4200–3700 bp (ca. 1980–2900 cal BC). The Neolithic/Early Iron Age boundary was estimated at ca. 3100–3300 bp (1400–1600 cal BC) in the mainland Russian Far East, and to ca. 1800–2300 bp (400 cal BC–200 cal ad) on the Sakhalin and southern Kuril Islands.
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Kuzmin, Yaroslav V. "Reconstruction of Prehistoric and Medieval Dietary Patterns in the Russian Far East: A Review of Current Data." Radiocarbon 57, no. 4 (2015): 571–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2458/azu_rc.57.18426.
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An overview of current knowledge on the human paleodiet of the southern Russian Far East is presented. The earliest data are available for the Neolithic complexes of Primorye Province, dated to ~7000–5800 BP. For 10 humans from the coastal site of Boisman 2, a heavy reliance on marine fish and mammals (~70–80% of the total diet) has been established; this is similar to the Jomon and Chulmun complexes of Hokkaido Island and Korea. For two individuals from the inland site of Chertovy Vorota, a mixture of terrestrial and riverine (including anadromous species such as salmon, ~25% of the total diet) food resources is evident. In the Amur River basin, the diet of the Paleometal (i.e. Bronze/Early Iron Ages) population (dated to ~2500–1800 BP) was probably based on a mixture of C4 plants (millet, ~50–60% of the total diet), C3 plants, and terrestrial animals, while in the Middle Ages (~1500–300 BP) the contribution of C4 food was lower at ~20–25%. On Sakhalin Island, the maritime-oriented economy existed for a long time, at least since the Late Neolithic/Paleometal Age (dated to ~2500–1800 BP) and until the ethnographic time period (from the 17th–18th centuries AD onwards). Up to ~80–90% of the diet consisted of marine mammals and fish, and this is in accord with dietary patterns of the Epi-Jomon and Okhotsk cultural complexes on Hokkaido Island. Information on the paleodiet of the coastal populations of the Japan and Okhotsk Seas should be taken into account when calibration of 14C dates run on human bones from these regions is undertaken, because the predominant consumption of marine food caused a distortion of the true 14C age.
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Huot, Jean-Louis. "Robert A. Carter & Graham Philip (éd.), Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration in the Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East." Syria, no. 89 (January 1, 2012): 397–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/syria.1030.
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Higgins, Reynold. "A gold diadem from Aegina." Journal of Hellenic Studies 107 (November 1987): 182. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/630083.
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A recent discovery on the island of Aegina by Professor H. Walter (University of Salzburg) throws a new light on the origins of the so-called Aegina Treasure in the British Museum.In 1982 the Austrians were excavating the Bronze Age settlement on Cape Kolonna, to the north-west of Aegina town. Immediately to the east of the ruined Temple of Apollo, and close to the South Gate of the prehistoric Lower Town, they found an unrobbed shaft grave containing the burial of a warrior. The gravegoods (now exhibited in the splendid new Museum on the Kolonna site) included a bronze sword with a gold and ivory hilt, three bronze daggers, one with gold fittings, a bronze spear-head, arrowheads of obsidian, boar's tusks from a helmet, and fragments of a gold diadem (plate Va). The grave also contained Middle Minoan, Middle Cycladic, and Middle Helladic (Mattpainted) pottery. The pottery and the location of the grave in association with the ‘Ninth City’ combine to give a date for the burial of about 1700 BC; and the richness of the grave-goods would suggest that the dead man was a king.
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Holladay, A. J. "The forethought of Themistocles." Journal of Hellenic Studies 107 (November 1987): 182–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/630084.
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A recent discovery on the island of Aegina by Professor H. Walter (University of Salzburg) throws a new light on the origins of the so-called Aegina Treasure in the British Museum.In 1982 the Austrians were excavating the Bronze Age settlement on Cape Kolonna, to the north-west of Aegina town. Immediately to the east of the ruined Temple of Apollo, and close to the South Gate of the prehistoric Lower Town, they found an unrobbed shaft grave containing the burial of a warrior. The gravegoods (now exhibited in the splendid new Museum on the Kolonna site) included a bronze sword with a gold and ivory hilt, three bronze daggers, one with gold fittings, a bronze spear-head, arrowheads of obsidian, boar's tusks from a helmet, and fragments of a gold diadem (plate Va). The grave also contained Middle Minoan, Middle Cycladic, and Middle Helladic (Mattpainted) pottery. The pottery and the location of the grave in association with the ‘Ninth City’ combine to give a date for the burial of about 1700 BC; and the richness of the grave-goods would suggest that the dead man was a king.
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Alofs, Eduard. "Studies on Mounted Warfare in Asia II: The Iranian Tradition – The Armoured Horse Archer in the Middle East, c. ce 550–1350." War in History 22, no. 1 (December 16, 2014): 4–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0968344513518333.
