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Journal articles on the topic 'Wages – Germany (West)'

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Published: 25 July 2024

Last updated: 26 July 2024

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1

Franz, Wolfgang, and Viktor Steiner. "Wages in the East German Transition Process: Facts and Explanations." German Economic Review 1, no. 3 (August 1, 2000): 241–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0475.00013.

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Abstract We analyze wage developments in the East German transition process both at the macro- and at the microeconomic level. At the macroeconomic level, we draw special attention to the important distinction between product and consumption wages, describe the development of various wage measures, labor productivity and unit labor costs in East Germany in relation to West Germany, and relate these developments to the system of collective wage bargaining. At the microeconomic level, we describe changes in the distribution of hourly wages between 1990 and 1997 and analyze the economic factors determining these changes by way of empirical wage functions estimated on the basis of the Socio- Economic Panel for East Germany. The paper also draws some conclusions on the likely future course of the East-West German wage convergence process.

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2

Himmelreicher, Ralf, and Clemens Ohlert. "Sonderzahlungen: Wer bekommt sie in welchem Umfang?" Wirtschaftsdienst 103, no. 11 (November 1, 2023): 770–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/wd-2023-0211.

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Abstract The receipt of special payments and their amount varies greatly with individual and company characteristics as well as with the level of the hourly wage. There are large di~erences between women and men, between East and West Germany, and de-pending on company size and sector. Special payments are rare in the low-wage sector and among marginal employees and, those that exist are very low. Looking at the 10% of employees with the highest hourly wages, special payments are wide-spread and by far the highest, especially among West German men.

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3

Carruth, Alan, and Claus Schnabel. "The Determination of Contract Wages in West Germany." Scandinavian Journal of Economics 95, no. 3 (September 1993): 297. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3440357.

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4

Funke, Michael, and Felix FitzRoy. "Skills, Wages, and Employment in East and West Germany." IMF Working Papers 95, no. 4 (1995): i. http://dx.doi.org/10.5089/9781451841985.001.

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5

Fitzroy, Felix, and Michael Funke. "Skills, Wages and Employment in East and West Germany." Regional Studies 32, no. 5 (July 1998): 459–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00343409850116853.

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6

Weskott, Johannes B. D. "Unemployment Compensation and Wages: A Difference-in-Differences Approach to Assessing the Wage Effects of the German Hartz Reforms." Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik 240, no. 1 (January 28, 2020): 89–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbnst-2018-0020.

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AbstractThis paper examines the influence of the level of unemployment assistance (Arbeitslosengeld II) on the wage level by exploiting a quasi-natural experiment formed by the German Hartz reforms in 2005. Estimations are based on data from the Socioeconomic Panel ranging from 2000 to 2007. As dependent variables both real monthly gross salary and real hourly gross wage are used. Firstly, following the approach taken by Arent and Nagl (2013, Unemployment Compensation and Wages: Evidence from the German Hartz Reforms. Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik 233 (4): 450–466), a before-after estimator is applied. Secondly, in contrast to the replication study by Ludsteck and Seth (2014, Comment on „Unemployment Compensation and Wages: Evidence from the German Hartz Reforms“ by Stefan Arent and Wolfgang Nagl. Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik 234 (5): 635–644) a control group is constructed and a difference-in-differences estimator (DiD) is used for further assessment. The results of the before-after estimation indicate a negative influence of the unemployment assistance reform on wages. However, the corresponding placebo regressions cast doubt on whether the estimated effect is a policy effect. The DiD approach shows that substantial time effects exist. This indicates that the before-after estimator is not suitable for assessing the policy effect. Applying the DiD estimator, a negative significant policy effect is only identified for men in West Germany.

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7

Not Available, Not Available. "Wages in East Germany - Adjustment to the West German Level Still Far in the Future." Economic Bulletin 38, no. 7 (July 1, 2001): 219–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s101600100094.

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8

Krasnozhenova, E. E., and E. A. Greben. "Forced Labor of the Population under the Nazi Occupation of 1941–1944 (Based on the Materials of the Border Territory of Belarus and the North-West of Russia)." Modern History of Russia 11, no. 4 (2021): 908–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu24.2021.405.

