Journal articles on the topic 'Walloon Authors'

The psychotherapeutic education of psychiatric residents remains a poorly studied area. Until now, there have been a few mainly theoretical or local researches, mainly rooted in a psychoanalytical descriptive framework, and many normative guidelines. One could almost believe that psychiatrists are spending very little time considering their own social determinations. So we did a large scale study in 2006, among Belgian and Dutch residents. This allows us to present a few first results: notably the difference in orientation according to some demographic variables (a.o. religious background and language) and major dissimilarities concerning referential authors for Dutch, Flemish and Walloon residents. These objective points corroborate the idea that psychiatry is not (yet) an homogeneous field in Europe, but is subject to considerable cultural variations.

Purpose This paper aims at analysing the relationship between anticipation and public administration based on a case study focusing on a specific public agency in charge of knowledge production for policymaking. Design/methodology/approach It is based on a case study methodology: anticipatory practices of a public organisation are critically assessed based on data that originates from public documents and from participant observation within the concerned agency. Findings Several dimensions impact the interrelation between anticipation and public administration. First, the organisational set-up is decisive in fostering the development of specific type of anticipatory activities. Second, it confirms a common finding that policymakers are oftentimes more interested in ready-to-use results than in processes of future thinking. And third, it shows that distinctive anticipatory practices can rely on very different networks and, therefore, have different degree of maturity. Research limitations/implications The use of a case study, unfortunately, may lead to a lack of generalisability. The authors therefore encourage researchers to test their propositions further. Originality/value Nevertheless, the originality of the paper is its central focus on anticipation within public administration – a topic that has not received much attention or study by academics or researchers. Anticipatory practices have been studied at a more general level, but not necessarily in particular public sector environments, which also have their own particular constraints.

The determination of the return period of frequent discharges requires the definition of flood peak thresholds. Unlike daily data, the volume of data to be processed with the generalization of hourly data loggers or even with an even finer temporal resolution quickly becomes too large to be managed by hand. We therefore propose an algorithm that automatically extracts flood characteristics to compute partial series return periods based on hourly series of flow rates. Thresholds are defined through robust analysis of field observation-independent data to obtain five independent flood peaks per year in order to bypass the 1-year limit of annual series. Peak over thresholds were analyzed using both Gumbel’s graphical method and his ordinary moments method. Hydrological analyses exhibit the value in the convergence point revealed by this dual method for floods with a recurrence interval around 5 years. Pebble-bedded rivers on impervious substratum (Ardenne rivers) presented an average bankfull discharge return period of around 0.6 years. In the absence of field observation, the authors have defined the bankfull discharge as the Q0.625 computed with partial series. Annual series computations allow Q100 discharge determination and extreme floods recurrence interval estimation. A comparison of data from the literature allowed for the confirmation of the value of Myer’s rating at 18, and this value was used to predict extreme floods based on the area of the watershed.

One of the key challenges to assist in the understanding of the potential impacts of coal seam gas (CSG) extraction is the development of robust geological and numerical models. In the Clarence-Moreton Basin, this task is complicated by the need to integrate shallow alluvial aquifers (typically less than 30 m thick) and deep bedrock aquifers, which can have a combined thickness of up to approximately 3,500–4,000 m in some parts of the basin. While shallow aquifers are not typically considered in petroleum reservoir studies, they are of great significance in the Australian government’s Bioregional Assessment Program as they host a range of valuable water-dependent assets. To address this challenge, the authors have developed a series of 3D geological models and flow simulation grids of different scales and resolutions, that will form the assessment’s basis. An accurate understanding of the potential connectivity pathways between the five major alluvial aquifer systems and the underlying Triassic to Cretaceous age units will underpin the prediction of potential impacts of depressurisation associated with CSG extraction from the Walloon Coal Measures, which is the major target of CSG exploration in the Clarence-Moreton Basin. The authors have used SKUA/GoCAD (Paradigm®) 3D geological modelling software to develop 3D geological models from elevation (DEM), and stratigraphic, seismic and lithological data to facilitate the development of reliable conceptual and numerical models that describe these connectivity pathways and constitute a road-map to a risk assessment of the potential impacts on water-related assets from CSG production in the basin.

The Fairway Basin lies between Australia and New Caledonia in the northern Tasman Frontier area with water depths ranging from less than 1,000–2,400 m. This basin was formed in the mid-to-late Cretaceous during the eastern Gondwana breakup and since then has received detrital and pelagic sediments. It is known for its 70,000 km2 bottom simulating reflector, interpreted as one of the world’s largest gas hydrate layers or as a regional diagenetic front. The seismic reflection data shows sedimentary thicknesses (up to 4 km) and geometries capable of trapping hydrocarbons. The authors interpreted the seismic stratigraphy and available well data in terms of paleogeography and tectonic evolution. This work allowed the discovery of a deeply buried delta, probably of the same type as the deep-water Taranaki Delta. This stratigraphic framework is used to constrain multi-1D generation modelling and to test three main hypotheses of source rocks. The most likely scenario, similar to the one accepted for the Taranaki petroleum province, are a type-III and type-II source rocks intercalated in a Cretaceous prograding series. Another possible scenario is a source rock equivalent to the east Australian Walloon Formation and the occurrence of the marine source rock in the pre-rift sequence. Although, the large modelled volumes at this stage are speculative due to limited data on source rock composition, richness and distribution, as well as on the presence and quality of reservoir and seal, this study confirms the prospectivity of the Fairway Basin and the need for more data to further assess this basin.

The importance of concurrent disturbances to the maintenance of plant species diversity in grasslands has been emphasized by several authors, but there are few studies comparing different disturbances at the same site. In this study the size, abundance, vegetation, and environment of thatching ant mounds, earthen mammal mounds, bison wallows, and openings in dry marshes are compared in a northern mixed prairie in north central South Dakota. Patch size and abundance varied considerably between patch types. Ant and earthen mammal mounds were the smallest but most abundant patch types. Bison wallows and dry marshes were larger and occurred less frequently than ant and earthen mounds. Different patch types occupied a similar amount of area. Ordination of patch vegetation revealed marked between-type compositional differences; ant and earthen mounds were dominated by vegetatively reproducing perennials, while annuals occurred more abundantly in bison wallows and dry marshes. Many species were restricted to either wallows or marshes. Levels of nitrate, phosphorus, soil organic matter, and other environmental factors varied significantly between patch types. Different patch types supported different groups of species, and patch vegetation was a product of mechanism of patch creation, patch environment, and location. Key words: ant mounds, disturbance, earthen mounds, northern mixed prairie, patches, potholes, wallows.

BACKGROUND: Locus of control (LOC) is related to the impact of headaches and chronic pain; however, literature evidence regarding LOC is not always consistent. Several authors consider this to be due, in part, to the separate interpretation of LOC factors, during which the interaction among them is ignored. In 1982, Wallston and Wallston proposed eight possible LOC health patterns depending on whether the individual scored high or low in each of three dimensions.OBJECTIVE: To identify these LOC patterns in patients with headaches and chronic pain, and to validate them in terms of their association with a selection of the main pain indicators.METHODS: A total of 228 individuals were recruited at three public centres in Seville, Spain. Participants completed a semistructured clinical interview and several questionnaires assessing psychological variables related to pain. The main statistical analyses used were two-step cluster analysis and ANCOVA.RESULTS: The six-cluster solution was optimal. The patterns observed coincided with: the believer in control; the yea-sayer; the pure chance; the pure internal; the pure professional; and the nay-sayer clusters. The double external or type VI clusters were not observed. Clusters could be classified from the best to the worst adjustment to chronic pain.CONCLUSIONS: These results support the empirical validity of the theoretical model of LOC patterns proposed in 1982 by Wallston and Wallston among a chronic pain population. The analysis of patterns provides more accurate information regarding the adjustment to pain compared with analysis of the LOC factors separately.

Psychomotricity is one of the foundations in child development, a science that unites the body in movement and mental activity, admits a translation that relates body movement and its intentionality, studies human development in all phases. In this sense, this article aims to understand psychomotricity and adversities in early childhood education, to recognize the relationship between body and mind, and the importance of psychomotor development since childhood. In order to promote and achieve a deeper study on psychomotricity in early childhood education, this research took place in a bibliographic way through studies by authors dealing with the theme. The authors who guided this research were Duprê (1862-1921), Wallon (1879-1962) and Le Boulch (1981), who report the contexts and challenges of psychomotricity for a better development in human life. The results of the present study brought deeper reflections regarding the knowledge of the psychomotricity investigation process and the adversities in early childhood education.

The Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale (MHLC) designed by Wallston, Wallston, and DeVellis (1978) belongs to the most popular tests, assessing the health locus of control in respondents on three levels: internal, external, and accidental. The MHLC is used in health promotion programs, in prophylaxis effect. According to authors, the background of this conception is the conviction that internal locus of health control favours pro-health behaviour like taking physical activity, reduce smoking and alcohol drinking, weights control, HIV protection etc. In this preliminary study we would like to exam the health locus of control in anorexia women.The MHLC was curry out in 15 anorectic women (diagnosed by EAT-26) and 39 non-anorectic women, aged 21,7 ± 1,0 years. The results were analysed with the use the Chi-square test.We found the statistically significance differences between anorectic and non-anorectic women in the health locus of control (p< 0,001; Chi=13,24). However, the most of subjects (non-anorectic vs. anorectic, respectively 69% vs. 60%) located the health control inside, more anorectic felt that control on their health depend on the accidence than non-anorectic (respectively, 20% vs. 5%).The results of this preliminary study could suggest that the health locus of control may play the important role in initiate the anorexia behaviour in women.

Contradictions between the regions of Belgium - Wallonia and Flanders - have a long history associated with uneven political, economic and cultural development of the territories, which in 1830 became parts of an independent state, the Kingdom of Belgium. The "Letter to the King", written by eminent Belgian politician and writer, socialist Jules Destree (1863 - 1936 gg.), is one of the most interesting sources on the history of Belgium of this period, It became a kind of manifesto of balance between the ideas of separatism and unitarianism. This article includes excerpts from the "Letter to the King", which were given for the first time in the author's Russian translation and conducted historical criticism of the source. The study is based on a set of scientific methods and approaches, including the principle of scientific objectivity and systematic approach, used in historical research. The main methods are problematic and historical-comparative analysis, classification and comparison of political and historical concepts. An external source of criticism included information about the place and the time of the creation of document, the biography of the author studies; internal critic source recreates the idea of the letter and the background of historical events. Prominent Belgian politician and writer, socialist Jules Destree (1863 - 1936), highly appreciated the personal qualities of King Albert I, appealed to his experience and political vision, describing all the problems Walloons faced in their opposition to the Flemish. Destree in his letter opposed the unequal development of the regions of Belgium and the protectionist policies of the central government in respect to the detriment of Flanders Wallonia. He summarized and formulated the factors that, in his opinion, interfere with the full development of his country. Destree pays great attention to linguistic differences, which were at the heart of conflicts between Walloons and Flemings, and are still shaken by Belgium. He reflects on the fact that the central government should be doing to reduce the national tensions that unites two people, and that the shares, which should be a system of education that future generations were able to overcome the historical alienation of such geographically close and ideologically distant peoples. Although Jules Destree firmly defends separatism idea for Wallonia as the only solution to the problem, however, by the end of his letter, reasoning it takes a more balanced position. The idea of a unitary state was not denied completely, but Destree emphasizes the importance of a balanced central government policy in relation to the regions in order to reduce internal tensions between the two nations. The ideas embodied in his "Letter to the King", formed the basis of the principles of peaceful co-existence of further autonomous regions as part of the union, which was manifested in the future during the First World War, when the Walloons and Flemings alongside confronted a common enemy.

This issue marks the debut of the Hydraulic Fracturing Operations feature in JPT. While hydraulic fracturing has long been a feature topic, this year, we are branching this major area of interest into both this feature and a Hydraulic Fracturing Modeling feature, which will appear in the November issue of the magazine. For this issue, reviewer Nabila Lazreq of ADNOC has selected three papers that reflect industry efforts to achieve new goals in production and sustainability. Paper 201450 investigates the potential of natural gas (NG) foam fracturing fluid to reduce the major water requirements seen in stimulation. The authors write that such requirements can be reduced up to 80% in some cases by the use of NG foams. Although modeling is used to reach their conclusions, the authors point out that NG foam fracturing fluids have great promise in operational scenarios in areas such as the Duvernay Shale. Paper 203226 reviews the challenges and conclusions reached by an operator implementing multistage fracturing for the first time in a horizontal well in a UAE tight carbonate reservoir. A cross-disciplinary approach proved effective when conventional stimulation methods were not successful in this challenging formation. Finally, paper 201611 returns to the topic of NG foams, investigating their utility as an alternative to fracturing fluids composed of nitrogen and carbon-dioxide foams. The pilot-scale study leads the authors to conclude that NG foams are effective fracturing fluids that exhibit stable viscosity at elevated pressure and temperature conditions. We hope that you enjoy the inaugural Hydraulic Fracturing Operations feature. Feel free to access the complete papers, and others that reflect recent achievements of SPE conference authors, in the OnePetro online library. Recommended additional reading at OnePetro: www.onepetro.org. SPE 204190 Optimization of Coal-Seam Connectivity by Multiseam Pinpoint Fracturing Operations in the Walloons Coal Measures, Surat Basin by Vibhas J. Pandey, ConocoPhillips, et al. SPE 204140 An Eagle Ford Case Study: Monitoring Fracturing Propagation Through Sealed Wellbore Pressure Monitoring by Kourtney Brinkley, Devon Energy, et al. SPE 202760 Tight Oil From Shale Rock in UAE: A Success Story of Unconventional Fracturing by Nabila Lazreq, ADNOC, et al.

The purpose of the study is to analyse the jurisprudence of the right to life and dignity as fundamentally protected rights in a South African perspective since the dawn of democracy and Constitution of 1996 hereafter referred to as the Constitution. This paper argues that South Africa as a state in applying the Bill of Rights and the Constitution might have encroached or applied laws that may have compromised justice in so far as the impact from the decisions of the courts are concerned. This paper will therefore examine how the courts have interpreted the law and the protection of the non derogable rights of life and dignity post constitutional democracy. The democratic government has a duty to reverse apartheid policies that stemmed from colonial laws. Apartheid laws segregated people and rights were clustered, and selectively applied along racial lines with a tiny majority of European-Africans as sole beneficiaries of rights while the African majority wallow in rightlessness. The authors will examine how the state interprets these fundamental principles of the constitution since the dawn of democracy. The authors hope that the arguments presented in this paper would assist in understanding the moral justification of the decisions in human rights cases in South Africa as the courts battle their way into the realisation of especially non derogable rights as set out in the Bill of Rights.

Mass cinema can act as a powerful tool for influencing public opinion by appealing to shared values and collective historical memory, while simultaneously constructing and guiding these elements in alignment with policy objectives. This article explores the thesis that national cinema, as an element of a common cultural code, plays a significant role in the formation and reinforcement of collective (socio-cultural) identity. Specifically, it examines the significance of Brussels' efforts to cultivate a robust film industry as part of the European Union's strategy for constructing a collective identity.The authors test the hypothesis that cinema serves as a medium for fostering a sense of belonging and emotional connection among EU citizens. To this end, the study aims to uncover the specific mechanisms by which common historical and social narratives are conveyed through European Union cinema. The research methodology is grounded in a structuralist perspective on cinema (P. Wallen, C. Metz).The article analyzes how the EU has intensified its institutional support and promotion of European cinema, particularly in response to the «crisis of ideas» in Hollywood, which has left a void in the global film market. This analysis is contextualized within the broader sociopolitical landscape, including the rising popularity of mass cinema during the pandemic and the heightened urgency for strengthening EU collective identity amid the Ukrainian crisis and the initiation of a special military operation.The findings indicate that the EU is increasingly leveraging the film industry to disseminate narratives, ideas, and values critical for both situational objectives – such as consolidating public opinion on specific political issues (illustrated by the «militarization» of the film market in response to the 2022 military operation) – and long-term goals of fortifying the EU's collective identity. However, the long-term efficacy of cinema in shaping public opinion is constrained by its susceptibility to rapid trend shifts driven by audience preferences.

