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1
Krulder, Joseph. "War in an Age of Revolution, 1775–1815." International History Review 34, no. 1 (March 2012): 180–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2012.667628.
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Haynes, Christine. "The Nineteenth Century." French Politics, Culture & Society 40, no. 3 (December 1, 2022): 99–127. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/fpcs.2022.400305.
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In a self-reflective introduction to what was, sadly, his last publication, an essay collection, John Merriman lamented that the nineteenth century has been forgotten among historians of France. Noting the absence of books on this period in the Fnac bookstore at Les Halles in Paris, he wrote the following: In thinking about French history from 1815 to the present, one thing now seems perfectly clear to me. As time moves relentlessly along, the century between 1815 and World War I is in some ways far less visible than it was when I became a historian.…For years the shelves [of such bookstores] had been organized chronologically: the French Revolution and Napoleon, then the nineteenth century, subdivided, and then the Great War. But the sections now jumped from Napoleon to the Great War! What had happened to the long nineteenth century? (What happened to my books?)…The revolutions of 1830 and 1848, which had so engaged folks like me for quite some time, seemed to have had their day.
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White, Eugene Nelson. "The French Revolution and the Politics of Government Finance, 1770–1815." Journal of Economic History 55, no. 2 (June 1995): 227–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700041048.
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Although largely neglected in most histories of the French Revolution, the central government’s persistent budget deficit was a factor of paramount importance. The fiscal crisis inherited from the monarchy defied solution because of the war of attrition fought by economic interest groups. The struggle produced radical changes in macroeconomic policy to shift the burden of adjustment, altering the course of and prolonging the Revolution.
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Wahnich, Sophie, Alexander Dunlop, and Sylvia Schafer. "Class Struggle and Culture Wars in the Springtime of the French Revolution, Year II (1794)." History of the Present 10, no. 2 (October 1, 2020): 209–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/21599785-8351832.
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Abstract In the spring of Year II (1794), the future of French society was uncertain. This article looks at the response to the uncertainty of three members of the Committee on Public Safety, who discussed the need to choose between a revolutionary political community and civil war, even as they disagreed about what form the future republic should take.
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Phillips, Peter. "Replanting Douai in the North of England, 1794–1808." Recusant History 29, no. 3 (May 2009): 367–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0034193200012206.
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Founded by William Allen in 1568 as a temporary haven for the English Catholic exiles, the English College at Douai, had given good service to the English Catholic community, but with the turmoil of Revolution, the execution of Louis XVI in January 1793, and the French declaration of war on England the following month, it became clear that the days of the College were numbered. Students, acting on advice from worried parents, made their way home to England as best they could. The story of these years is vividly preserved in a number of contemporary accounts. At first things went on generally as before: Douai was one of the last cities in the northern provinces of France to join the revolution but tension in the town was high. One of the first victims of the mob was the College printer, Charles Derbaix, a leading Douai bookseller who owned ‘The Golden Compasses’ (sub signo Circini aurei), in the Via Scholarum. Together with a local tradesman, accused of illicit dealings in corn, he was taken by the mob and hanged à la lanterne on suspicion of distributing loyalist propaganda.
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Kim, Woosang. "Power Transitions and Great Power War from Westphalia to Waterloo." World Politics 45, no. 1 (October 1992): 153–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2010522.
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This study extends recent research on the power transition and hegemonic stability theory to the preindustrial era. It improves on the original power transition theory by relaxing an assumption and by extending the empirical domain. Unlike the original power transition theory, the revised version is not restricted to the period after the industrial revolution and can therefore be applied to the preindustrial era. This study examines the empirical record prior to the industrial revolution to see whether the power transition and hegemonic stability theory holds for that period. The data for 1648 to 1815 indicate strong support for the power transition contention that a rough equality of power between rival sides increases the likelihood of war. That is, when the challenging great power, with its allies' support, catches up with the dominant power, great power war is most likely.
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Soulas, Nicolas. "Le royalisme municipal. Étude prosopographique des édiles nommés par le roi au début de la Restauration : l’exemple de la vallée du Rhône (1814-1820)." Annales du Midi : revue archéologique, historique et philologique de la France méridionale 130, no. 304 (2018): 447–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/anami.2018.8958.
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Die Königstreue in den Städten des Rhonetals : Historische Netzwerkstudie der städtischen Amtsträger am Anfang der Restauration (1814-1820) Am Beispiel der zwischen 1815 und 1820 ernannten städtischen Amtsträger versucht diese Studie die politischen Umbrüche der Jahre 1814 und 1815 unter einem anderen Blickwinkel zu untersuchen. Im Rhonetal war die Herrschaft der Hundert Tage Napoleons eine Zäsur nach den letzten Tagen des Kaiserreichs und der Restauration der Monarchie. Die nur schlecht verheilten Wunden der Französischen Revolution wurden wieder aufgerissen. Die Rückkehr der Bourbonen-Monarchie wollte mit der Epoche des Kaiserreichs zwar brechen, die prosopographische Studie zeigt jedoch auf lokaler Ebene eine starke Kontinuität der politischen Klasse. Aber die regionale Unterschiede zwischen dem nördlichen Teil des Rhonetals, das konformistisch und politisch moderat blieb, und dem südlichen Teil der Rhoneregion, wo die Herrschaft der Hundert Tage heftige Antagonismes aus der revolutionären Dekade erweckten, waren groß.
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Deprez, Kas, and Armel Wynants. "La Révolution Française et le conflit linguistique en Belgique." STUF - Language Typology and Universals 42, no. 5 (December 1, 1989): 601–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/stuf-1989-0508.
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Zusammenfassung Die Französische Revolution spielt in der Geschichte der Sprachsituation in Belgien, die im Überblick dargestellt wird, eine große Rollo. Die französische Herrschaft (1795-1815), unter der das Gebiet Belgiens erstmals in seiner heutigen Form vereint und der Wille nach Integration in das revolutionäre Frankreich stark war, bewirkte, daß auch nach der Unabhängigkeit (1830) einem zentralistischen, auf der Vormachtstellung des Französischen beruhenden Staatsmodell gehuldigt wurde. Es wird gezeigt, wie u. a. durch das wachsende ökonomische Übergewicht Flanderns der Weg zur Sprachengleichheit und zur Föderativstruktur des belgischen Staates frei wurde.
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James, Leighton S. "Roger Chickering and Stig Förster, eds, War in an Age of Revolution, 1775–1815." European History Quarterly 43, no. 1 (January 2013): 128–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265691412469497f.
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Bell, D. A. "War in an Age of Revolution, 1775-1815, ed. Roger Chickering and Stig Forster." English Historical Review CXXVI, no. 523 (December 1, 2011): 1546–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/cer300.
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Aaslestad, Katherine B. "Serious Work for a New Europe: The Congress of Vienna after Two Hundred Years." Central European History 48, no. 2 (June 2015): 225–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938915000357.
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Given the current challenges to European unity, in particular Russian aggression in Ukraine and dissent in the European Union over economic policy toward Greece, Europeans should remember that, two hundred years ago, they celebrated together a long-awaited peace, as their statesmen collaborated on a lasting settlement to solve territorial questions and ensure international stability. Revisiting the Congress of Vienna, however, is not an exercise in nostalgia. New works on the Congress underscore the critical international stakes in 1814 and 1815, following two decades of war and revolution, and reveal the complexity of the negotiations, political goals, and the unsettled nature of postwar Europe. The Congress was so successful in solving the existential problems of Europe that Europeans would not fight a comparable war against each other for another century—until the Great War in 1914. The challenges that Europe faced in the twentieth century suggest, in fact, that the type of collaborative diplomacy developed at the Vienna Congress remains essential to limit conflict.
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CONWAY, STEPHEN. "War in an Age of Revolution, 1775-1815 - Edited by Roger Chickering and Stig Förster." History 96, no. 323 (July 2011): 376–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-229x.2011.00524_18.x.
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Ignatchenko, I. V. "France in the Vienna System of International Relations (the First Half of The 19th Century)." MGIMO Review of International Relations, no. 6(45) (December 28, 2015): 9–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2015-6-45-9-14.
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Abstract: The Vienna system of international relations established at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, was a real challenge for the French political elite during all subsequent decades. France was a defeated party and was thus morally humiliated. The objective for all French governments after 1815 was to improve the position of France in this new system of international relations, including due to the destabilization and breaking of the Vienna system. In the years of the Restoration in France (1814-1830) a major foreign policy action of the government of Louis XVIII was the intervention in Spain in 1823, which refers to the Spanish revolution of 1820-1823. The French government, reflecting the interests of the European reaction, had hoped to raise these military prestige of France, and consequently to raise the question of the revision of the treatises of Vienna of 1815. Despite the success of the intervention, she has not brought the big political dividends in France. After the July revolution 1830 in France, the foreign policy of France intensified. Leading French politicians defined quite clearly exclusive spheres of influence of France, and in 1832 the French troops invaded Central Italy, capturing the city of Ancona. In 1840, during the second Oriental crisis, the French government has opposed themselves to the rest of Europe for the first time since the Napoleonic wars. Ultimately, the strategic position of France in the middle East was weakened. But the exacerbation of international conflict contributed to the strengthening of the French army and Navy. Further successes of the French diplomacy will be linked to the period of the Second Empire in France, in particular, with the Crimean war, that raised has raised status of France, and the decision of the Italian question in the second half of the 60-ies of the XIX century.
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Odore, Angelo. "supply of the Neapolitan army between the 18th and 19th centuries. Giacinto Cafiero asientive active de viveri e foraggi." Revista Historia Autónoma, no. 19 (September 30, 2021): 147–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.15366/rha2021.19.008.
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This article, following the scholarship on war and society studies, “[…] aims to reconstruct the rise of Don Giacinto Cafiero, experienced merchant, and one of the most important asientist active in the Kingdom of Naples between the 1799 Revolution and the French decade (1806-1815). In detail, the article tries to clarify the tricky role of Cafiero, his commercial activity, his profits and his logistical network during the years of the “Partito Generale de Viveri e foraggi” (1800-1804). Therefore, we shall reconstruct the most important aspects of this task such as bread-making or the supplying of garrisons, fortresses and prisons. Furthermore, the description will also deal with some collateral questions including piracy issues, port administration and charter contracts.