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The article investigates features of forced labor in the border territory of Belarus and the North-West of Russia during Nazi occupation of 1941–1944. The Wehrmacht used forced labor both in Germany by hijacking Soviet citizens there, and in industrial enterprises and in agriculture of the occupied territories. The civilian population was involved in the performance of certain work in favor of the occupation authorities. Peasants, in addition to traditional agricultural work and payment of in-kind taxes, were often forcibly involved in performing horse — drawn duties, peat and logging, railway protection, and mine clearance. Citizens were actively used by the occupying authorities to construct defensive structures and to work at industrial enterprises. Refusal to work was punishable by a fine, deprivation of ration cards, corporal punishment, and sentencing to a labor camp or shooting. Forced to work in enterprises, institutions, and agriculture, the population received meager wages and food rations, and the vast majority of workers lived below the poverty line. A special place among the crimes of Nazism in the territory of the North-West of Russia and Belarus, where the occupation went on the longest, is occupied by the forcible deportation of the population to Germany. From some settlements, the occupation authorities sent entire local populations to Germany without regard to age, health, or family circumstances. To provide the Nazi economy with labor, the occupation authorities paid considerable attention to propaganda among the population and the organization of recruitment campaigns. However, this did not contribute to raising the number of volunteers; instead, local residents in the occupied regions sabotaged the orders of the German-fascist command.

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9

이영조 and Ok-Nam YI. "The Link That Never Was: West German ‘Commercial’ Loans to Korea and the Wages of the Korean Workers Dispatched to West Germany." Journal of Korean Political and Diplomatic History 34, no. 2 (February 2013): 171–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.18206/kapdh.34.2.201302.171.

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10

Weber, Klaus. "Geography, Early Modern Colonialism and Central Europe’s Atlantic Trade." European Review 26, no. 3 (June 14, 2018): 410–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798718000108.

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Only during the last decade or so has Germany been considered more systematically as a factor in European Expansion from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. The effects of the Price Revolution – a decline in wages and prices stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to Central and Eastern Europe – favoured the growth of labour-intensive cottage industries, largely in the textile sector. Central Europe’s geographic features – reliable precipitation supports forestry and feeds rivers, providing hydro-energy for machines and transport lanes from hinterlands to maritime ports – favoured energy-intensive production of steel-, brass- and glass-ware, all destined for colonial markets and for the barter trade against slaves from the West African coast. Early on, these commodity flows and commercial networks had integrated German territories into the colonial empires of the Western sea powers, laying the groundwork for the colonial adventures of the Wilhelmine Empire.

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11

SCHOBER, PIA S. "Parental Leave and Domestic Work of Mothers and Fathers: A Longitudinal Study of Two Reforms in West Germany." Journal of Social Policy 43, no. 2 (January 7, 2014): 351–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0047279413000809.

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AbstractFollowing two parental leave reforms in West Germany, this research explores how child care and housework time changed among couples who have just had a child. The reform in 1992 extended the low paid or unpaid parental leave period, whereas the 2007 reform introduced income-dependent compensation and two ‘daddy months’. This study contributes to the literature by examining different mechanisms on how these reforms were associated with domestic work time in couples. Based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (1990–2010), the analysis applies ordinary least square (OLS) regressions and difference-in-difference estimations. The findings point to a significant reduction in paternal child care time eighteen to thirty months after childbirth among couples with children born after the 1992 reform. The 2007 reform was associated with increased child care time of fathers in the first year and eighteen to thirty months after the birth. Changes in maternal child care and both partners’ housework were not statistically significant. Alterations in maternal and paternal labour market participation, wages and leave taking accounted for most of the observed variations in paternal child care except for eighteen to thirteen months after the 2007 reform. This unexplained variance may point to a normative policy effect.

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12

Farkas, Beáta, Andor Máté, and Tamás Rácz. "A contested foundation of European integration: The free movement of labour." Society and Economy 44, no. 3 (August 22, 2022): 310–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/204.2022.00015.