Abstract The Chesapeake Lighthouse Aircraft Measurements for Satellites (CLAMS) experiment took place from 10 July to 2 August 2001 in a combined ocean–land region that included the Chesapeake Lighthouse [Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) Ocean Validation Experiment (COVE)] and the Wallops Flight Facility (WFF), both along coastal Virginia. This experiment was designed mainly for validating instruments and algorithms aboard the Terra satellite platform, including the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Over the ocean, MODIS retrieved aerosol optical depths (AODs) at seven wavelengths and an estimate of the aerosol size distribution. Over the land, MODIS retrieved AOD at three wavelengths plus qualitative estimates of the aerosol size. Temporally coincident measurements of aerosol properties were made with a variety of sun photometers from ground sites and airborne sites just above the surface. The set of sun photometers provided unprecedented spectral coverage from visible (VIS) to the solar near-infrared (NIR) and infrared (IR) wavelengths. In this study, AOD and aerosol size retrieved from MODIS is compared with similar measurements from the sun photometers. Over the nearby ocean, the MODIS AOD in the VIS and NIR correlated well with sun-photometer measurements, nearly fitting a one-to-one line on a scatterplot. As one moves from ocean to land, there is a pronounced discontinuity of the MODIS AOD, where MODIS compares poorly to the sun-photometer measurements. Especially in the blue wavelength, MODIS AOD is too high in clean aerosol conditions and too low under larger aerosol loadings. Using the Second Simulation of the Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum (6S) radiative code to perform atmospheric correction, the authors find inconsistency in the surface albedo assumptions used by the MODIS lookup tables. It is demonstrated how the high bias at low aerosol loadings can be corrected. By using updated urban/industrial aerosol climatology for the MODIS lookup table over land, it is shown that the low bias for larger aerosol loadings can also be corrected. Understanding and improving MODIS retrievals over the East Coast may point to strategies for correction in other locations, thus improving the global quality of MODIS. Improvements in regional aerosol detection could also lead to the use of MODIS for monitoring air pollution.

The COVID-19 pandemic period began to shift and shake the order of the learning process that usually takes place, one example is face-to-face learning turning into online learning. Online features seem to be a substitute for offline or face-to-face learning such as schoology, whatsapp, google classroom, moodle, zoom meeting, and several other applications that support learning (Kahfi & Kasanova, 2020). This shift has also begun to create new challenges for the world of Islamic boarding schools, as we all know that Islamic boarding schools are educational institutions that implement a boarding school system. Usually the discipline of the students can be measured through the punctuality of coming to school on time, but now this is an obstacle for the kiai or the asatidz council regarding the learning evaluation process, especially if the students who carry out the learning process with the online system, many from the economy or lower class. those who live in areas that do not support the internet network. Likewise, it is rather difficult to control the students in carrying out activities such as compulsory worship and other circumcision, even though we all know that what is unique about the education system in pesantren is the transfer of knowledge from the kiai or the asatidz council. The focus of this research is the online learning process at the Roudlatul Khuffadz Islamic Boarding School, Sorong Regency. Therefore, the author uses a qualitative descriptive analysis method, namely research that produces descriptive data in the form of words or text and behavior, which can be observed from the subject itself (Kahfi & Kasanova, 2020). This was done to reveal facts about Islamic boarding school learning in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic at the Raudlatul Khuffadz Islamic boarding school, where most Islamic boarding schools were closed or using an online system. Fraenkel and Wallen argue that qualitative research can reveal real events that occur in the field (Kahfi & Kasanova, 2020). The methods that I will use include: Interview or Interview, Observation and Documentation Methods From the results of the study, the authors conclude that: First, during the Covid-19 pandemic, the Roudlotul Khuffadz Islamic Boarding School continued to carry out learning as usual (outside the network) while still adhering to health protocols. Second), the obstacles faced by the Roudlotul Khuffadz Islamic Boarding School in learning during the pandemic are first, related to the equipment of medical devices for the prevention of Covid-19. Second, Infaq as one of the financial income of pesantren tends to decrease due to the impact of the guardians who are also affected by Covid-19 from an economic perspective.

COVID-19 was first reported in Wuhan, Hubei Province of China a few months ago (December 2019) and had since become a major challenging public health problem for not only China but also many countries around the world. It was on March 11, 2020, characterized by WHO as a pandemic. The pandemic so far has killed more than 526,465 people and infected more than 11,046,917 people around the world as of 05 July 2020. Nigeria currently has 28,167 confirmed COVID-19 cases with 11,462 (40%) discharged, 16,071 (57%) currently receiving treatment at designated facilities across the country and unfortunately 634 (3%) deaths as at the time of writing this manuscript. As far as the authors are aware, there are little or no work carried out on the implications of COVID-19 on dental practices in Nigeria. Recently, COVID-19 was identified in saliva of infected patients and so transmission via aerosols and splatter generated during dental procedures is sure. To limit exposure, there was a need to avoid scheduling patients except for emergency dental care during this outbreak. This limitation on activities of the dental sector has a very huge impact on the economy of the sector as it has already resulted in serious monetary implications for dental practices worldwide. While dental practices in the high-income countries are getting help from their respective Government, those in the middle and low-income countries like Nigeria have been left to wallow in bankruptcy without support. The authors highly recommend that the Government of these neglected countries, step up and support dental practices that are on the brink of closing down due to the low turnout of patients to their practice during this outbreak.