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Devlin, Jonathan D. "The Army, Politics and Public Order in Directorial Provence, 1795–1800." Historical Journal 32, no. 1 (March 1989): 87–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x00015314.
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Under the French Directory the line army was called into many parts of France to protect law and order and to shore up the regime. The authors of regional studies in the period have alluded to military presence but have failed to draw general inferences about the importance of military policing. The political ambitions of commanders-in-chief of fighting armies after the fall of Robespierre and the nature and history of operations have long been the subject of historical research, but no-one has yet investigated the nature of relations between civil and military authorities in any part of the interior that was not a war zone. The line army had been used in a policing role during the old regime and the early years of the revolution, but the advent of war in 1792 removed it to the frontiers. This suited revolutionary governments which were uncertain of its loyalty and uneasy about the reduction of discipline. In 1793 and 1794 revolutionary order was imposed instead by an increasingly centralized network of civilian elites and militias – revolutionary armies, committees, tribunals and representatives on mission – which operated by means of intimidation and civic denunciation. The dismantling of this apparatus of Terror in the year III (late 1794/5) in favour of a liberal constitution which breathed new life into the elective institutions of local government unleashed an anarchy of frustrated aspirations and hatreds born out of the turbulence of the revolutionary experience. Individuals and factions vied for control of local judicial and executive positions in order to make up revolutionary losses and to keep out their enemies.
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Vergil, Hasan, and Erdem Ozgur. "American growth and Napoleonic Wars." Panoeconomicus 60, no. 5 (2013): 649–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/pan1305649v.
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Four years after the French Revolution, in 1793 a series of wars among France and other major powers of Europe began and they lasted until 1815. There is disagreement among economic historians about the effects of these wars on the trend of US economic growth. This paper aims to answer the following question. Did America as a neutral nation take advantage of economic possibilities caused by Europe at war through trade? To put it differently, this paper questions whether there was an export-led growth due to the war. To answer this question, we re-examined the export-led growth hypothesis for the period 1790-1860 using the ARDL methodology. Based on this methodology, a cointegrated relationship is found among the variables of real GDP, labor, exports and exchange rates. The results suggest that the economic growth of the US was not export-driven. In addition, parallel to the results of unit root tests with structural breaks, the coefficient of the dummy variable was statistically significant in the long run, implying that the war did have a significant effect on the economic growth trend of the US.
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McCaffray, Susan P. "What Should Russia Be? Patriotism and Political Economy in the Thought of N. S. Mordvinov." Slavic Review 59, no. 3 (2008): 572–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2697346.
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A key moment in the evolution of modern European states was the halfcentury or so that straddles the year 1800. Confronted by commercial and colonial expansion across the seas and the steppes, as well as by the fiscal consequences of two long world wars (1756-63 and 1792-1815), monarchy and ministers increasingly viewed the state as a great engine for mobilizing “economic” resources. This period marks the culmination of what Paul Kennedy calls the European “financial revolution,” which was generated primarily by war. “If the difference between the financial burdens of the age of Philip II and that of Napoleon was one of degree, it still was remarkable enough,” Kennedy observes. The stresses of generating income in such quantities changed individual states as well as the international economy.
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Eelman, Bruce W. "Entrepreneurs in the Southern Upcountry: The Case of Spartanburg, South Carolina, 1815–1880." Enterprise & Society 5, no. 1 (March 2004): 77–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1467222700013197.
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Most business histories of the nineteenth-century southern upcountry focus on the shift from a protocapitalist, yeoman-oriented antebellum period to the rapid commercialization and industrialization of the New South era. These studies generally argue for a sharp break in the economic leadership of the region either through the rise of a new business elite, or the reorientation of an agrarian regime. Through a study of Spartanburg, South Carolina, my work challenges this notion of a sharp break and instead finds a vibrant, town-based entrepreneurial elite in both the antebellum and postbellum periods. The revolution that occurred was in the nature of South Carolina's political economy. Spartanburg's entrepreneurs, who struggled to achieve their goals in the antebellum era, found new opportunities as a result of post-war political realignments and the racial politics of Reconstruction. This business history at the community level adds an important chapter to our understanding of the political economy of the Old and New Souths.
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Taylor, Lawrence D. "Gunboat Diplomacy's Last Fling in the New World: The British Seizure of San Quintin, April 1911." Americas 52, no. 4 (April 1996): 521–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1008476.
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In considering acts of military intervention by foreign powers which occurred in Mexico during the Mexican Revolution, one is apt to think of the years 1914, 1916 and 1919, when U.S. forces invaded or occupied portions of Mexican territory. There was, however, one case of intervention of this sort during the revolution in which U.S. military personnel were not involved–the landing of a small party of British marines belonging to the H.M.S. “Shearwater” at the port of San Quintín on the northwest coast of the Baja Californian peninsula in April 1911.The British landing at San Quintm constituted a vestige or remnant of "gunboat diplomacy", an aspect of English foreign policy that had originated in the age of Palmerston and which reflected the unrivaled naval supremacy enjoyed by Great Britain during the period extending from the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 to the end of the Second World War. The episode represented, in a rather overt way, the hard-nosed attitude characteristic of British foreign policy at that time with regards to Latin America in general and other so-called "backward" regions of the globe.
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Sultana, Zakia. "Napoleon Bonaparte: His Successes and Failures." European Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies 6, no. 2 (June 10, 2017): 189. http://dx.doi.org/10.26417/ejms.v6i2.p189-197.
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Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), also known as Napoleon I, was a French military leader and emperor who conquered much of Europe in the early 19th century. Born on the island of Corsica, Napoleon rapidly rose through the ranks of the military during the French Revolution (1789-1799). After seizing political power in France in a 1799 coup d’état, he crowned himself emperor in 1804. Shrewd, ambitious and a skilled military strategist, Napoleon successfully waged war against various coalitions of European nations and expanded his empire. However, after a disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon abdicated the throne two years later and was exiled to the island of Elba. In 1815, he briefly returned to power in his Hundred Days campaign. After a crushing defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, he abdicated once again and was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died at 51.Napoleon was responsible for spreading the values of the French Revolution to other countries, especially in legal reform and the abolition of serfdom. After the fall of Napoleon, not only was the Napoleonic Code retained by conquered countries including the Netherlands, Belgium, parts of Italy and Germany, but has been used as the basis of certain parts of law outside Europe including the Dominican Republic, the US state of Louisiana and the Canadian province of Quebec. The memory of Napoleon in Poland is favorable, for his support for independence and opposition to Russia, his legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and the introduction of modern middle class bureaucracies. The social structure of France changed little under the First Empire. It remained roughly what the Revolution had made it: a great mass of peasants comprising three-fourths of the population—about half of them works owners of their farms or sharecroppers and the other half with too little land for their own subsistence and hiring themselves out as laborers. Industry, stimulated by the war and the blockade of English goods, made remarkable progress in northern and eastern France, whence exports could be sent to central Europe; but it declined in the south and west because of the closing of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. The great migrations from rural areas toward industry in the towns began only after 1815. The nobility would probably have declined more swiftly if Napoleon had not restored it, but it could never recover its former privileges. Finally we can say that many of the territories occupied by Napoleon during his Empire began to feel a new sense of nationalism.
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Horn, Jeff. "Introduction." Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 44, no. 3 (December 1, 2018): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/hrrh.2018.440301.
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Through a variety of disciplinary lenses, this innovative forum, coedited with Victoria Thompson, investigates a particular cultural space and time, namely the emergence of proto–roller coasters known as montagnes russes or “Russian mountains” in Paris in 1817. Peggy Davis, Sun-Young Park, and Christine Haynes depict the early years of the Restoration (1814/1815–1830) as a liminal moment in the emergence of modernity. Although this forum began as a panel at the 2017 Annual Meeting of the Society for French Historical Studies, the authors have extended and improved their pieces significantly. Taken together, they show that as foreigners flocked to Paris and the French adjusted to diminished circumstances in the aftermath of Napoleon’s second defeat, identities were in flux. This forum explores how and why the montagnes russes became such a cultural phenomenon and suggests their role in forging a new French identity in the wake of war and revolution.
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Tarasov, Konstantin. "Together and Apart. Metamorphoses of Images of Taras Shevchenko during the First World War and the Civil War." Antropologicheskij forum 20, no. 60 (2024): 130–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.31250/1815-8870-2024-20-60-130-158.
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The article delves into the exploration of the formation of the Ukrainian nation within the backdrop of competing ideologies: imperial and socialist. The theoretical framework adopted for this study is Miroslav Hroch’s concept of nation-building phases, which centers around the generational shift from a limited national intelligentsia to a broader educated class, and eventually to a mass movement. Among the myriad factors influencing the propagation of the notion of nationhood, a relatively unexamined one is selected for analysis — the utilization of literature, specifically the works and image of Taras Shevchenko, by various political and public actors. This study draws on sources such as speeches, articles, political symbols, and accounts of visitors to Shevchenko’s grave. During the early 20th century in the Russian Empire, multiple attempts were made to integrate the image of the Ukrainian poet into various discourses. Firstly, he was portrayed as the progenitor of the nation, a supporter of Ukrainian emancipation. Secondly, within the realm of social discourse, Shevchenko was depicted as a political fighter against the monarchical regime. Thirdly, his works were viewed as a component of broader imperial culture. Interestingly, these interpretations could coexist even within the dialogues of political adversaries. The battle for the “appropriation” of Shevchenko’s image came to the fore during the tumultuous period of the First World War and the 1917 Revolution, being transformed into integral elements of the political strife. This symbol was harnessed for political mobilization by advocates of a unified state, proponents of national autonomy, and separatists alike.
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Wilson, Victor. "Contraband Trade under Swedish Colours: St. Barthélemy's Moment in the Sun, 1793–1815." Itinerario 43, no. 02 (August 2019): 327–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115319000299.