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Abstract Since the eastern enlargement of the European Union (EU), the movement from east to west has become the main driver of intra-EU mobility. Recently, the free movement of labour has been contested not only in the debates around Brexit, but also in other receiving countries. It is not on the political agenda, but several studies have highlighted the economic and demographic effects of massive emigration in eastern EU Member States. More recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the functioning of free movement. Economic integration theory assumes that migration continues until wages are equalized in the receiving and sending countries. This paper analyses the perception of intra-EU mobility in the literature and empirically tests whether there is a relationship between the dynamism of income growth in the receiving (Germany, Austria and Spain) and sending (Central and Eastern European) countries, and the dynamism of migration. The empirical results do not support the neoclassical assumption that an equalization mechanism can function, even in the long run. To cope with recent challenges, this paper argues that free movement should not be considered as an element of a spontaneous market mechanism, but as an economic-political product, based on a constitutional order.

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13

ŽEnka, Jan, Bohuslav Pernica, and Jan KofroŇ. "The Geography of Demilitarisation: Do Regional Economic Disparities Affect the Spatial Distribution of Military Base Closures?" Moravian Geographical Reports 29, no. 4 (December 1, 2021): 252–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2021-0018.

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Abstract Very few researchers have focused on the question of: if and to what extent, regional economic disparities affect military base closures. In this paper, we aim to explain regional patterns of military base closures in the Czech Republic, a country that has experienced a sharp decline in military employment and expenditures since the beginning of 1990s. Three groups of predictors of closure were considered: local (size, age, location and hierarchical position of the military base); regional (wages, unemployment, city size, the initial level of militarisation of the district); and national-level predictors (geostrategic priorities and restructuring of the Czech Armed Forces). Our research is informed by the theory of public choice and its application to the decision-making processes concerning military base closures and realignments. We employed a combination of regression models to determine which group of the above-mentioned factors affected the spatial distribution of military bases in the period 1994–2005. While geostrategic factors (such as distance from the border with West Germany) and restructuring of the army (type of a military base) were the most important, regional economic disparities showed no significant correlation with the intensity of military base closures/downsizing. We did not demonstrate that military bases in economically lagging regions had been systematically protected in the Czech Republic.

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14

Card, David, Jörg Heining, and Patrick Kline. "Workplace Heterogeneity and the Rise of West German Wage Inequality*." Quarterly Journal of Economics 128, no. 3 (May 2, 2013): 967–1015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjt006.

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Abstract We study the role of establishment-specific wage premiums in generating recent increases in West German wage inequality. Models with additive fixed effects for workers and establishments are fit into four subintervals spanning the period from 1985 to 2009. We show that these models provide a good approximation to the wage structure and can explain nearly all of the dramatic rise in West German wage inequality. Our estimates suggest that the increasing dispersion of West German wages has arisen from a combination of rising heterogeneity between workers, rising dispersion in the wage premiums at different establishments, and increasing assortativeness in the assignment of workers to plants. In contrast, the idiosyncratic job-match component of wage variation is small and stable over time. Decomposing changes in mean wages between different education groups, occupations, and industries, we find that increasing plant-level heterogeneity and rising assortativeness in the assignment of workers to establishments explain a large share of the rise in inequality along all three dimensions.

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15

Müller, Birgit. "Der Mythos vom faulen Ossi." PROKLA. Zeitschrift für kritische Sozialwissenschaft 23, no. 91 (June 1, 1993): 251–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.32387/prokla.v23i91.1037.

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In a situation when high demands were made on the skills and work performances of East German workers and when they could expect little reward for it in the form of job security and high wages, they startcd to define themselves increasingly in contrast to the image they produced of West Germans in general. More and more East Germans characterize the West Germans as socially isolated, obsessed by their work, unable to share and indifferent towards the development of the GDR. The interpretations and views collected while doing fieldword in three enterprises in East Berlin since May 1990 are the basis for analysing how the image of the market as a truely honest and objective system changed since the fall of the wall and how the East Germans reacted to the Western stereotype of the lazy Ossy (East German).

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16

Vuković, Slobodan. "Continuity between the Third Reich and the Bonn Republic." Napredak 4, no. 3 (2023): 35–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/napredak4-48061.