Optimised project delivery methods forsocial housing energy renovations European Social Housing Organisations (SHOs) are currently facing challenging times. The ageing of their housing stock and the economic crisis, which has affected both their finances and the finances of their tenants, are testing their capacity to stick to their aim of providing decent and affordable housing. Housing renovation projects offer the possibility of upgrading the health and comfort levels of their old housing stock to current standards and improve energy efficiency, and this solution also addresses the fuel poverty problems suffered by some tenants. Unfortunately, the limited financial capacity of SHOs is hampering the scale of housing renovation projects and the energy savings achieved. At the same time, the renovation of the existing housing stock is seen as one of the most promising alternative routes to achieving the ambitious CO2 emissions reduction targets set by European authorities – namely, to reduce EU CO2 emissions to 20% below their 1990 levels by 2020. The synergy between European targets and the aims of SHOs has been addressed by the energy policies of the member states, which focus on the potential energy savings achievable by renovating social housing. In fact, the European initiatives have prioritised energy savings in social housing renovations to such an extent that these are referred to as ‘energy renovations’. Energy renovation is therefore a renovation project with higher energy savings target than a regular renovation project. In total, European SHOs own 21.5 million dwellings representing around 9.4% of the total housing stock. Each SHO owns a large number of dwellings, which means there are fewer people to convince of the need to make energy savings through building renovations, maximising the potentially high impact of decisions. Moreover, SHOs are responsible for maintaining and upgrading their properties in order to continue renting them. As such, SHOs are used to dealing with renovations on a professional basis. The limited financial capacity of SHOs to realise energy renovations magnifies the importance of improving process performance in order to get the best possible outcomes. In the last 30 years numerous authors have addressed the need to improve the performance of traditional construction processes via alternative project delivery methods. However, very little is known about the specifics of renovations processes for social housing, the feasibility of applying innovative construction management methods and the consequences for the process, for the role of all the actors involved and for the results of the projects. The aim of this study is to provide an insight into the project delivery methods available for SHOs when they are undertaking energy renovation projects and to evaluate how these methods could facilitate the achievement of a higher process performance. The main research question is: How can Social Housing Organisations improve the performance of energy renovation processes using more integrated project delivery methods? The idea of a PhD thesis about social housing renovation processes originated from the participation of TU Delft as research partner in the Intelligent Energy Europe project SHELTER1 which was carried out between 2010 and 2013. The aim of the SHELTER project was to promote and facilitate the use of new models of cooperation, inspired by integrated design, for the energy renovation of social housing. The SHELTER project was a joint effort between six social housing organisations (Arte Genova, Italy; Black Country Housing Group, United Kingdom; Bulgarian Housing Association, Bulgaria; Dynacité, France; Logirep, France and Société Wallonne du Logement, Belgium), three European professional federations based in Brussels (Architects Council of Europe, Cecodhas Housing Europe and European Builders Confederation) and one research partner (Delft University of Technology). Research methods This thesis is composed of five studies. The first study is based on a literature review. The second study is based on five case studies from four countries (Belgium, Italy, France and United Kingdom), a questionnaire completed by 36 SHOs from eight countries and 14 interviews with experts from ten countries. The third is based on two French case studies and the fourth and fifth are based on 8 and 13 Dutch case studies respectively. Construction projects in housing involve a high number of professionals and take place over a long period of time. External factors, such as the economic and political situation or changes in construction or procurement regulations, can have a considerable influence on the construction process. Moreover, the specific characteristics of the construction sector of every country can also shape the process. In consequence, there are many interrelated variables that can have an influence on the dynamics of the process and on the outputs achieved. Research that seeks to understand the causes of changes in this process need to dig deeper into the internal and external characteristics of the process, which makes case study research the most appropriate research method for this type of study. The cases in each of the studies have been selected because innovative project management methods aiming for better collaboration between the participating actors were applied and because it was possible to gather high-quality data concerning these projects. The data were gathered mainly through interviews but other methods were also used: a questionnaire, observations and an analysis of tender documents. A protocol based on the recommendations of case study research literature was applied to assure the scientific validity of the data collected through the interviews. The case studies were complemented with a wide-ranging literature review covering scientific publications on project management in construction, mainly from the UK, the US, Australia, the Netherlands, Hong Kong and Finland. Reports from Intelligent Energy Europe projects were also reviewed, as well as legal texts relating to the tender options open to European social housing organisations. Construction management methods How to improve the performance of construction processes has long been and is still one of the key issues of the construction industry sector, social housing included. The performance of construction processes has been addressed from a range of perspectives in the construction management literature and diverse project management methods have been proposed. These methods are interrelated and in constant evolution. Moreover, different terminology is used to describe similar methods, which makes it difficult to obtain a clear picture. To simplify, three main perspectives or methods to improve the process integration and actors collaboration can be identified: the multi-project: supply chain integration; the single-project: integrated project delivery methods; and collaboration: partnering. Supply chain integration looks at the performance of the construction process from a multi-project perspective, relating the construction process to an industrial process. The project delivery method takes a single-project perspective into account because it is based on the premise that the complexity and singularity of any construction project will make it unique. Finally, partnering is focused on the characteristics of collaboration between the actors involved in the construction process. The singularity of renovation projects and the limitations of public procurement make the single project perspective the most feasible strategy for improving the process performance of social housing renovation projects. As such, the analysis of the project delivery methods is the most suitable method for improving the performance of renovation processes. The literature review shows that the more integrated project delivery methods are particularly indicated for construction projects with a high commitment to sustainability in general and for energy performance in particular. The literature review also reveals that the key factor in the process efficiency of all project delivery methods is collaboration between the actors involved in the project. Partnering methods can have a substantial positive influence on process performance. The study of the legal limitations imposed by the currently applicable public procurement Directive 2004/18/EC shows that even though a limited amount of tender options are available, is it possible to tender projects that apply integrated project delivery methods using the competitive dialogue procedure. Moreover, the recently approved but not yet enacted public procurement Directive 2014/24/ EU facilitates even further the use of competitive dialogue tenders for social housing energy renovations. Project delivery methods in European social housing energy renovations This study is based on five case studies, 36 questionnaires and 14 expert interviews, and identified four main project delivery methods for the energy renovation of social housing, namely: Step-by-Step (SBS) Design-Bid-Build (DBB) Design-Build (DB) Design-Build-Maintain (DBM). SBS can be considered a major renovation when the replacement of a series of building components eventually produces the same final result as a renovation project. In order to optimise the service lives of building components, an SHO might choose to split a major renovation project into a series of minor renovations. Cost-efficiency is achieved by procuring a large number of replacements only when a particular component has reached the end of its service life. This project delivery method will not usually include a design phase because these interventions usually involve replacing building products and systems. DBB, DB and DBM take place all at once and involve design companies, construction companies and maintenance companies. The difference between the three methods is the time frame for the involvement of the different actors and the contractual relationship with the SHO. In DBB, the various contracted parties are involved in the project one after the other, while in DB design companies and construction companies are involved during the same time period, and in DBM all three parties are involved during the same time period. Under DB, the SHO tenders the design and construction work in a single contract and under DBM it tenders the design, construction and maintenance work in a single contract. The contracted entity may be a single company, with or without subcontractors, or a consortium. SBS and DBB are the most commonly used project delivery methods for social housing renovation projects, although DB and DBM are also used for a small number of projects. The vast majority of SHOs use more than one project delivery method simultaneously, mainly a combination of SBS and DBB. For new-build projects, DBB has traditionally been considered the most commonly used project delivery method; however, our survey revealed that it is in fact the second most commonly used project delivery method after SBS. The DBM approach has the maximum potential for delivering energy savings, because it facilitates collaboration between the different actors and promotes their commitment to achieving project goals. Furthermore, DBM offers greater price certainty and less risk of design failure compared to other project delivery methods. However, the project delivery method cannot guarantee the achievement of targeted energy savings by itself. Numerous factors need to be taken into account when considering a change in the project delivery method. The property asset management of the dwelling stock that is renovated using SBS, which focuses on building elements and systems, is completely different from the property asset management of the dwelling stock renovated by DBB, DB or DBM, which focuses on entire properties. It is therefore unlikely that SHOs that are already applying SBS will switch to another project delivery method. Switching between DBB to DBM, or to DB, is feasible since they are similar in terms of property asset management. A change of project delivery method could be motivated by the use of energy performance guarantees offered by energy performance contracting, which is possible in cases where DBM is used. However, this choice is not suitable for all SHOs. For example, if an SHO has an in-house design team and changes to DBM (or DB), its design team will not be involved in the project as the contractor will have its own design staff. If an SHO has a corporate responsibility towards SMEs and changes to DBM (or DB), it will be more difficult to keep SMEs directly involved since they will need to organise themselves into consortia. And finally, if an SHO already has a contract with a maintenance company to manage their entire housing stock, changing to DBM will create a conflict in their maintenance management, since for every property where DBM has been used, a different maintenance company will take charge of maintenance. Energy efficiency in French social housing renovations via Design-Build-Maintain The study is based on the analysis of two social housing renovation projects, implemented by two French SHOs: the renovation of 14 dwellings in a three-storey apartment block in Nurieux-Volognat (in south-eastern France) by the Dynacité SHO; and the renovation of 231 dwellings in four apartment blocks (ranging from 6 to 10 storeys) in Vitry-sur-Seine (in the southern suburbs of Paris) by the Logirep SHO. The data on the case studies were obtained from: the tender documents (call for offers, specifications and preliminary designs); observation during the negotiation phase in the case of Dynacité; interviews, carried out after the construction work was finished, with the social housing renovations manager, the social housing project manager, the construction company, the architect’s office and the maintenance company involved in both cases; and the evaluation reports produced by project managers at the SHOs. The results demonstrate that it is possible to engage design companies, construction companies and maintenance companies to achieve energy savings that exceed those stipulated by the SHO and to obtain a guarantee of results. This approach also makes it possible to shorten the duration of a project, while limiting the costs involved to approximately the equivalent of those incurred in DBB renovation projects. The collaborative set-up of the DBM process also results in improved relations between the actors involved. However, an analysis of these relationships indicated that there is still room for improvement, particularly with regard to the maintenance company. In order to guarantee the benefits of implementing a DBM process, it is necessary for the SHO to put in place the following: realistic but ambitious minimum requirements; clear and measurable award criteria that stress the importance of achieving high energy savings; and a guarantee mechanism that is fair and robust. Moreover, the SHO needs to ensure that the scale of the contract is large enough to guarantee that any compensation paid to non-selected candidates does not adversely affect the total cost of the project and that the SHO’s maintenance strategy must be flexible enough to handle maintenance contracts that are project-related as well as maintenance stock-related contracts. Competitive tenders for integrated contracts for social housing renovation projects The study, which is based on an analysis of eight renovation projects undertaken by SHOs in the Netherlands, shows that Dutch SHOs apply a range of mechanisms in order to influence the ambition, collaboration and long-term view of the consortia that participate in competitive tenders for integrated renovation projects. Their aim is to improve the quality of the construction process and thereby enhance the quality of the output. The scale of the ambition is raised, in first place, through the competitive character of the selection procedure. Several candidates are invited to the tender but only the best will be selected. Secondly, the minimum performance level is defined above common standards by setting high but achievable minimum requirements. Thirdly, the candidates are encouraged to perform at their best by being rated by award criteria that evaluate their performance. The findings show that SHOs are not all singing from the same song sheet when it comes to determining the level of ambition they require from their candidates in relation to the key issue of energy saving. Collaboration is encouraged mainly by setting a very tight deadline for the design proposals, a period of just 11 weeks on average. The consortium members are thus required to work closely together in order to get the proposals out on time and make a convincing pitch in a presentation. The findings show that the procedures with higher numbers of meetings between the SHO and the consortium during the design proposal period appeared to increase collaboration with the SHO. Other mechanisms, such as setting conditions for the nature of the candidates or proposing team coaches, were implemented to a lesser extent and not regarded as appropriate by all SHOs. A longer-term view is promoted by including an optional long-term maintenance contract for the renovated dwellings. The results of this strategy were not as good as expected, however, because the majority of the candidates did not integrate maintenance into their proposal, preferring to make an additional and separate maintenance offer. The SHOs did not include maintenance as an integral part of the renovation project because they were afraid of the possible implications of a long-term maintenance contract on a project basis for their general building stock maintenance strategy and their in-house maintenance teams. The role of the architect using integrated contracts for social housing renovation projects The focus of previous studies is on analysing the implementation of integrated project delivery methods from the demand side, the social housing organisation. However, it has been also identified that the use of integrated project delivery methods have consequences for the supply side actors. Especially for the architect because his central role in the design process could be affected. This study, which is based on the analysis of the role of the architect in thirteen renovation projects that used integrated contracts, concludes that the main role of the architect, as having principal responsibility for the design choices made, does not change when integrated contracts are used. However, the decision-making power of the architect does decrease. With the use of integrated contracts, the main contractor and some specialised contractors can also influence the design choices – an influence that they would not otherwise have. In cases where the main contractor plays an active leading role in the consortium, the reduction of the decision-making power of the architect may become even more evident, and in the opinion of some architects, turn the role of architect into a role more akin to that of technical and aesthetic advisor. The changes in how design decisions are taken do not have a negative impact on the quality of the relationship between the architect and the SHO, and has a positive influence on the quality of the relationship between the architect and the construction companies involved in the project. Some changes were reported relating to the workload for each project compared to Design-Bid-Build projects. In some cases, architects were no longer involved in project management tasks, while in other cases architects were assigned additional responsibilities, such as communicating with tenants. It is not possible, therefore, to establish a direct relationship between the use of integrated contracts and the size of the architect’s workload. Where there is an evident change is in the distribution of the workload and payment for the work done for the integrated contracts that have been tendered through a competitive procedure (seven of the thirteen projects analysed). In projects tendered using a competitive procedure, the work of the architect is condensed into a shorter timeframe (42% shorter than with a non-competitive procedure) and there is a higher risk that the working hours will not be paid in full if the consortium is not awarded the contract. Conclusions In order to improve the performance of energy renovation processes undertaken by social housing organisations, the Design-Build-Maintain project delivery method offers the best opportunity to facilitate the active involvement of all actors, obtain the best possible project performance and to guarantee the quality of the end results. However, given the characteristics of each SHO and the characteristics of the renovation projects, DBM is not always the project delivery method chosen. If DBM is not used, other simpler management mechanisms, such as the early involvement of contractors or the use of in-house maintenance companies as advisors, should be considered to contribute to better process performance. In order to apply the DBM project delivery method successfully, it is necessary for the SHO to focus its efforts on designing a tender procedure that maximises the potential of the entire project delivery method. Choosing a competitive tender procedure that allows the dialogue with candidates. Defining performance-based specifications with realistic but ambitious minimum requirements and a set of clear and measurable award criteria that stress the importance of achieving energy savings. Defining a performance guarantee mechanism that is fair and robust. Setting up tender process conditions that facilitate communication between the candidates and the SHO and that promote team working among the candidate team (consortium). The members of the candidate team, the consortium, also need to adapt to the new game rules. Specifically the architect needs to gain more managerial skills in order to keep his leading design decision position and become more of a team integrator. Future research should consider the changes in the roles of the other consortium members and the best consortium structures to ensure a good product quality and the fair treatment of all the parties involved.