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AbstractThe article explores the emergence and workings of the free port of Gustavia, founded in 1785 shortly after the Swedish acquisition of its first Caribbean colony, St. Barthélemy. Its free trade policy was modelled closely after Dutch and Danish predecessors in the region, which had been successful for centuries as neutral marketplaces, especially during times of international conflict. An increasing field of scholars have begun reconsidering the significance of contraband trade in Caribbean and Atlantic history. Arguments have been made for a more nuanced understanding of Caribbean geopolitics, one that acknowledges the necessity of informal transnational trade networks. The history of Gustavia is poorly explored in this context. With the aid of new sources, it has become possible to assess the economic role of Gustavia in the Caribbean transit trade during the European conflict of 1793–1815; these sources show that the free port was of greater importance than previous research has found it to be. Through its creation, the Swedish government hoped to commercially exploit a colonial territory of marginal value. War was the primary catalyst that drew people as well as capital to the island, contributing to both its commercial strength and cultural diversity. Former inhabitants of Dutch and French colonies sought refuge there in the wake of the French Revolution and the subsequent wars. Albeit for a brief time, Gustavia gained the character of an international, polyglot merchant community and functioned as an imperial crossroads where business could be conducted as usual between allies, neutrals, and enemies.
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McCORMACK, MATTHEW. "Britain and the Seventy Years War, 1744-1815: Enlightenment, Revolution and Empire. By Anthony Page. Palgrave Macmillan. 2015. xiv + 282pp. £21.99." History 101, no. 347 (April 5, 2016): 608–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-229x.12204.
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Hewitson, Mark. "Princes’ Wars, Wars of the People, or Total War? Mass Armies and the Question of a Military Revolution in Germany, 1792–1815." War in History 20, no. 4 (November 2013): 452–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0968344513483071.
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Vasetsky, Viacheslav. "Changes in the legal sphere as a result of large historical Events." Yearly journal of scientific articles “Pravova derzhava”, no. 34 (August 1, 2023): 129–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.33663/1563-3349-2023-34-129-138.
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The paper presents the results of a study of the impact of large-scale historical events on significant changes in the legal field. Today, an event of such a scale is the war waged by the Russian Federation against Ukraine, which, after the undoubted defeat of the Russian Federation in many spheres, will have significant consequences, including in the legal sphere. The war in Ukraine has all the signs of an event of aglobal scale. Socio-political events in the turning points of history are at the same timethe source of development in the legal sphere. This trend can be observed at almost all historical stages, and therefore research in this direction is an urgent problem. The purpose of the paper is to study the impact of significant events in certain turning points in Modern and Recent history that took place on the European continent, which were the origin of changes in the legal sphere and had a long-term eff ect. Sinceit is currently impossible to predict exactly what changes will occur after the defeat of the Russian Federation, which legal institutions and in what direction they will apply, what consequences such changes will lead to in interstate relations and within the country, the above consideration is limited only to some historical events, which can be considered as an example of the origins of significant changes in the legal sphere of a doctrinal nature. The socio-political events in Europe in the XVII centuries, the results of the Thirty Years' War and the significance of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 in terms of influencing the development of legal doctrine of New history is analyzed. Thirty Years 'War in Europe in the XVII century ended with the signing in 1648 at the same time in Münster and Osnabrück peace treaty, which was called the Peace of Westphalia in1648. It is emphasized that the Peace of Westphalia contains a number of provisions of a doctrinal nature. This treaty was the source of modern international law and had along-term impact on the development of relations between states. Large-scale historical events of the late 18th - early 19th centuries in Europe are undoubtedly associated with France. This is the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794, this is also the period of the Napoleonic Wars, finally, this includes the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815, at which, after the defeat of Napoleonic France, the winners under the slogan of returning to the continent of peace and tranquility and the desire to restore monarchies redrawn the continental political map of Europe. The lawmaking activity of Napoleon is noted, on whose initiative and under his leadership alarge volume of codification works was carried out. Civil (1804), Commercial (1807), Criminal Procedure (1808) and Criminal (1810) codes were adopted. It is noted that French civil law and the principles implemented by it significantly influenced civil-lawrelations in Europe. In modern history during the 20th century events took place, the result of which were changes aimed at preventing the horrors of the First and Second World Wars in the future. But the creation of the relevant institutions, organizations, legal framework and other factors was not enough to prevent the threat of a new world conflict, to guarantee danger not only for Ukraine, but also for the whole world. In the light of the events in Ukraine, based on historical analogies, a conclusion is made about the expectation of significant changes in the legal sphere for future security in the world and in our country. Key words: Aggression of the Russian Federation against Ukraine, origins of law,historical analogies, Peace of Westphalia, French Civil Code.
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Lavrik, L. A. "Development of the Institute of Customs Representation in Russia during the Revolution and Civil War (on the Example of the Far Eastern Region)." Customs Policy of Russia in the Far East, no. 3 (2020): 77–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.24866/1815-0683/2020-3/77-87.
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Milne, Maurice. "Archibald Alison: Conservative Controversialist." Albion 27, no. 3 (1995): 419–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4051736.
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Archibald Alison is perhaps more widely remembered from a brief-and disguised—reference in Coningsby than from any direct usage of his own voluminous writings: “Finally, Mr. Rigby impressed on Coningsby to read the Quarterly Review with great attention; and to make himself master of Mr. Wordy's History of the late War, in twenty volumes, a capital work, which proves that Providence was on the side of the Tories.” The dubbing of Alison as “Mr. Wordy” was one of Disraeli's most unerring shafts. Alison's History of Europe, covering the period 1789-1815, would have earned him that sobriquet on its own, to say nothing of the other books, pamphlets, and articles that flowed from his inexhaustible pen. The various editions of his History, most commonly in sets of twelve volumes, made Alison a quite celebrated historian in his own day. Long neglected in the twentieth century, the History has recently received some critical attention. Without seeking unduly to resurrect a departed reputation, Hedva Ben-Israel does at least acknowledge the History's earlier success: “It was by far the best-selling history of the French Revolution in England and America almost to the end of the century, and was translated into most European and several oriental languages.” Some fruitful comparisons between Alison's work and the more enduring classic by Thomas Carlyle have been drawn by Clare Simmons.
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Shovlin, John. "Anthony Page. Britain and the Seventy Years War, 1744–1815: Enlightenment, Revolution and Empire. British History in Perspective. Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2015. Pp. 300. $35.00 (cloth)." Journal of British Studies 55, no. 1 (January 2016): 234–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jbr.2015.201.
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Esdaile, Charles. "The Napoleonic Mediterranean: Enlightenment, Revolution, and Empire, A Global History of the Napoleonic Wars, The Forgotten War against Napoleon: Conflict in the Mediterranean, 1793–1815." Mediterranean Studies 30, no. 2 (October 1, 2022): 236. http://dx.doi.org/10.5325/mediterraneanstu.30.2.0236.
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Buse, Dieter K. "War in an Age of Revolution, 1775-1815, edited by Roger Chickering and Stig Förster.War in an Age of Revolution, 1775-1815, edited by Roger Chickering and Stig Förster. Publications of the German Historical Institute. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2010. xii, 422 pp. $80.00 US (cloth)." Canadian Journal of History 46, no. 2 (September 2011): 470–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/cjh.46.2.470.
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Klinkert, Wim. "De Militaire Evolutie - Roger Chickering en Stig Förster eds., War in an Age of Revolution, 1775-1815 (Cambridge University Press; Cambridge 2010) 421 p., €60,- ISBN 9780521899963." Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 124, no. 3 (October 1, 2011): 412–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/tvgesch2011.3.b11.
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Prysiazhniuk, Oleksii. "Protection of monuments of art and antiquity: the experience of German lands in the XVIII – early XX centuries." Bulletin of Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, no. 4 (352) (2022): 33–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.12958/2227-2844-2022-4(352)-33-42.
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The first prescriptions aimed at protecting the historical heritage on the territory of the German states began to appear only at the end of the eighteenth century and were rather timid attempts to preserve the country’s heritage, and sometimes an instrument for achieving personal political goals. The impetus for their emergence was the increased interest in medieval architecture, which came primarily from creative architects and writers. The first orders were aimed at the fragmentary preservation of historic buildings, coins, texts and other relics. They set the task of preserving primarily moving objects, quenching the thirst for collecting a ruler. The idea of creating a specialized body for the preservation of architectural heritage first appeared in 1815 by Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Schinkel’s innovative and far-sighted ideas were far ahead of his time, influencing the emergence of legal acts and systems for monitoring their implementation, very similar to modern models. It was thanks to his efforts that since 1830, innovative laws have appeared in Prussia aimed at protecting the historical heritage of the kingdom. Developed in 1853 by order of King Frederick William IV of Prussia, the Bill on the Protection of Monuments first highlighted one of the key problems of modern legislation on the protection of historical heritage – the issue of private ownership and financing of monument protection. The beginning of the XX century in Germany was marked by the emergence of increased interest in historical heritage. The protection of historical heritage for the first time gained an important role in the life of the state during the First Reich, without losing it after the First World War or the revolution of 1918, that is, retaining this role in the Weimar Republic.
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Madaras, Larry, Richard A. Diem, Kenneth G. Alfers, Elizabeth J. Wilcoxson, Victoria L. Enders, Robert Kern, Gerald H. Davis, et al. "Book Reviews." Teaching History: A Journal of Methods 11, no. 2 (May 4, 1986): 80–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.33043/th.11.2.80-96.