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Bejenaru, Luminiţa, George Bodi, Simina Stanc, and Mihaela Danu. "Middle Holocene subsistence east of the Romanian Carpathians: Bioarchaeological data from the Chalcolithic site of Poduri-Dealul Ghindaru." Holocene 28, no. 10 (June 27, 2018): 1653–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959683618782609.
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The paper analyzes the archaeobotanical and archaeozoological remains originating from the middle Holocene (i.e. Chalcolithic site of Poduri- Dealul Ghindaru, in Eastern Romania, Bacău County). Poduri- Dealul Ghindaru site is the only tell settlement known in the area of existence of the Cucuteni culture, with inhabitation levels from Neolithic to the Bronze Age. In order to better understand the diet components of the prehistoric inhabitation belonging to the Cucuteni A and Cucuteni B phases, we follow evidence from archaeozoology, carpology, and palynology. For the carpological taxa, we calculate their ubiquity, diversity, and edibility score. The two sets of taxa are then compared in their similarity. Palynological data record the presence of cereal grains in all samples. We present the archaeozoological taxa with their quantification values and we calculate for the Cucuteni A and B phases, and in comparison with the Bronze Age sample, their richness, Shannon–Weaver diversity index and equitability. A correspondence analysis is carried out in order to compare the exploitation strategies for the three assemblages. For the archaeobotanical data, we find that the Cucuteni A phase is dominated by anthropogenic activity indicators and a heavy reliance on cereals. The Cucuteni B phase seems to be characterized by a restriction of human activity. The archaeozoological data highlight a preference for large mammals (cattle, dear, boar) during Cucuteni A and BA and smaller mammals during Cucuteni B (sheep/goat, pig, hare). We conclude that although the subsistence strategies remain similar, the dietary components change during the Cucuteni A and B phases, probably in response to environmental changes.
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Sumantri, Dirga Imam Gozali, Dicky A. S. Soeria Atmadja, and Pindi Setiawan. "Sangkulirang Mangkalihat: The Earliest Prehistoric Rock-Art in the World." Proceedings of the ICA 1 (May 16, 2018): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/ica-proc-1-108-2018.
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Borneo island, a part of Sundaland &ndash; a great mainland in South East Asia thousands of years ago &ndash; is the largest island in Indonesian Archipelago. In the middle-eastern of East Borneo, lies a peninsula karst region named Sangkulirang Mangkalihat. The region’s biodiversity contains many species of flora and fauna which are part of karst ecosystem.<br> Surprisingly, thousands prehistoric rock art paintings and engraving were found here, spread over 48 inland caves in seven different karst mountain areas. The rock arts are painted on the ceiling, wall, and hollow of the cave depends on the meaning. They illustrate forms such as spiritual images (zoomorphic and antropomorphic) for sacred spiritual meaning, and social phenomenon images (tools and weapons) for description of daily life. From all those rock-arts, hand paintings are the most common elements appeared. Compared to other paintings, these are the only negative images using different techniques.<br> Radiocarbon dating indicated that the rock-arts at Tewet Cave in Sangkulirang Mangkalihat is 40,000&thinsp;BP. It is much earlier compared to Lascaux Cave (35,400&thinsp;BP) and Chauvet Cave (32,000) in France which were previously known as the earliest one in the world.<br> Rock arts and some archeological findings also indicate the migration of Austronesian People. During the migration, Borneo’s climate and land cover were changing from time to time. Continental climate occurred when all Sundaland was still dry (40,000&ndash;21,000&thinsp;BP), followed by tropical savanna climate and archipelagic climate (12,000&ndash;7.000&thinsp;BP), and then Tropical Rainforest consecutively (1,000&thinsp;BP). Correlatively, geological interpretations from such areas indicate land cover changes. These changes effected Austronesian ways of living, e.g. from hunting to fishing, and were depicted clearly on their paintings.<br> Today, &ndash; as observed from time series satellite images &ndash; industrial activities such as karst exploitation for cement production and land clearing for palm oil plantation are threatening Sangkulirang Mangkalihat as they are approaching this particular areas. Efforts were conducted to preserve these particular sites, from establishing local regulations to a great step to propose it as one of UNESCO’s World Cultural Heritage.<br> To disseminate its importance as the world’s earliest known rock arts, a particular map should be designed. The map should be able to describe multiple aspects regarding these sites, i.e. its location and position among other world rock arts, detail locations in the sites, climate and geomorphological changes occurred and its effects to these rock arts, its correlation to prehistoric migration, and threats faced today from industrial activities. An integrated, multiscale representation of such geospatial informations is considered.