Optimised project delivery methods forsocial housing energy renovations European Social Housing Organisations (SHOs) are currently facing challenging times. The ageing of their housing stock and the economic crisis, which has affected both their finances and the finances of their tenants, are testing their capacity to stick to their aim of providing decent and affordable housing. Housing renovation projects offer the possibility of upgrading the health and comfort levels of their old housing stock to current standards and improve energy efficiency, and this solution also addresses the fuel poverty problems suffered by some tenants. Unfortunately, the limited financial capacity of SHOs is hampering the scale of housing renovation projects and the energy savings achieved. At the same time, the renovation of the existing housing stock is seen as one of the most promising alternative routes to achieving the ambitious CO2 emissions reduction targets set by European authorities – namely, to reduce EU CO2 emissions to 20% below their 1990 levels by 2020. The synergy between European targets and the aims of SHOs has been addressed by the energy policies of the member states, which focus on the potential energy savings achievable by renovating social housing. In fact, the European initiatives have prioritised energy savings in social housing renovations to such an extent that these are referred to as ‘energy renovations’. Energy renovation is therefore a renovation project with higher energy savings target than a regular renovation project. In total, European SHOs own 21.5 million dwellings representing around 9.4% of the total housing stock. Each SHO owns a large number of dwellings, which means there are fewer people to convince of the need to make energy savings through building renovations, maximising the potentially high impact of decisions. Moreover, SHOs are responsible for maintaining and upgrading their properties in order to continue renting them. As such, SHOs are used to dealing with renovations on a professional basis. The limited financial capacity of SHOs to realise energy renovations magnifies the importance of improving process performance in order to get the best possible outcomes. In the last 30 years numerous authors have addressed the need to improve the performance of traditional construction processes via alternative project delivery methods. However, very little is known about the specifics of renovations processes for social housing, the feasibility of applying innovative construction management methods and the consequences for the process, for the role of all the actors involved and for the results of the projects. The aim of this study is to provide an insight into the project delivery methods available for SHOs when they are undertaking energy renovation projects and to evaluate how these methods could facilitate the achievement of a higher process performance. The main research question is: How can Social Housing Organisations improve the performance of energy renovation processes using more integrated project delivery methods? The idea of a PhD thesis about social housing renovation processes originated from the participation of TU Delft as research partner in the Intelligent Energy Europe project SHELTER1 which was carried out between 2010 and 2013. The aim of the SHELTER project was to promote and facilitate the use of new models of cooperation, inspired by integrated design, for the energy renovation of social housing. The SHELTER project was a joint effort between six social housing organisations (Arte Genova, Italy; Black Country Housing Group, United Kingdom; Bulgarian Housing Association, Bulgaria; Dynacité, France; Logirep, France and Société Wallonne du Logement, Belgium), three European professional federations based in Brussels (Architects Council of Europe, Cecodhas Housing Europe and European Builders Confederation) and one research partner (Delft University of Technology). Research methods This thesis is composed of five studies. The first study is based on a literature review. The second study is based on five case studies from four countries (Belgium, Italy, France and United Kingdom), a questionnaire completed by 36 SHOs from eight countries and 14 interviews with experts from ten countries. The third is based on two French case studies and the fourth and fifth are based on 8 and 13 Dutch case studies respectively. Construction projects in housing involve a high number of professionals and take place over a long period of time. External factors, such as the economic and political situation or changes in construction or procurement regulations, can have a considerable influence on the construction process. Moreover, the specific characteristics of the construction sector of every country can also shape the process. In consequence, there are many interrelated variables that can have an influence on the dynamics of the process and on the outputs achieved. Research that seeks to understand the causes of changes in this process need to dig deeper into the internal and external characteristics of the process, which makes case study research the most appropriate research method for this type of study. The cases in each of the studies have been selected because innovative project management methods aiming for better collaboration between the participating actors were applied and because it was possible to gather high-quality data concerning these projects. The data were gathered mainly through interviews but other methods were also used: a questionnaire, observations and an analysis of tender documents. A protocol based on the recommendations of case study research literature was applied to assure the scientific validity of the data collected through the interviews. The case studies were complemented with a wide-ranging literature review covering scientific publications on project management in construction, mainly from the UK, the US, Australia, the Netherlands, Hong Kong and Finland. Reports from Intelligent Energy Europe projects were also reviewed, as well as legal texts relating to the tender options open to European social housing organisations. Construction management methods How to improve the performance of construction processes has long been and is still one of the key issues of the construction industry sector, social housing included. The performance of construction processes has been addressed from a range of perspectives in the construction management literature and diverse project management methods have been proposed. These methods are interrelated and in constant evolution. Moreover, different terminology is used to describe similar methods, which makes it difficult to obtain a clear picture. To simplify, three main perspectives or methods to improve the process integration and actors collaboration can be identified: the multi-project: supply chain integration; the single-project: integrated project delivery methods; and collaboration: partnering. Supply chain integration looks at the performance of the construction process from a multi-project perspective, relating the construction process to an industrial process. The project delivery method takes a single-project perspective into account because it is based on the premise that the complexity and singularity of any construction project will make it unique. Finally, partnering is focused on the characteristics of collaboration between the actors involved in the construction process. The singularity of renovation projects and the limitations of public procurement make the single project perspective the most feasible strategy for improving the process performance of social housing renovation projects. As such, the analysis of the project delivery methods is the most suitable method for improving the performance of renovation processes. The literature review shows that the more integrated project delivery methods are particularly indicated for construction projects with a high commitment to sustainability in general and for energy performance in particular. The literature review also reveals that the key factor in the process efficiency of all project delivery methods is collaboration between the actors involved in the project. Partnering methods can have a substantial positive influence on process performance. The study of the legal limitations imposed by the currently applicable public procurement Directive 2004/18/EC shows that even though a limited amount of tender options are available, is it possible to tender projects that apply integrated project delivery methods using the competitive dialogue procedure. Moreover, the recently approved but not yet enacted public procurement Directive 2014/24/ EU facilitates even further the use of competitive dialogue tenders for social housing energy renovations. Project delivery methods in European social housing energy renovations This study is based on five case studies, 36 questionnaires and 14 expert interviews, and identified four main project delivery methods for the energy renovation of social housing, namely: Step-by-Step (SBS) Design-Bid-Build (DBB) Design-Build (DB) Design-Build-Maintain (DBM). SBS can be considered a major renovation when the replacement of a series of building components eventually produces the same final result as a renovation project. In order to optimise the service lives of building components, an SHO might choose to split a major renovation project into a series of minor renovations. Cost-efficiency is achieved by procuring a large number of replacements only when a particular component has reached the end of its service life. This project delivery method will not usually include a design phase because these interventions usually involve replacing building products and systems. DBB, DB and DBM take place all at once and involve design companies, construction companies and maintenance companies. The difference between the three methods is the time frame for the involvement of the different actors and the contractual relationship with the SHO. In DBB, the various contracted parties are involved in the project one after the other, while in DB design companies and construction companies are involved during the same time period, and in DBM all three parties are involved during the same time period. Under DB, the SHO tenders the design and construction work in a single contract and under DBM it tenders the design, construction and maintenance work in a single contract. The contracted entity may be a single company, with or without subcontractors, or a consortium. SBS and DBB are the most commonly used project delivery methods for social housing renovation projects, although DB and DBM are also used for a small number of projects. The vast majority of SHOs use more than one project delivery method simultaneously, mainly a combination of SBS and DBB. For new-build projects, DBB has traditionally been considered the most commonly used project delivery method; however, our survey revealed that it is in fact the second most commonly used project delivery method after SBS. The DBM approach has the maximum potential for delivering energy