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Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr., Central America: A Nation Divided. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 390. Cloth, $22.50; Paper $8.95. Second Edition. Review by Donald J. Mabry of Mississippi State University. Edward M. Anson. A Civilization Primer. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985. Pp. 121. Spiral bound, $5.95. Review by Gordon R. Mork of Purdue University. Stephen J. Lee. Aspects of European History, 1494-1789. Second edition. London & New York: Methuen, 1984. Pp. viii, 312. Paper, $11.95. Review by Michael W. Howell of The School of the Ozarks. Roland N. Stromberg. European Intellectual History Since 1789. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1986. Fourth edition. Pp. x, 340. Paper, $18.95. Review by Irby C. Nichols, Jr. of North Texas State University. R. W. Southern. Medieval Humanism and Other Studies. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 261. Cloth, $24.95; Paper, $10.95. Review by Benjamin F. Taggie of Central Michigan University. H. T. Dickinson. British Radicalism and the French Revolution, 1789-1815. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 88. Paper, $6.95; F. D. Dow. Radicalism in the English Revolution, 1640-1660. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 90. Paper, $6.95. Review by Harry E. Wade of East Texas State University. H. R. Kedward. Occupied France: Collaboration and Resistance 1940-1944. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 88. $6.95; M. E. Chamberlain. Decolonization: The Fall of the European Empire. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Pp. 86. $6.95. Review by Steven Philip Kramer of the University of New Mexico. Harriet Ward. World Powers in the Twentieth Century. London: British Broadcasting Corporation and the Heinemann Educational Books, 1985. Second edition. Pp. xvii, 333. Paper, $12.00. Review by Gerald H. Davis of Georgia State University. Paul Preston, ed. Revolution and War in Spain, 1931-1939. London and New York: Methuen, 1984. Pp. xi, 299. Cloth, $29.95: Paper, $12.95. Review by Robert Kern of the University of New Mexico. Glenn Blackburn. The West and the World Since 1945. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985. Pp. vi, 152. Paper, $9.95. Review by Victoria L. Enders of Northern Arizona University. M. K. Dziewanowski. A History of Soviet Russia. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Second edition. Pp. x, 406. Paper, $22.95. Review by Elizabeth J. Wilcoxson of Northern Essex Community College. Peter L. Steinberg. The Great "Red Menace": United States Prosecution of American Communists, 1947-1952. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. Pp. xiv, 311. Cloth, $35.00. Review by Kenneth G. Alfers of Mountain View College. Winthrop D. Jordan, Leon F. Litwack, Richard Hoftstadter, William Miller, Daniel Aaron. The United States: Brief Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Second Edition. Pp. xiv, 513. Paper, $19.95. Review by Richard A. Diem of The University of Texas at San Antonio. Edwin J. Perkins and Gary M. Walton. A Prosperous People: The Growth of the American Economy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985. Pp. xiii, 240. Paper, $14.95. Review by Larry Madaras of Howard Community College.
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Żelichowski, Ryszard. "Poles and Finns under Russian rule." Studia z Geografii Politycznej i Historycznej 8 (December 30, 2019): 47–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/2300-0562.08.03.
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An attempt to compare Russian Tsar Alexander I was the head of the Grand Duchy of Finland, which the Russian army captured in 1809 as a result of the Russo-Swedish war. The final act of the Congress of Vienna of June 1815 decided to establish the Kingdom of Poland. Beside the title of Grand Duke of Finland tsar, Alexander I was awarded the title of the King of Poland. From that moment on, for over one hundred years, the fate of the Grand Duchy of Finland and the Kingdom of Poland was intertwined during the rule of five Russian tsars.
The aim of this paper is to answer the question whether two different ways on the road to independence – romantic Polish way with national uprisings, and pragmatic Finnish, relative loyal to the Russian tsars – had an impact on their policy towards both nations. The Kingdom of Poland and the Duchy of Finland were autonomous, were in a personal union with Russian tsars, had their own constitutions, parliaments, armies, monetary systems and educational structures, and official activities were held in Polish (Polish Kingdom) and Swedish (in the Grand Duchy of Finland). Both countries also had their own universities.
The first national uprising in the Kingdom of Poland, which broke out in November 1830, resulted in a wave of repression. The Constitution was replaced by the so-called The Organic Statute, the Sejm (the Parliament) and the independent army were liquidated. The Kingdom was occupied by the mighty Russian army, and in 1833 martial law was introduced. The second national uprising of January 1863 led to another wave of repression and intensive Russification of Polish territories. In 1867, the autonomy of the Kingdom of Poland, its name and budget were abolished. From 1872 the Polish language was only an optional choice. After 1863, the policy of the Russian authorities changed towards the Grand Duchy.
A session of the Finnish parliament (Eduskunta) was convened for the first time since 1809, the new parliamentary law allowed the dissemination of the Finnish language. After the deadly assault on Alexander II in 1881, his son Alexander III made attempts to limit also Finland’s autonomy. The years 1899–1904 were called the first period of Russification in Finland (“the first period of oppression”). The Manifesto of June 1900 introduced obligatory Russian language in correspondence of officials with Russia. In 1901, the national Finnish army was liquidated. In Russia this was the beginning of the process of the empire’s unification into one cultural, political and economic system. After a short thaw as a result of the 1905 revolution in Russia, the Grand Duchy of Finland, the so-called “second period of oppression” and anti-Finnish politics took place. During the great war of 1914–1918, the Grand Duchy was on the side of Russia. The territories of the former Kingdom of Poland were under German rule since 1915. After the outbreak of the revolution in Russia, the Eduskunta (on 6 December 1917) passed a Declaration of Independence. After a short period of regency, on 19 July 1919, the Finns adopted the republican system with a parliamentary form of government.
On 11 November 1918 Germany surrendered on the Western Front. On that day, the Regency Council in Warsaw handed over military authority to the Polish Legion commander Józef Piłsudski. Although Poland still had to fight for the final shape of the state, the 11th of November 1918 is considered the first day of recovered Polish independence.
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Sims, Robert C., Darlene E. Fisher, Steven A. Leibo, Pasquale E. Micciche, Fred R. Van Hartesveldt, W. Benjamin Kennedy, C. Ashley Ellefson, et al. "Book Reviews." Teaching History: A Journal of Methods 13, no. 2 (May 5, 1988): 80–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.33043/th.13.2.80-104.
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Michael B. Katz. Reconstructing American Education. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1987. Pp. viii, 212. Cloth, $22.50; E. D. Hirsch, Jr. Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs to Know. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1987. Pp. xvii, 251. Cloth, $16.45; Diana Ravitch and Chester E. Finn, Jr. What Do Our 17-Year-Olds Know? A Report on the First National Assessment of History and Literature. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. Pp. ix, 293. Cloth, $15.95. Review by Richard A. Diem of The University of Texas at San Antonio. Henry J. Steffens and Mary Jane Dickerson. Writer's Guide: History. Lexington, Massachusetts, and Toronto: D. C. Heath and Company, 1987. Pp. x, 211. Paper, $6.95. Review by William G. Wraga of Bernards Township Public Schools, Basking Ridge, New Jersey. J. Kelley Sowards, ed. Makers of the Western Tradition: Portraits from History. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. Fourth edition. Vol: 1: Pp. ix, 306. Paper, $12.70. Vol. 2: Pp. ix, 325. Paper, $12.70. Review by Robert B. Luehrs of Fort Hays State University. John L. Beatty and Oliver A. Johnson, eds. Heritage of Western Civilization. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1987. Sixth Edition. Volume I: Pp. xi, 465. Paper, $16.00; Volume II: pp. xi, 404. Paper, $16.00. Review by Dav Levinson of Thayer Academy, Braintree, Massachusetts. Lynn H. Nelson, ed. The Human Perspective: Readings in World Civilization. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987. Vol. I: The Ancient World to the Early Modern Era. Pp. viii, 328. Paper, $10.50. Vol. II: The Modern World Through the Twentieth Century. Pp, x, 386. Paper, 10.50. Review by Gerald H. Davis of Georgia State University. Gerald N. Grob and George Attan Billias, eds. Interpretations of American History: Patterns and Perspectives. New York: The Free Press, 1987. Fifth Edition. Volume I: Pp. xi, 499. Paper, $20.00: Volume II: Pp. ix, 502. Paper, $20.00. Review by Larry Madaras of Howard Community College. Eugene Kuzirian and Larry Madaras, eds. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in American History. -- Volume II: Reconstruction to the Present. Guilford, Connecticut: The Dushkin Publishing Groups, Inc., 1987. Pp. xii, 384. Paper, $9.50. Review by James F. Adomanis of Anne Arundel County Public Schools, Annapolis, Maryland. Joann P. Krieg, ed. To Know the Place: Teaching Local History. Hempstead, New York: Hofstra University Long Island Studies Institute, 1986. Pp. 30. Paper, $4.95. Review by Marilyn E. Weigold of Pace University. Roger Lane. Roots of Violence in Black Philadelphia, 1860-1900. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: Harvard University Press, 1986. Pp. 213. Cloth, $25.00. Review by Ronald E. Butchart of SUNY College at Cortland. Pete Daniel. Breaking the Land: The Transformation of Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice Cultures since 1880. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1985. Pp. xvi, 352. Paper, $22.50. Review by Thomas S. Isern of Emporia State University. Norman L. Rosenberg and Emily S. Rosenberg. In Our Times: America Since World War II. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1987. Third edition. Pp. xi, 316. Paper, $20.00; William H. Chafe and Harvard Sitkoff, eds. A History of Our Time: Readings on Postwar America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987. Second edition. Pp. xiii, 453. Paper, $12.95. Review by Monroe Billington of New Mexico State University. Frank W. Porter III, ed. Strategies for Survival: American Indians in the Eastern United States. New York, Westport, Connecticut, and London: Greenwood Press, 1986. Pp. xvi, 232. Cloth, $35.00. Review by Richard Robertson of St. Charles County Community College. Kevin Sharpe, ed. Faction & Parliament: Essays on Early Stuart History. London and New York: Methuen, 1985. Pp. xvii, 292. Paper, $13.95; Derek Hirst. Authority and Conflict: England, 1603-1658. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986. Pp. viii, 390. Cloth, $35.00. Review by K. Gird Romer of Kennesaw College. N. F. R. Crafts. British Economic Growth During the Industrial Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 193. Paper, $11.95; Maxine Berg. The Age of Manufactures, 1700-1820. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 378. Paper, $10.95. Review by C. Ashley Ellefson of SUNY College at Cortland. J. M. Thompson. The French Revolution. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985 reissue. Pp. xvi, 544. Cloth, $45.00; Paper, $12.95. Review by W. Benjamin Kennedy of West Georgia College. J. P. T. Bury. France, 1814-1940. London and New York: Methuen, 1985. Fifth edition. Pp. viii, 288. Paper, $13.95; Roger Magraw. France, 1815-1914: The Bourgeois Century. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. Pp. 375. Cloth, $24.95; Paper, $9.95; D. M.G. Sutherland. France, 1789-1815: Revolution and Counterrevolution. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986. Pp. 242. Cloth, $32.50; Paper, $12.95. Review by Fred R. van Hartesveldt of Fort Valley State College. Woodford McClellan. Russia: A History of the Soviet Period. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1986. Pp. xi, 387. Paper, $23.95. Review by Pasquale E. Micciche of Fitchburg State College. Ranbir Vohra. China's Path to Modernization: A Historical Review from 1800 to the Present. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1987. Pp. xiii, 302. Paper, $22.95. Reivew by Steven A. Leibo of Russell Sage College. John King Fairbank. China Watch. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1987. Pp. viii, Cloth, $20.00. Review by Darlene E. Fisher of New Trier Township High School, Winnetka, Illinois. Ronald Takaki, ed. From Different Shores: Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity in America. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. Pp. 253. Paper, $13.95. Review by Robert C. Sims of Boise State University.
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Fedorov, Aleksandr V., and Mikhail V. Krichevtsev. "The History of the Development of the French Laws on Criminal Liability of Legal Entities." Russian investigator 1 (February 1, 2018): 46–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.18572/1812-3783-2018-1-46-56.
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The article reviews the history of development of French laws on criminal liability of legal entities. The authors note that the institution of criminal liability of legal entities (collective criminal liability) dates back to the ancient times and has been forming in the French territory for a long time. Initially, it was established in the acts on collective liability residents of certain territories, in particular, in the laws of the Salian Franks. This institution was inherited from the Franks by the law of the medieval France, and got transferred from the medieval period to the French criminal law of the modern period. The article reviews the laws of King Louis XIV as an example of establishment of collective criminal liability: the Criminal Ordinance of 1670 and the Ordinances on Combating Vagrancy and Goods Smuggling of 1706 and 1711. For the first time ever, one can study the Russian translation of the collective criminal liability provisions of the said laws. The authors state that although the legal traditions of collective liability establishment were interrupted by the transformations caused by the French Revolution of 1789 to 1794, criminal liability of legal entities remained in Article 428 of the French Penal Code of 1810 as a remnant of the past and was abolished only as late as in 1957. The publication draws attention to the fact that the criminal law codification process was not finished in France, and some laws stipulating criminal liability of legal entities were in effect in addition to the French Penal Code of 1810: the Law on the Separation of Church and State of December 9, 1905; the Law of January 14, 1933; the Law on Maritime Trade of July 19, 1934; the Ordinance on Criminal Prosecution of the Press Institutions Cooperating with Enemies during World War II of May 5, 1945. The authors describe the role of the Nuremberg Trials and the documents of the Council of Europe in the establishment of the French laws on criminal liability of legal entities, in particular, Resolution (77) 28 On the Contribution of Criminal Law to the Protection of the Environment, Recommendation No. R (81) 12 On Economic Crime, the Recommendation No. R (82) 15 On the Role of Criminal Law in Consumer Protection and Recommendation No. (88) 18 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States Concerning Liability of Enterprises Having Legal Personality for Offences Committed in the Exercise of Their Activities. The authors conclude that the introduction of the institution of criminal liability of legal entities is based on objective conditions and that research of the history of establishment of the laws on collective liability is of great importance for understanding of the modern legal regulation of the issues of criminal liability of legal entities.
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Irena Rzeplińska. "Kara konfiskaty mienia w prawie polskim i obowiązującym na ziemiach polskich oraz w praktyce jego stosowania." Archives of Criminology, no. XX (August 1, 1994): 79–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.7420/ak1994d.
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Forfeiture of property is one of the oldest penalties in Polish law. Its origins can be traced in pre-state law, in the penalty of exclusion from tribe. Anybody could kill a person thus punished and destroy his property, and would suffer no penalty for such acts. Later on, in early Middle Ages, the penalty of plunder was introduced: the offender’s possessions were looted, and his house burned. Destruction of the offender’s property as a penal sanction resulted from the conception of crime and punishment of that time. Crime was an offence against God, and punishment was seen as God’s revenge for crime – that offender’s house was destroyed as the place that had become unchaste, inhabited by an enemy of God. The penalties imposed in Poland in the 12th and 13th centuries were personal, material, and mixed penalties. There were two material penalties: forfeiture of the whole or part of property and pecuniary penalties. The utmost penalty was being outlawed which consisted of banishment of the convicted person from the country and forfeiture of his property by the ruler. Being outlawed was imposed for the most serious offences; with time, it became an exceptional penalty. In those days, forfeiture of property was a self-standing, as well as an additional penalty, imposed together with death, banishment, or imprisonment. As shown by the sources of law, forfeiture of property (as an additional penalty) could be imposed for “conspiracy against state” rape of a nun forgery of coins, cheating at games, and profiteering. Other offences punishable in this way included murder, raid with armed troops and theft of Church property, murder of a Jew committed by a Christian, and raid of a Jewish cemetery. Data on the extent of the imposition of that penalty in the early feudal period are scarce; as follows from available sources, it was applied but seldom. The consequences of forfeiture were serious in those days. Deprived of property, the convicted person and his family inevitably lost their social and political status which made forfeiture one of the most severe penalties. From the viewpoint of the punishing authority (duke), forfeiture was clearly advantageous due to its universal feasibility; to the duke’s officials, it was profitable as they were entitled to plunder the convicted persons’s movables. In the laws of the 16th and 17th centuries, forfeiture was provided for: serious political crimes (crimen leaesae maiestatis – laese-majesty; perduelio – desertion to the enemy), offences against currency and against the armed forces. As an additional penalty, it accompanied capital punishment and being outlawed. The law also provided for situations where forfeiture could be imposed as a self-standing penalty. In 1573, the Warsaw Confederacy Act which guaranteed equality to confessors of different religions banned the inposition of forfeiture for conversion to another faith. Initially absolute – the whole of property being forfeited and taken over by the Treasury where it was at the king’s free disposal – forfeiture of property was limited already in the 14th century. To begin with, in consideration of the rights of the family and third to forfeited property, the wife’s dowry was excluded from forfeiture. Later on, in the 16th century, the limitations concerned the king’s freedom of disposal of forfeited property. A nobleman’s property could no longer remain in the king’s hands but had to be granted to another nobleman. Forfeiture of property can also be found in the practice of Polish village courts; as follows from court registers, though, it was actually seldom imposed. European Enlightenment was the period of emergence of ideas which radically changed the conceptions of the essence and aims of punishment, types of penalties, and the policy of their imposition. In their writings, penologists of those days formulated the principle of the offender’s individual responsibility. This standpoint led to a declaration against forfeiture of property as a penalty which affected not only the offender but also his family and therefore expressed collective responsibility. The above ideas were known in Poland as well. They are reflected in the numerous drafts of penal law reform, prepared in 18th century Poland. The first such draft, so-called Collection of Jidicial Laws by Andrzej Zamojski, still provided for forfeiture. A later one (draft code of King Stanislaw August of the late 18th century) no longer contained this penalty. The athors argued that, affecting not only the offender, that penalty was at variance with the principles of justice. The drafts were never to become the law. In 1794, after the second partition of Poland, an insurrection broke out commanded by Tadeusz Kościuszko. The rebel authorities repealed the former legal system and created a new system of provisions regulating the structure of state authorities, administration of justice, and law applied in courts. In the sphere of substantive penal law and the law of criminal proceedings, an insurgent code was introduced, with severe sanctions included in the catalog of penalties. Forfeiture of property was restored which had a double purpose: first, acutely to punish traitors, and second – to replenish the insurgent funds. When imposing forfeiture, property rights of the convicted person’s spouse and his children’s right to inheritance were taken into account. Yet compared to the administration of justice of the French Revolution with its mass imposition of forfeiture, the Polish insurgent courts were humane and indeed lenient in their practice of sentencing. After the fall of the Kościuszko Insurrection, Poland became a subjugated country, divided between three partitioning powers: Prussia, Russia, and Austria. The Duchy of Warsaw, made of the territories regained from the invaders, survived but a short time. In the sphere of penal law and the present subject of forfeiture of property, that penalty was abolished by a separate parliamentary statute of 1809. After the fall of the Duchy of Warsaw, Poland lost sovereignty and the law of the partitioning powers entered into force on its territories. In the Prussian sector, a succession of laws were introduced: the Common Criminal Law of Prussian States of 1794, followed by the 1851 penal code and the penal code of the German Reich of 1871. Only the first of them still provided for forfeiture: it was abolished in the Prussian State by a law of March 11, 1850. Much earlier, forfeiture disappeared from the legislation of Austria. lt was already absent from the Cpllection of Laws on Penalties for West Galicia of June 17,1796, valid on the Polish territories under Austrian administration. Nor was forfeiture provided for by the two Austrian penal codes of 1803 and 1852. Forfeiture survived the longest in the penal legisation of Russia. In 1815, the Kingdom of Poland was formed of the Polish territories under Russian administration. In its Constitution, conferred by the Tsar of Russia, a provision was included that abolished forfeiture of property. It was also left in the subsequent Penal Code of the Kingdom of Poland, passed in 1818. Forfeiture only returned as a penal sanction applied to participants of the anti-Russian November insurrection of 1831. The Organic Statute of 1832, conferred to the Kingdom of Poland by the Tsar, reintroduced the penalty of forfeiture of property. Moreover, it was to be imposed for offences committed before Organic Statute had entered into force which was an infringement of the ban on retroactive force of law. Of those sentenced to forfeiture in the Kingdom of Poland, Lithuania, and Russia as participants of the November insurrection, few had estates and capital. A part of forfeited estates were donated, the rest were sold to persons of Russian origin. The proces of forfeiting the property of the 1830–1831 insurgents only ended in 1860 (the Tsar’s decree of February 2/March 2,1860). After November insurrection, the Russian authorities aimed at making the penal legislation of the Kingdom of Poland similar to that of the Russian Empire. The code of Main Corrective Penalties of 1847 aimed first of all at a legal unification. It preserved the penalty of “forfeiture of the whole or part of the convicted persons’ possessions and property” as an additional penalty imposed in cases clearly specified by law. It was imposed for offences against the state: attempts against the life, health, freedom or dignity of the Emperor and the supreme rights of the heir to the throne, the Emperor’s wife or other members of the Royal House, and rebellion against the supreme authority. Forfeiture was preserved in the amended code of 1866; in 1876, its application was extended to include offences against official enactments. The penalty could soon be applied – towards the participants of January insurrection of 1863 which broke out in the Russian Partition. The insurgents were tried by Russian military courts. After the January insurrection, 6,491 persons were convicted in the Kingdom of Poland; 6,186 of tchem were sentenced to forfeiture of property. Of that group, as few as 28 owned the whole or a part of real estate; 60 owned mortgage capital and real estate. The imposition of forfeiture on January insurgents stopped in 1867 in the Kingdom of Poland and as late as 1873 in Lithuania. The penalty was only removed from the Russian penal legislation with the introduction a new penal code in 1903. As can be seen, the Russian penal law – as opposed to the law of Prussia and Austria retained forfeiture of property the longest. It was designet to perform special political and deterrent functions as the penalty imposed on opponents of the system for crimes against state. It was severe enough to annihilate the offender’s material existence. It was also intended to deter others, any future dare-devils who might plan to resist authority. It was an fitted element of the repressive criminal policy of the Russian Empire of those days. Forfeiture of the whole of property of the convicted person can be found once again in the Polish legislation, of independent Poland this time: in the Act of July 2, 1920 on controlling war usury where forfeiture was an optional additional penalty. At the same time, the act prohibited cumulation of repression affecting property (fine and forfeiture could not be imposed simultaneously). It originated from the special war conditions in Poland at the time. The ban on cumulation of repression affecting property is interesting from the viewpoint of criminal policy. The Polish penal code of 1932 did not provide for the penalty of forfeiture, and the Act on controlling war usury was quashed by that code’s introductory provisions. In the legislation of People’s Poland after World War II, forfeiture of property was re-established and had extensive application.