savings, because it facilitates collaboration between the different actors and promotes their commitment to achieving project goals. Furthermore, DBM offers greater price certainty and less risk of design failure compared to other project delivery methods. However, the project delivery method cannot guarantee the achievement of targeted energy savings by itself. Numerous factors need to be taken into account when considering a change in the project delivery method. The property asset management of the dwelling stock that is renovated using SBS, which focuses on building elements and systems, is completely different from the property asset management of the dwelling stock renovated by DBB, DB or DBM, which focuses on entire properties. It is therefore unlikely that SHOs that are already applying SBS will switch to another project delivery method. Switching between DBB to DBM, or to DB, is feasible since they are similar in terms of property asset management. A change of project delivery method could be motivated by the use of energy performance guarantees offered by energy performance contracting, which is possible in cases where DBM is used. However, this choice is not suitable for all SHOs. For example, if an SHO has an in-house design team and changes to DBM (or DB), its design team will not be involved in the project as the contractor will have its own design staff. If an SHO has a corporate responsibility towards SMEs and changes to DBM (or DB), it will be more difficult to keep SMEs directly involved since they will need to organise themselves into consortia. And finally, if an SHO already has a contract with a maintenance company to manage their entire housing stock, changing to DBM will create a conflict in their maintenance management, since for every property where DBM has been used, a different maintenance company will take charge of maintenance. Energy efficiency in French social housing renovations via Design-Build-Maintain The study is based on the analysis of two social housing renovation projects, implemented by two French SHOs: the renovation of 14 dwellings in a three-storey apartment block in Nurieux-Volognat (in south-eastern France) by the Dynacité SHO; and the renovation of 231 dwellings in four apartment blocks (ranging from 6 to 10 storeys) in Vitry-sur-Seine (in the southern suburbs of Paris) by the Logirep SHO. The data on the case studies were obtained from: the tender documents (call for offers, specifications and preliminary designs); observation during the negotiation phase in the case of Dynacité; interviews, carried out after the construction work was finished, with the social housing renovations manager, the social housing project manager, the construction company, the architect’s office and the maintenance company involved in both cases; and the evaluation reports produced by project managers at the SHOs. The results demonstrate that it is possible to engage design companies, construction companies and maintenance companies to achieve energy savings that exceed those stipulated by the SHO and to obtain a guarantee of results. This approach also makes it possible to shorten the duration of a project, while limiting the costs involved to approximately the equivalent of those incurred in DBB renovation projects. The collaborative set-up of the DBM process also results in improved relations between the actors involved. However, an analysis of these relationships indicated that there is still room for improvement, particularly with regard to the maintenance company. In order to guarantee the benefits of implementing a DBM process, it is necessary for the SHO to put in place the following: realistic but ambitious minimum requirements; clear and measurable award criteria that stress the importance of achieving high energy savings; and a guarantee mechanism that is fair and robust. Moreover, the SHO needs to ensure that the scale of the contract is large enough to guarantee that any compensation paid to non-selected candidates does not adversely affect the total cost of the project and that the SHO’s maintenance strategy must be flexible enough to handle maintenance contracts that are project-related as well as maintenance stock-related contracts. Competitive tenders for integrated contracts for social housing renovation projects The study, which is based on an analysis of eight renovation projects undertaken by SHOs in the Netherlands, shows that Dutch SHOs apply a range of mechanisms in order to influence the ambition, collaboration and long-term view of the consortia that participate in competitive tenders for integrated renovation projects. Their aim is to improve the quality of the construction process and thereby enhance the quality of the output. The scale of the ambition is raised, in first place, through the competitive character of the selection procedure. Several candidates are invited to the tender but only the best will be selected. Secondly, the minimum performance level is defined above common standards by setting high but achievable minimum requirements. Thirdly, the candidates are encouraged to perform at their best by being rated by award criteria that evaluate their performance. The findings show that SHOs are not all singing from the same song sheet when it comes to determining the level of ambition they require from their candidates in relation to the key issue of energy saving. Collaboration is encouraged mainly by setting a very tight deadline for the design proposals, a period of just 11 weeks on average. The consortium members are thus required to work closely together in order to get the proposals out on time and make a convincing pitch in a presentation. The findings show that the procedures with higher numbers of meetings between the SHO and the consortium during the design proposal period appeared to increase collaboration with the SHO. Other mechanisms, such as setting conditions for the nature of the candidates or proposing team coaches, were implemented to a lesser extent and not regarded as appropriate by all SHOs. A longer-term view is promoted by including an optional long-term maintenance contract for the renovated dwellings. The results of this strategy were not as good as expected, however, because the majority of the candidates did not integrate maintenance into their proposal, preferring to make an additional and separate maintenance offer. The SHOs did not include maintenance as an integral part of the renovation project because they were afraid of the possible implications of a long-term maintenance contract on a project basis for their general building stock maintenance strategy and their in-house maintenance teams. The role of the architect using integrated contracts for social housing renovation projects The focus of previous studies is on analysing the implementation of integrated project delivery methods from the demand side, the social housing organisation. However, it has been also identified that the use of integrated project delivery methods have consequences for the supply side actors. Especially for the architect because his central role in the design process could be affected. This study, which is based on the analysis of the role of the architect in thirteen renovation projects that used integrated contracts, concludes that the main role of the architect, as having principal responsibility for the design choices made, does not change when integrated contracts are used. However, the decision-making power of the architect does decrease. With the use of integrated contracts, the main contractor and some specialised contractors can also influence the design choices – an influence that they would not otherwise have. In cases where the main contractor plays an active leading role in the consortium, the reduction of the decision-making power of the architect may become even more evident, and in the opinion of some architects, turn the role of architect into a role more akin to that of technical and aesthetic advisor. The changes in how design decisions are taken do not have a negative impact on the quality of the relationship between the architect and the SHO, and has a positive influence on the quality of the relationship between the architect and the construction companies involved in the project. Some changes were reported relating to the workload for each project compared to Design-Bid-Build projects. In some cases, architects were no longer involved in project management tasks, while in other cases architects were assigned additional responsibilities, such as communicating with tenants. It is not possible, therefore, to establish a direct relationship between the use of integrated contracts and the size of the architect’s workload. Where there is an evident change is in the distribution of the workload and payment for the work done for the integrated contracts that have been tendered through a competitive procedure (seven of the thirteen projects analysed). In projects tendered using a competitive procedure, the work of the architect is condensed into a shorter timeframe (42% shorter than with a non-competitive procedure) and there is a higher risk that the working hours will not be paid in full if the consortium is not awarded the contract. Conclusions In order to improve the performance of energy renovation processes undertaken by social housing organisations, the Design-Build-Maintain project delivery method offers the best opportunity to facilitate the active involvement of all actors, obtain the best possible project performance and to guarantee the quality of the end results. However, given the characteristics of each SHO and the characteristics of the renovation projects, DBM is not always the project delivery method chosen. If DBM is not used, other simpler management mechanisms, such as the early involvement of contractors or the use of in-house maintenance companies as advisors, should be considered to contribute to better process performance. In order to apply the DBM project delivery method successfully, it is necessary for the SHO to focus its efforts on designing a tender procedure that maximises the potential of the entire project delivery method. Choosing a competitive tender procedure that allows the dialogue with candidates. Defining performance-based specifications with realistic but ambitious minimum requirements and a set of clear and measurable award criteria that stress the importance of achieving energy savings. Defining a performance guarantee mechanism that is fair and robust. Setting up tender process conditions that facilitate communication between the candidates and the SHO and that promote team working among the candidate team (consortium). The members of the candidate team, the consortium, also need to adapt to the new game rules. Specifically the architect needs to gain more managerial skills in order to keep his leading design decision position and become more of a team integrator. Future research should consider the changes in the roles of the other consortium members and the best consortium structures to ensure a good product quality and the fair treatment of all the parties involved.