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Vulto, Renée. "‘Waer vriendenmin gaet, hand aen hand, met liefde voor het Vaderland’." Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 133, no. 4 (February 1, 2021): 617–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/tvgesch2020.4.002.vult.
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Abstract Singing Politics. Political song and collective singing practices during the Dutch revolutionary period (1780-1815) In the Dutch revolutionary period of the late eighteenth century, song was often used as a political tool to construct communities that shared interests, ideologies, and feelings. Abstract feelings of unity were made concrete through the experience of collective singing. Despite being continuously employed as a unifying practice, the ways of singing and the feelings that were involved nevertheless changed in accordance with the turbulent circumstances of the time – from the emergence of the Patriots, to the Batavian Revolution, throughout the Napoleonic years, and towards the establishment of a Dutch monarchy. This essay goes beyond analysing songs as textual sources and investigates when, where, and by whom these songs were sung. By approaching the collective singing of political communities as emotional practices, we can develop a new perspective on this episode of Dutch history, in which we acknowledge the feelings and experiences of the historical actors that shaped the developments of that time.
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Belikova, Valentina. "THE SIGNIFICANCE OF M. V. LYSENKO'S COMPOSITION AND CONCERT-PERFORMANCE ACTIVITIES IN THE FORMATION OF THE MUSIC-CULTURAL CONTEXT UKRAINE." Academic Notes Series Pedagogical Science 1, no. 195 (2021): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.36550/2415-7988-2021-1-195-55-60.
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The article summarizes the significance of M. V. Lysenko's compositional and concert-performance activity in the formation of the musical and cultural context in Ukraine. The general Ukrainian culture in the years of the second half of the XIX century reaches a new qualitative level of its development. During this period, created a galaxy of prominent writers, artists and musicians, whose activities were aimed at the processes of national and cultural revival of society associated with the national liberation movement in the country. Under this approach, the study of composition and concert-performance activities of M. V. Lysenko in the formation of musical and cultural context in Ukraine is relevant and timely. In different countries of the world Romanticism had its own national specificity. A certain feature was also manifested in Ukrainian cultural romanticism. Its specificity has not yet been determined, although its features in the most general terms in the Ukrainian music of the XIX century were clearly manifested in the national factor. Ukrainian composers of the XIX century in their works have achieved a distinctive identity through the use of national musical folklore. Highlighting Romanticism as an artistic direction of the world level, it must be said that the basis of Romanticism in this regard were the ideas of J. J. Rousseau, who preferred feelings in the inner life of man and in social life as well. In socio-historical terms, the birth of Romanticism is associated with the reaction of human consciousness to the turbulent historical events of the late eighteenth century. The first half of the XIX century, namely: the Great French Revolution (1789–1794), the dictatorship of Napoleon; restoration and the Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815; revolutionary events of the 1820s, 1830s, 1844s.
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Pieters, Florence F. J. M., Peggy G. W. Rompen, John W. M. Jagt, and Nathalie Bardet. "A new look at Faujas de Saint-Fond’s fantastic story on the provenance and acquisition of the type specimen of Mosasaurus hoffmanni Mantell, 1829." Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 183, no. 1 (January 1, 2012): 55–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/gssgfbull.183.1.55.
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Abstract Based on continued archive and literature research, the fantastic tale of the acquisition of what was to become the type specimen of Mosasaurus hoffmanni Mantell, 1829 –the first mosasaurid specimen to be named– told by the geologist B. Faujas de Saint-Fond (1741–1819) in his book Histoire naturelle de la Montagne Saint-Pierre de Maestricht issued in ten parts between 1798 and 1803, is retold and demystified. Significantly, Faujas ‘forgot’ to mention the real reason for his stay at Maastricht, namely his appointment as one of the four commissioners charged with inventory and confiscation of objects of science and art in the conquered countries. Faujas arrived at Maastricht about two months after the fortress had been taken by French troops on 4 November 1794, while the mosasaur skull was confiscated four days later; so that he never was a direct witness of the story he told. The decree issued by the Convention Nationale announcing the fossil’s destination to be the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (MNHN) in Paris was enacted on 12 November 1794. It appears that the representative of the people A.-L. de Frécine (1751–1804) was involved in the confiscation and withdrawal of the Grand animal de Maestricht from its legal owner, the clergyman Th. J. Godding (1722–1797). In a reclamation request (written c. 1815), his single heiress, R. Godding, stated that six soldiers appeared with a carriage to collect the ‘petrified crocodile’ by force of arms at Godding’s country house, acting under orders of Frécine. The definite proof of Faujas’s unreliability is given by his co-commissioner, the botanist A. Thouin (1747–1824). In Thouin’s memoirs, Faujas is depicted as a great liar and storyteller, fond of embellishing stories. Obviously, Faujas falsified the truth to disguise the fact that looting from a private person had occurred, which was unlawful, even in wartime. Faujas also used to make propaganda for the French army, which is typical of the spirit of those revolutionary years. Besides, he was rather inaccurate, his book containing a lot of mistakes that were easy to check. Finally, it seems that J. L. Hoffmann (1710–1782), a famous local fossil collector presented by Faujas as the legal owner of this particular skull specimen, never actually owned it. Here we summarise our previous findings and include a few additional ones, which lead to the conclusion that it must have been patriotism as well as his great fancy for story telling that induced Faujas to falsify the facts. In 2009, the famous war trophy temporarily returned to Maastricht, on loan from the MNHN to the Natuurhistorisch Museum Maastricht, within the framework of an exhibit during the international Darwin Year, entitled, Darwin, Cuvier et le Grand Animal de Maestricht. Of course, the mosasaur owes its great scientific value to G. Cuvier (1769–1832), who stated that, “above all, the precise determination of the famous animal from Maestricht seems to us as important for the theory of zoological laws, as for the history of the globe”. However, by embellishing the story, Faujas added a substantial supplementary cultural value to the fossil.
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BURNARD, TREVOR, MICKI MCELYA, MICHAEL O'BRIEN, CHRISTOPHER PHELPS, and TREVOR BURNARD. "America the Good, America the Brave, America the Free: Reviewing the Oxford History of the United States - Robert Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (rev. ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). - Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). - Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). - James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988). - David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). - James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). - James T. Patterson, Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). - George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008)." Journal of American Studies 45, no. 3 (August 2011): 407–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021875811000508.
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Proniaiev, D. V., V. V. Kryvetskyi, V. V. Melnyk, T. V. Protsak, N. R. Yemelianenko, and V. L. Voloshyn. "History of the development of the lymphatic system (part two)." Bukovinian Medical Herald 26, no. 4 (104) (November 24, 2022): 89–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.24061/2413-0737.xxvi.4.104.2022.16.
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The eighteenth century can rightly be considered the time of the most remarkable inventions in studying the lymphatic system. The Swiss Johann Conrad Peyer (1653–1712), in his "Exercitatio anatomico-medica de glandulis intestinorum earumque usu et affectionibus" (1677) described the presence of organized lymphatic vessels in the mucous membrane of the small intestine, which are named Peyer's plaques in his honor. Alexander Monro from the University of Edinburgh Medical School was the first to describe the function of the lymphatic system in detail. In 1701, Dutch botanist and anatomist Frederick Ruysch (1638-1731), a student of Van Horn, described the morphology and function of lymphatic valves. Another Dutch anatomist, Anton Nyuck (1650-1692), used the mercury injection technique to demonstrate the lymphatic system. The French anatomist Raymond Vuyssens (1641-1715), a pioneer in cardiac and nervous system anatomy, published his groundbreaking work in Nouvelles Découvertes sur le Coeur (1706) detailing the lymphatic system of the heart. The Italian histologist and microscopist Marcello Malpighi (1628–1689) gave a great impetus to the development of microanatomy with his pioneering microscope. New progress in the knowledge of the lymphatic system was provided by the English Hunter brothers. William Hunter (1718-1783) clearly suggested that lymphatic and milk vessels have two different properties that contribute to the formation of a single network of vessels endowed with an absorbing function. In 1731, Antonio Leprotti published a dissertation on the roots of the human lymphatic system. The Italian anatomist Paolo Mascagni (1755-1815) developed a special instrument with glass tubes for slowly introducing mercury into the lymphatic vessels. In the same year, 1787, Paolo Assalini published an essay on the lymphatic system, where the author tried to demonstrate the existence of "air-conducting" vessels. Like Nyuck and Mascagna, Vincenzo Foman (1794-1837) used mercury to inject the smallest lymphatic vessels. Another contribution to understanding the anatomy of the lymphatic system made the French anatomist Marie Philibert Constant Sappey (1810-1896), who was able to count the valves in the lymphatic vessels. The Polish pathologist Alfred Besiadecki (1839-1889) made a great contribution to the study of the lymphatic system of the skin. Thanks to his research, he refuted the prevailing hypothesis that the blood capillaries in the skin are located inside the lymphatic vessels. For the first time in history, he described the contiguous connection between lymphatic and blood vessels. In 1858, Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig (1816-1895) proposed the hypothesis that lymph is a filtrate of blood that is released from the capillary wall under the influence of intracapillary pressure. After that, the British doctor William Handley significantly contributed to the development of surgery for lymphatic disorders. In 1908, he introduced his technique of "lymphangioplasty". One of the key figures of this lymphatic revolution and "renaissance" is undoubtedly the Finnish researcher Kari Kustaa Alitalo (1952-present), who, together with his group and in collaboration with other international groups, made the most important discoveries regarding the growth factor/receptor system that controls the development of lymphatic vessels and lymphatic metastases of tumors.