Optimised project delivery methods forsocial housing energy renovations European Social Housing Organisations (SHOs) are currently facing challenging times. The ageing of their housing stock and the economic crisis, which has affected both their finances and the finances of their tenants, are testing their capacity to stick to their aim of providing decent and affordable housing. Housing renovation projects offer the possibility of upgrading the health and comfort levels of their old housing stock to current standards and improve energy efficiency, and this solution also addresses the fuel poverty problems suffered by some tenants. Unfortunately, the limited financial capacity of SHOs is hampering the scale of housing renovation projects and the energy savings achieved. At the same time, the renovation of the existing housing stock is seen as one of the most promising alternative routes to achieving the ambitious CO2 emissions reduction targets set by European authorities – namely, to reduce EU CO2 emissions to 20% below their 1990 levels by 2020. The synergy between European targets and the aims of SHOs has been addressed by the energy policies of the member states, which focus on the potential energy savings achievable by renovating social housing. In fact, the European initiatives have prioritised energy savings in social housing renovations to such an extent that these are referred to as ‘energy renovations’. Energy renovation is therefore a renovation project with higher energy savings target than a regular renovation project. In total, European SHOs own 21.5 million dwellings representing around 9.4% of the total housing stock. Each SHO owns a large number of dwellings, which means there are fewer people to convince of the need to make energy savings through building renovations, maximising the potentially high impact of decisions. Moreover, SHOs are responsible for maintaining and upgrading their properties in order to continue renting them. As such, SHOs are used to dealing with renovations on a professional basis. The limited financial capacity of SHOs to realise energy renovations magnifies the importance of improving process performance in order to get the best possible outcomes. In the last 30 years numerous authors have addressed the need to improve the performance of traditional construction processes via alternative project delivery methods. However, very little is known about the specifics of renovations processes for social housing, the feasibility of applying innovative construction management methods and the consequences for the process, for the role of all the actors involved and for the results of the projects. The aim of this study is to provide an insight into the project delivery methods available for SHOs when they are undertaking energy renovation projects and to evaluate how these methods could facilitate the achievement of a higher process performance. The main research question is: How can Social Housing Organisations improve the performance of energy renovation processes using more integrated project delivery methods? The idea of a PhD thesis about social housing renovation processes originated from the participation of TU Delft as research partner in the Intelligent Energy Europe project SHELTER1 which was carried out between 2010 and 2013. The aim of the SHELTER project was to promote and facilitate the use of new models of cooperation, inspired by integrated design, for the energy renovation of social housing. The SHELTER project was a joint effort between six social housing organisations (Arte Genova, Italy; Black Country Housing Group, United Kingdom; Bulgarian Housing Association, Bulgaria; Dynacité, France; Logirep, France and Société Wallonne du Logement, Belgium), three European professional federations based in Brussels (Architects Council of Europe, Cecodhas Housing Europe and European Builders Confederation) and one research partner (Delft University of Technology). Research methods This thesis is composed of five studies. The first study is based on a literature review. The second study is based on five case studies from four countries (Belgium, Italy, France and United Kingdom), a questionnaire completed by 36 SHOs from eight countries and 14 interviews with experts from ten countries. The third is based on two French case studies and the fourth and fifth are based on 8 and 13 Dutch case studies respectively. Construction projects in housing involve a high number of professionals and take place over a long period of time. External factors, such as the economic and political situation or changes in construction or procurement regulations, can have a considerable influence on the construction process. Moreover, the specific characteristics of the construction sector of every country can also shape the process. In consequence, there are many interrelated variables that can have an influence on the dynamics of the process and on the outputs achieved. Research that seeks to understand the causes of changes in this process need to dig deeper into the internal and external characteristics of the process, which makes case study research the most appropriate research method for this type of study. The cases in each of the studies have been selected because innovative project management methods aiming for better collaboration between the participating actors were applied and because it was possible to gather high-quality data concerning these projects. The data were gathered mainly through interviews but other methods were also used: a questionnaire, observations and an analysis of tender documents. A protocol based on the recommendations of case study research literature was applied to assure the scientific validity of the data collected through the interviews. The case studies were complemented with a wide-ranging literature review covering scientific publications on project management in construction, mainly from the UK, the US, Australia, the Netherlands, Hong Kong and Finland. Reports from Intelligent Energy Europe projects were also reviewed, as well as legal texts relating to the tender options open to European social housing organisations. Construction management methods How to improve the performance of construction processes has long been and is still one of the key issues of the construction industry sector, social housing included. The performance of construction processes has been addressed from a range of perspectives in the construction management literature and diverse project management methods have been proposed. These methods are interrelated and in constant evolution. Moreover, different terminology is used to describe similar methods, which makes it difficult to obtain a clear picture. To simplify, three main perspectives or methods to improve the process integration and actors collaboration can be identified: • the multi-project: supply chain integration; • the single-project: integrated project delivery methods; • and collaboration: partnering. Supply chain integration looks at the performance of the construction process from a multi-project perspective, relating the construction process to an industrial process. The project delivery method takes a single-project perspective into account because it is based on the premise that the complexity and singularity of any construction project will make it unique. Finally, partnering is focused on the characteristics of collaboration between the actors involved in the construction process. The singularity of renovation projects and the limitations of public procurement make the single project perspective the most feasible strategy for improving the process performance of social housing renovation projects. As such, the analysis of the project delivery methods is the most suitable method for improving the performance of renovation processes. The literature review shows that the more integrated project delivery methods are particularly indicated for construction projects with a high commitment to sustainability in general and for energy performance in particular. The literature review also reveals that the key factor in the process efficiency of all project delivery methods is collaboration between the actors involved in the project. Partnering methods can have a substantial positive influence on process performance. The study of the legal limitations imposed by the currently applicable public procurement Directive 2004/18/EC shows that even though a limited amount of tender options are available, is it possible to tender projects that apply integrated project delivery methods using the competitive dialogue procedure. Moreover, the recently approved but not yet enacted public procurement Directive 2014/24/ EU facilitates even further the use of competitive dialogue tenders for social housing energy renovations. Project delivery methods in European social housing energy renovations This study is based on five case studies, 36 questionnaires and 14 expert interviews, and identified four main project delivery methods for the energy renovation of social housing, namely: • Step-by-Step (SBS) • Design-Bid-Build (DBB) • Design-Build (DB) • Design-Build-Maintain (DBM). SBS can be considered a major renovation when the replacement of a series of building components eventually produces the same final result as a renovation project. In order to optimise the service lives of building components, an SHO might choose to split a major renovation project into a series of minor renovations. Cost-efficiency is achieved by procuring a large number of replacements only when a particular component has reached the end of its service life. This project delivery method will not usually include a design phase because these interventions usually involve replacing building products and systems. DBB, DB and DBM take place all at once and involve design companies, construction companies and maintenance companies. The difference between the three methods is the time frame for the involvement of the different actors and the contractual relationship with the SHO. In DBB, the various contracted parties are involved in the project one after the other, while in DB design companies and construction companies are involved during the same time period, and in DBM all three parties are involved during the same time period. Under DB, the SHO tenders the design and construction work in a single contract and under DBM it tenders the design, construction and maintenance work in a single contract. The contracted entity may be a single company, with or without subcontractors, or a consortium. SBS and DBB are the most commonly used project delivery methods for social housing renovation projects, although DB and DBM are also used for a small number of projects. The vast majority of SHOs use more than one project delivery method simultaneously, mainly a combination of SBS and DBB. For new-build projects, DBB has traditionally been considered the most commonly used project delivery method; however, our survey revealed that it is in fact the second most commonly used project delivery method after SBS. The DBM approach has the maximum potential for delivering energy