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Langewiesche, Dieter. "Arndt Bauerkämper / Étienne François / Karen Hagemann (Hrsg.), Die Revolutions- und Napoleonischen Kriege in der europäischen Erinnerung. Paket der Bde. 1–4. Bd. 1: Lars Peters, Romances of War. Die Erinnerung an die Revolutions- und Napoleonischen Kriege in Großbritannien und Irland 1815–1945. Bd. 2: Anika Bethan, Napoleons Königreich Westphalen. Lokale, deutsche und europäische Erinnerungen. Bd. 3: Wolfgang Koller, Historienkino im Zeitalter der Weltkriege. Die Revolutions- und Napoleonischen Kriege in der europäischen Erinnerung. Bd. 4: Ruth Leiserowitz, Heldenhafte Zeiten. Die polnischen Erinnerungen an die Revolutions- und Napoleonischen Kriege 1815–1945. Paderborn, Ferdinand Schöningh 2018." Historische Zeitschrift 309, no. 3 (December 1, 2019): 775–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hzhz-2019-1500.
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MacCuarta, Brian, Liam Kelly, Martin Maguire, Susan Flavin, Declan Mallon, Mícheál Ó. Fathartaigh, Vanessa Stout, et al. "Reviews: The Irish Franciscans, 1534–1990, Framing the West: Images of Rural Ireland, 1891–1920, the Irish Establishment, 1879–1914, the Great Parchment Book of Waterford: Liber Antiquissimus Civitatis Waterfordiae, the Laity, the Church and the Mystery Plays: A Drama of Belonging, the Irish in Post-War Britain, New Guests of the Irish Nation, the Making of the Irish Poor Law, 1815–1843, Republicanism in Ireland: Confronting Theories and Traditions, the Orange Order: A Contemporary Northern Irish History, Repeal and Revolution: 1848 in Ireland, the Civil Service and the Revolution in Ireland, 1912–1938: ‘Shaking the Blood-Stained Hand of Mr Collins’, Inspector Mallon: Buying Irish Patriotism for a Five-Pound Note, An Illustrated History of the Phoenix Park: Landscape and Management to 1880, Gypsum Mining and the Shirley Estate in South Monaghan, 1800–1936, the Rising: Ireland, Easter 1916, Left to the Wolves: Irish Victims of Stalinist Terror, Enforcing the English Reformation in Ireland: Clerical Resistance and Political Conflict in the Diocese of Dublin, 1530–1590, Staging Ireland: Representations in Shakespeare and Renaissance Drama, God's Executioner: Oliver Cromwell and the Conquest of Ireland, the Irish Labour Party, 1922–1973, the Big House in the North of Ireland: Land, Power and Social Elites, 1878–1960, Historical Association of Ireland, Life and Times New Series, Culture and Society in Early Modern Breifne/Cavan, Witchcraft and Whigs: The Life of Bishop Francis Hutchinson, 1660–1739, Cosmopolitan Ireland: Globalisation and Quality of Life, the Orange Order in Canada." Irish Economic and Social History 37, no. 1 (December 2010): 154–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.7227/iesh.37.9.
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"War in an age of revolution, 1775-1815." Choice Reviews Online 48, no. 04 (December 1, 2010): 48–2313. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/choice.48-2313.
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Robitaille, Mathieu. "The French Revolution and the Discourse of Change in Restoration France and Post-1815 England." Past Imperfect 15 (September 4, 2009). http://dx.doi.org/10.21971/p7359c.
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The conception of revolution was changed drastically by the French Revolution of 1789 from its original use in astronomy to imply a return to a previous state of being. Henceforth, revolution came to signify a drastic rupture with past practices. For French and English liberals in post-Napoleonic Europe, the word revolution also became loaded with negative connotations associated with the French Revolution’s radical turn from 1792 to 1794, and the fear of popular violence. My paper examines and compares how the stigma associated with the French Revolution influenced the discourse of change in France and England, and how the fear of revolutionary violence influenced the actions of both governments.
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Rowe, Michael. "Desecration, Secularization, Restoration: Cologne’s Churches during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1792–1815." German History, March 11, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerhis/ghae003.
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Abstract The Napoleonic era was transformative for Cologne’s churches. The wars that characterized this period brought destruction and upheaval. The invading French army that occupied the city in 1794 was an agent of the new Republic, a polity then at war with Catholicism. Most spectacularly, this resulted in the desacralization of Cologne’s churches, some of which were turned into storage depots for the army or made into temples for the new republican cult. However, once Napoleon seized control of the Republic in 1799, a new French policy was enforced in the city and surrounding region. It restored many aspects of the old familiar religious order, but at the same time created new institutions of church management and preservation that survived the end of French rule in 1814.
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"Buchbesprechungen." Militaergeschichtliche Zeitschrift 72, no. 1 (June 1, 2013): 107–240. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mgzs-2013-0005.
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Allgemeines Das ist Militärgeschichte! Probleme - Projekte - Perspektiven. Hrsg. mit Unterstützung des MGFA von Christian Th. Müller und Matthias Rogg Dieter Langewiesche Lohn der Gewalt. Beutepraktiken von der Antike bis zur Neuzeit. Hrsg. von Horst Carl und Hans-Jürgen Bömelburg Birte Kundrus Piraterie von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart. Hrsg. von Volker Grieb und Sabine Todt. Unter Mitarb. von Sünje Prühlen Martin Rink Robert C. Doyle, The Enemy in Our Hands. America's Treatment of Enemy Prisoners of War from the Revolution to the War on Terror Rüdiger Overmans Maritime Wirtschaft in Deutschland. Schifffahrt - Werften - Handel - Seemacht im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Hrsg. von Jürgen Elvert, Sigurd Hess und Heinrich Walle Dieter Hartwig Guntram Schulze-Wegener, Das Eiserne Kreuz in der deutschen Geschichte Harald Potempa Michael Peters, Geschichte Frankens. Von der Zeit Napoleons bis zur Gegenwart Helmut R. Hammerich Johannes Leicht, Heinrich Claß 1868-1953. Die politische Biographie eines Alldeutschen Michael Epkenhans Altertum und Mittelalter Anne Curry, Der Hundertjährige Krieg (1337-1453) Martin Clauss Das Elbinger Kriegsbuch (1383-1409). Rechnungen für städtische Aufgebote. Bearb. von Dieter Heckmann unter Mitarb. von Krzysztof Kwiatkowski Hiram Kümper Sascha Möbius, Das Gedächtnis der Reichsstadt. Unruhen und Kriege in der lübeckischen Chronistik und Erinnerungskultur des späten Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit Hiram Kümper Frühe Neuzeit Mark Hengerer, Kaiser Ferdinand III. (1608-1657). Eine Biographie Steffen Leins Christian Kunath, Kursachsen im Dreißigjährigen Krieg Marcus von Salisch Robert Winter, Friedrich August Graf von Rutowski. Ein Sohn Augusts des Starken geht seinen Weg Alexander Querengässer Die Schlacht bei Minden. Weltpolitik und Lokalgeschichte. Hrsg. von Martin Steffen Daniel Hohrath 1789-1870 Riccardo Papi, Eugène und Adam - Der Prinz und sein Maler. Der Leuchtenberg-Zyklus und die Napoleonischen Feldzüge 1809 und 1812 Alexander Querengässer Eckart Kleßmann, Die Verlorenen. Die Soldaten in Napoleons Rußlandfeldzug Daniel Furrer, Soldatenleben. Napoleons Russlandfeldzug 1812 Heinz Stübig Hans-Dieter Otto, Für Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit. Die deutschen Befreiungskriege gegen Napoleon 1806-1815 Heinz Stübig 1871-1918 Des Kaisers Knechte. Erinnerungen an die Rekrutenzeit im k.(u.)k. Heer 1868 bis 1914. Hrsg., bearb. und erl. von Christa Hämmerle Tamara Scheer Kaiser Friedrich III. Tagebücher 1866-1888. Hrsg. und bearb. von Winfried Baumgart Michael Epkenhans Tanja Bührer, Die Kaiserliche Schutztruppe für Deutsch-Ostafrika. Koloniale Sicherheitspolitik und transkulturelle Kriegführung 1885 bis 1918 Thomas Morlang Krisenwahrnehmungen in Deutschland um 1900. Zeitschriften als Foren der Umbruchszeit im wilhelminischen Reich = Perceptions de la crise en Allemagne au début du XXe siècle. Les périodiques et la mutation de la société allemande à l'époque wilhelmienne. Hrsg. von/ed. par Michel Grunewald und/et Uwe Puschner Bruno Thoß Peter Winzen, Im Schatten Wilhelms II. Bülows und Eulenburgs Poker um die Macht im Kaiserreich Michael Epkenhans Alexander Will, Kein Griff nach der Weltmacht. Geheime Dienste und Propaganda im deutsch-österreichisch-türkischen Bündnis 1914-1918 Rolf Steininger Maria Hermes, Krankheit: Krieg. Psychiatrische Deutungen des Ersten Weltkrieges Thomas Beddies Ross J. Wilson, Landscapes of the Western Front. Materiality during the Great War Bernd Jürgen Wendt Jonathan Boff, Winning and Losing on the Western Front. The British Third Army and the Defeat of Germany in 1918 Christian Stachelbeck Glenn E. Torrey, The Romanian Battlefront in World War I Gundula Gahlen Uwe Schulte-Varendorff, Krieg in Kamerun. Die deutsche Kolonie im Ersten Weltkrieg Thomas Morlang 1919-1945 »Und sie werden nicht mehr frei sein ihr ganzes Leben«. Funktion und Stellenwert der NSDAP, ihrer Gliederungen und angeschlossenen Verbände im »Dritten Reich«. Hrsg. von Stephanie Becker und Christoph Studt Armin Nolzen Robert Gerwarth, Reinhard Heydrich. Biographie Martin Moll Christian Adam, Lesen unter Hitler. Autoren, Bestseller, Leser im Dritten Reich Gabriele Bosch Alexander Vatlin, »Was für ein Teufelspack«. Die Deutsche Operation des NKWD in Moskau und im Moskauer Gebiet 1936 bis 1941 Helmut Müller-Enbergs Rolf-Dieter Müller, Hitlers Wehrmacht 1935 bis 1945 Armin Nolzen Felix Römer, Kameraden. Die Wehrmacht von innen Martin Moll Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck, »Herr Oberleitnant, det lohnt doch nicht!« Kriegserinnerungen an die Jahre 1938 bis 1945 Othmar Hackl Stuart D. Goldman, Nomonhan, 1939. The Red Army's Victory that shaped World War II Gerhard Krebs Francis M. Carroll, Athenia torpedoed. The U-boat attack that ignited the Battle of the Atlantic Axel Niestlé Robin Higham, Unflinching zeal. The air battles over France and Britain, May-October 1940 Michael Peters Anna Reid, Blokada. Die Belagerung von Leningrad 1941-1944 Birgit Beck-Heppner Jack Radey and Charles Sharp, The Defense of Moscow. The Northern Flank Detlef Vogel Jochen Hellbeck, Die Stalingrad-Protokolle. Sowjetische Augenzeugen berichten aus der Schlacht Christian Streit Robert M. Citino, The Wehrmacht retreats. Fighting a lost war, 1943 Martin Moll Carlo Gentile, Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS im Partisanenkrieg: Italien 1943-1945 Kerstin von Lingen Tim Saunders, Commandos & Rangers. D-Day Operations Detlef Vogel Frederik Müllers, Elite des »Führers«? Mentalitäten im subalternen Führungspersonal von Waffen-SS und Fallschirmjägertruppe 1944/45 Sebastian Groß, Gefangen im Krieg. Frontsoldaten der Wehrmacht und ihre Weltsicht John Zimmermann Tobias Seidl, Führerpersönlichkeiten. Deutungen und Interpretationen deutscher Wehrmachtgeneräle in britischer Kriegsgefangenschaft Alaric Searle Nach 1945 Wolfgang Benz, Deutschland unter alliierter Besatzung 1945-1949. Michael F. Scholz, Die DDR 1949-1990 Denis Strohmeier Bastiaan Robert von Benda-Beckmann, A German Catastrophe? German historians and the Allied bombings, 1945-2010 Horst Boog Hans Günter Hockerts, Der deutsche Sozialstaat. Entfaltung und Gefährdung seit 1945 Ursula Hüllbüsch Korea - ein vergessener Krieg? Der militärische Konflikt auf der koreanischen Halbinsel 1950-1953 im internationalen Kontext. Hrsg. von Bernd Bonwetsch und Matthias Uhl Gerhard Krebs Andreas Eichmüller, Keine Generalamnestie. Die strafrechtliche Verfolgung von NS-Verbrechen in der frühen Bundesrepublik Clemens Vollnhals Horst-Eberhard Friedrichs, Bremerhaven und die Amerikaner. Stationierung der U.S. Army 1945-1993 - eine Bilddokumentation Heiner Bröckermann Russlandheimkehrer. Die sowjetische Kriegsgefangenschaft im Gedächtnis der Deutschen. Hrsg. von Elke Scherstjanoi Georg Wurzer Klaus Naumann, Generale in der Demokratie. Generationsgeschichtliche Studien zur Bundeswehrelite Rudolf J. Schlaffer John Zimmermann, Ulrich de Maizière. General der Bonner Republik 1912 bis 2006 Klaus Naumann Nils Aschenbeck, Agent wider Willen. Frank Lynder, Axel Springer und die Eichmann-Akten Rolf Steininger »Entrüstet Euch!«. Nuklearkrise, NATO-Doppelbeschluss und Friedensbewegung. Hrsg. von Christoph Becker-Schaum [u.a.] Winfried Heinemann Volker Koop, Besetzt. Sowjetische Besatzungspolitik in Deutschland Silke Satjukow, Besatzer. »Die Russen« in Deutschland 1945-1994 Heiner Bröckermann Marco Metzler, Nationale Volksarmee. Militärpolitik und politisches Militär in sozialistischer Verteidigungskoalition 1955/56 bis 1989/90 Klaus Storkmann Rüdiger Wenzke, Ab nach Schwedt! Die Geschichte des DDR-Militärstrafvollzugs Silke Satjukow Militärs der DDR im Auslandsstudium. Erlebnisberichte, Fakten und Dokumente. Hrsg. von Bernd Biedermann und Hans-Georg Löffler Rüdiger Wenzke Marianna Dudley, An Environmental History of the UK Defence Estate, 1945 to the Present Michael Peters
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Piscos, James Loreto. "Human Rights and Justice Issues in the 16th Century Philippines." Scientia - The International Journal on the Liberal Arts 6, no. 2 (December 30, 2017). http://dx.doi.org/10.57106/scientia.v6i2.77.
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In the 16th century Philippines, the marriage of the Church and the State was the dominant set-up by virtue of Spain’s quest for colonization and evangelization. Civil administrators and church missionaries were called to cooperate the will of the king. Inmost cases, their point of contact was also the area of friction because of their opposing intentions.
The early Spanish missionaries in the 16th century Philippines were influenced by the teachings of Bartolome de Las Casas and Vitoria that ignited them to confront their civil counterparts who were after getting the wealth and resources of the natives at the expense of their dignity and rights.
Since the King showed interest in protecting the rights of the Indians, Churchmen used legal procedures, reports and personaltestimonies in the Royal Court to create changes in the systems employed in the islands. The relationship between the Spaniards and the natives cannot be reduced to a monolithic relationship between the two races. The power dynamics should be viewed within the plethora of groups who were engaged in the discourse including the bishop of Manila, governor-general, encomenderos, adelantados, soldiers, religious orders, native leaders and even the common indios. Given the canvas of conflicting motives, the proponents of conquests and missionary undertakings grappled to persuade the Spanish Royal Court to take their respective stand on the disputed human rights and justice issues on the legitimacy of the conquest, tributes, slavery and forced labor.
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Zaide, Gregorio F. The Pageant of Philippine History Vol. 1. Manila: 1979.
Articles
Arcilla, Jose S. S.J., The Spanish Conquest. Kasaysayan: The Story of theFilipino People Vol. 3. Hongkong: C & C Offset Printing Co., Ltd, 1998.
Bernal, Rafael. “Introduction.” The Colonization and Conquest of the Philippinesby Spain: Some Contemporary Source Documents. Manila: FilipinianaBook Guild, 1965.
Burkholder, Mark A. “Sepulveda, Juan Gines de.” Encyclopedia of Latin AmericanHistory and Culture Vol.5. Edited by Barbara A. Tenenbaum. NewYork: Macmillan Library Reference, 1996.
Burkholder, Susanne Hiles. “Vitoria, Francisco de.” Encyclopedia of Latin AmericanHistory and Culture Vol.5 Edited by Barbara A. Tenenbaum.New York: Macmillan Library Reference, 1996.
De Jesus, Edilberto. “Christianity and Conquest: The Basis of Spanish SovereigntyOver the Philippines.” The Beginnings of Christianity in the Philippines.Manila: Philippine Historical Institute, 1965.
Donovan, William. “Las Casas, Bartolome.” Encyclopedia of Latin American Historyand Culture Vol.3. Edited by Barbara A. Tenenbaum. New York:Macmillan Library Reference, 1996.
Gutierrez, Lucio. “Domingo de Salazar’s Struggle for Justice and Humanizationin the Conquest of the Philippines.” Philippiniana Sacra 14, 1975.
____________. “Domingo de Salazar, OP, First Bishop of the Philippines (1512-1594): Defender of the Rights of the Filipinos at the Spanish Contact”Philippiniana Sacra XX, 1979.
____________. “Domingo de Salazar’s Memorial of 1582 on the Status of the Philippines:A Manifesto for Freedom and Humanization.” Philippiniana SacraVol. 21, No. 63, 1986.
___________. “Opinion of Fr. Domingo de Salazar, O.P. First Bishop of the Philippinesand the Major Religious Superiors Regarding Slaves.” PhilippinianaSacra Vol. 22, No. 64, 1986.
___________. “The Synod of Manila: 1581-1586.” Philippiniana Sacra Vol. XXV, No.74, 1990.
Keith, Robert G. “Encomienda,Hacienda and Corregimiento in Spanish America:A Structural Analysis.” Hispanic American Historical Review 51:pp.110-116.
Kirkpatrick, F. A. “Repartimiento-Encomienda.” Hispanic American HistoricalReview XIX: pp.373-379.
Pastrana, Apolinar. “The Franciscans and the Evangelization of the Philippines(1578-1900).” Boletin Eclesiastico de Filipinas, 29, Jan-Feb 1965:pp.83-85.
Quirk, Robert E. “Some Notes on a Controversial Controversy: Juan Gines deSepulveda and Natural Servitude.” Hispanic American Historical ReviewVol.XXXIV No.3 August 1954: 358.
Ramirez, Susan S. “Encomienda.” Encyclopedia of Latin American History andCulture, Vol.2 Edited by Barbara A. Tenenbaum. New York: MacmillanLibrary Reference, 1996.
Schwaller, John F. “Patronato Real”. Encyclopedia in Latin American History andCulture, Vol.4. Edited by Barbara a. Tenenbaum. New York: MacmillanLibrary Reference, 1996.
Scott. William Henry. “Why did Tupas betray Dagami?” Philippine Quarterly ofCulture and Society 14 (1986): p.24.
Villaroel, Fidel. “The Church and the Philippine Referendum of 1599.” PhilippinianaSacra Vol.XXXV 2000: pp.89-128.
Internet Source
Hyperdictionary. http://www. hyperdictionary.com/dictionary/politics, accessedon 18 December 2004.
Human Rights Watch World Report for Philippines, 2017 https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2017/country-chapters/philippines.
General References
Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, Volume 1-5. Edited byBarbara A. Tenebaum. New York: Macmillan Library Reference, 1996.
Kasaysayan: The Story of the Filipino People ,Vol. 3 The Spanish Conquest.Hongkong: Asia Publishing Company Limited, 1998.
Unpublished Materials
Cabezon, Antonio. An Introduction to Church and State Relations According toFrancisco Vitoria. Unpublished Thesis: University of Sto. Tomas, 1964.
De la Costa, Horacio. Jurisdictional Conflicts in the Philippines During the XVIand the XVII Centuries. Harvard: Unpublished Dissertation, 1951.