savings, because it facilitates collaboration between the different actors and promotes their commitment to achieving project goals. Furthermore, DBM offers greater price certainty and less risk of design failure compared to other project delivery methods. However, the project delivery method cannot guarantee the achievement of targeted energy savings by itself. Numerous factors need to be taken into account when considering a change in the project delivery method. The property asset management of the dwelling stock that is renovated using SBS, which focuses on building elements and systems, is completely different from the property asset management of the dwelling stock renovated by DBB, DB or DBM, which focuses on entire properties. It is therefore unlikely that SHOs that are already applying SBS will switch to another project delivery method. Switching between DBB to DBM, or to DB, is feasible since they are similar in terms of property asset management. A change of project delivery method could be motivated by the use of energy performance guarantees offered by energy performance contracting, which is possible in cases where DBM is used. However, this choice is not suitable for all SHOs. For example, if an SHO has an in-house design team and changes to DBM (or DB), its design team will not be involved in the project as the contractor will have its own design staff. If an SHO has a corporate responsibility towards SMEs and changes to DBM (or DB), it will be more difficult to keep SMEs directly involved since they will need to organise themselves into consortia. And finally, if an SHO already has a contract with a maintenance company to manage their entire housing stock, changing to DBM will create a conflict in their maintenance management, since for every property where DBM has been used, a different maintenance company will take charge of maintenance. Energy efficiency in French social housing renovations via Design-Build-Maintain The study is based on the analysis of two social housing renovation projects, implemented by two French SHOs: • the renovation of 14 dwellings in a three-storey apartment block in Nurieux-Volognat (in south-eastern France) by the Dynacité SHO; and • the renovation of 231 dwellings in four apartment blocks (ranging from 6 to 10 storeys) in Vitry-sur-Seine (in the southern suburbs of Paris) by the Logirep SHO. The data on the case studies were obtained from: the tender documents (call for offers, specifications and preliminary designs); observation during the negotiation phase in the case of Dynacité; interviews, carried out after the construction work was finished, with the social housing renovations manager, the social housing project manager, the construction company, the architect’s office and the maintenance company involved in both cases; and the evaluation reports produced by project managers at the SHOs. The results demonstrate that it is possible to engage design companies, construction companies and maintenance companies to achieve energy savings that exceed those stipulated by the SHO and to obtain a guarantee of results. This approach also makes it possible to shorten the duration of a project, while limiting the costs involved to approximately the equivalent of those incurred in DBB renovation projects. The collaborative set-up of the DBM process also results in improved relations between the actors involved. However, an analysis of these relationships indicated that there is still room for improvement, particularly with regard to the maintenance company. In order to guarantee the benefits of implementing a DBM process, it is necessary for the SHO to put in place the following: realistic but ambitious minimum requirements; clear and measurable award criteria that stress the importance of achieving high energy savings; and a guarantee mechanism that is fair and robust. Moreover, the SHO needs to ensure that the scale of the contract is large enough to guarantee that any compensation paid to non-selected candidates does not adversely affect the total cost of the project and that the SHO’s maintenance strategy must be flexible enough to handle maintenance contracts that are project-related as well as maintenance stock-related contracts. Competitive tenders for integrated contracts for social housing renovation projects The study, which is based on an analysis of eight renovation projects undertaken by SHOs in the Netherlands, shows that Dutch SHOs apply a range of mechanisms in order to influence the ambition, collaboration and long-term view of the consortia that participate in competitive tenders for integrated renovation projects. Their aim is to improve the quality of the construction process and thereby enhance the quality of the output. The scale of the ambition is raised, in first place, through the competitive character of the selection procedure. Several candidates are invited to the tender but only the best will be selected. Secondly, the minimum performance level is defined above common standards by setting high but achievable minimum requirements. Thirdly, the candidates are encouraged to perform at their best by being rated by award criteria that evaluate their performance. The findings show that SHOs are not all singing from the same song sheet when it comes to determining the level of ambition they require from their candidates in relation to the key issue of energy saving. Collaboration is encouraged mainly by setting a very tight deadline for the design proposals, a period of just 11 weeks on average. The consortium members are thus required to work closely together in order to get the proposals out on time and make a convincing pitch in a presentation. The findings show that the procedures with higher numbers of meetings between the SHO and the consortium during the design proposal period appeared to increase collaboration with the SHO. Other mechanisms, such as setting conditions for the nature of the candidates or proposing team coaches, were implemented to a lesser extent and not regarded as appropriate by all SHOs. A longer-term view is promoted by including an optional long-term maintenance contract for the renovated dwellings. The results of this strategy were not as good as expected, however, because the majority of the candidates did not integrate maintenance into their proposal, preferring to make an additional and separate maintenance offer. The SHOs did not include maintenance as an integral part of the renovation project because they were afraid of the possible implications of a long-term maintenance contract on a project basis for their general building stock maintenance strategy and their in-house maintenance teams. The role of the architect using integrated contracts for social housing renovation projects The focus of previous studies is on analysing the implementation of integrated project delivery methods from the demand side, the social housing organisation. However, it has been also identified that the use of integrated project delivery methods have consequences for the supply side actors. Especially for the architect because his central role in the design process could be affected. This study, which is based on the analysis of the role of the architect in thirteen renovation projects that used integrated contracts, concludes that the main role of the architect, as having principal responsibility for the design choices made, does not change when integrated contracts are used. However, the decision-making power of the architect does decrease. With the use of integrated contracts, the main contractor and some specialised contractors can also influence the design choices – an influence that they would not otherwise have. In cases where the main contractor plays an active leading role in the consortium, the reduction of the decision-making power of the architect may become even more evident, and in the opinion of some architects, turn the role of architect into a role more akin to that of technical and aesthetic advisor. The changes in how design decisions are taken do not have a negative impact on the quality of the relationship between the architect and the SHO, and has a positive influence on the quality of the relationship between the architect and the construction companies involved in the project. Some changes were reported relating to the workload for each project compared to Design-Bid-Build projects. In some cases, architects were no longer involved in project management tasks, while in other cases architects were assigned additional responsibilities, such as communicating with tenants. It is not possible, therefore, to establish a direct relationship between the use of integrated contracts and the size of the architect’s workload. Where there is an evident change is in the distribution of the workload and payment for the work done for the integrated contracts that have been tendered through a competitive procedure (seven of the thirteen projects analysed). In projects tendered using a competitive procedure, the work of the architect is condensed into a shorter timeframe (42% shorter than with a non-competitive procedure) and there is a higher risk that the working hours will not be paid in full if the consortium is not awarded the contract. Conclusions In order to improve the performance of energy renovation processes undertaken by social housing organisations, the Design-Build-Maintain project delivery method offers the best opportunity to facilitate the active involvement of all actors, obtain the best possible project performance and to guarantee the quality of the end results. However, given the characteristics of each SHO and the characteristics of the renovation projects, DBM is not always the project delivery method chosen. If DBM is not used, other simpler management mechanisms, such as the early involvement of contractors or the use of in-house maintenance companies as advisors, should be considered to contribute to better process performance. In order to apply the DBM project delivery method successfully, it is necessary for the SHO to focus its efforts on designing a tender procedure that maximises the potential of the entire project delivery method. • Choosing a competitive tender procedure that allows the dialogue with candidates. • Defining performance-based specifications with realistic but ambitious minimum requirements and a set of clear and measurable award criteria that stress the importance of achieving energy savings. • Defining a performance guarantee mechanism that is fair and robust. • Setting up tender process conditions that facilitate communication between the candidates and the SHO and that promote team working among the candidate team (consortium). The members of the candidate team, the consortium, also need to adapt to the new game rules. Specifically the architect needs to gain more managerial skills in order to keep his leading design decision position and become more of a team integrator. Future research should consider the changes in the roles of the other consortium members and the best consortium structures to ensure a good product quality and the fair treatment of all the parties involved.