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Despite the political elite's best efforts to verbally separate themselves from it, continuity was built between the destroyed Third Reich and the newly formed West Germany in all areas. This continuity could be seen in the widespread denial of guilt, the elites' and Volk's resistance to denazification, the adoption of anti-Semitic stances as if nothing had happened, the release of war criminals, the request to the Allies for the return of national power as recompense for open anti-Sovietism, and the integration of the Nazi elite and civil servants into the new German state (80% of the senior posts were held by former Nazis), waves of amnesty for followers and perpetrators and the exaltation of criminals as "brave German nationalists". All of this was carried out with the full assistance of the West with the aim of de-actualizing the Nazi past of Germany and strengthening the national identity of the new military and political ally of West Germany.

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17

Collischon, Matthias. "Is There a Glass Ceiling over Germany?" German Economic Review 20, no. 4 (December 1, 2019): e329-e359. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/geer.12168.

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Abstract This paper analyzes the gender wage gap across the wage distribution using 2010 data from the German Statistical Agency. I investigate East and West Germany and the public sector separately to account for potential heterogeneities in wage gaps. I apply unconditional and conditional quantile regression methods to investigate the differences between highly paid men and women in distributions conditional and unconditional on covariates. The results indicate increasing gender wage gaps in all estimations, suggesting that there is indeed a glass ceiling over Germany even after controlling for a large set of observable characteristics (including occupation and industry). This finding is even more pronounced when also taking bonus payments into account.

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18

Puaca, Brian M. "Navigating the Waves of Change: Political Education and Democratic School Reform in Postwar West Berlin." History of Education Quarterly 48, no. 2 (May 2008): 244–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2008.00142.x.

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In the aftermath of the Second World War, Germany found itself defeated, destroyed, occupied, and ultimately divided. The eastern portion of Germany fell under Soviet administration, while the western part came under joint occupation by the three victorious western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom, and France). Recognizing at an early date that rebuilding Germany would promote political stability, economic growth, and peace in central Europe, the western Allies set out to reconstruct the defeated nation. The schools were an important part of this project. Many observers argued that without substantial reform to the educational system, German nationalism, militarism, and xenophobia might once again lead to conflict. In the western zones, particularly in the American zone, democratizing the schools took on great importance by 1947. This effort, however, was short-lived. The occupation of Germany ended in 1949, leaving many Americans with the sense that school reform was incomplete.

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19

Pavlica, Branko. "Migrations from Yugoslavia to Germany: Migrants, emigrants, refugees and asylum-seekers." Medjunarodni problemi 57, no. 1-2 (2005): 121–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/medjp0502121p.

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Migrations from Yugoslavia to Germany have a long tradition. There have been various economic and social causes, and in some periods even political ones for that phenomenon. Taking into consideration the historical aspect and also the contemporary migration flows, the dynamics of migrations of the Yugoslav population to Germany has the following stages in its development. The first stage had begun in late XIX century and ended with the World War I. Although the overseas migration flows prevailed, yet the German agriculture and its mine industry attracted a part of the Yugoslav population. Between the two world wars mostly "Westfahl Slovenes" and Croats and Serbs from Bosnia-Herzegovina got "temporary employed" in the Rhine-Westfahl industrial area, along with several thousand Serb-Croat-Slovene agricultural seasonal workers per year. The second stage began immediately after the Second World War when most of about 200,000 citizens from the former Yugoslavia, being mostly refugees, moved from the West European to overseas countries, but some of them stayed in Germany. Involuntary migrants and refugees, however, returned in great number from Germany to Yugoslavia. At that stage non-extradition of war criminals on the part of the West occupying powers on German territory, then disregard of West German Governments of the anti-Yugoslav activities of the part of extreme Yugoslav emigration, and different interpretation of the bilateral agreement on extradition, became the essential problem in relations between SFR Yugoslavia and FR Germany. The third stage in development of migrations commenced in early 1960s. At that time, Germany and other Western countries became prominently immigrational, while since mid-1960s till 1973 economic emigrants from Yugoslavia became more and more important in the German economic space. From 1954 to 1967 migration of Yugoslav citizens had not yet been intensive and their intention was mostly to work abroad. Illegal employment was, however, prominent at that time. Due to the normalisation of political relations, re-establishment of diplomatic relations and conclusion of bilateral agreements that legally defined employment of foreign workers, since 1968 till 1973 a great number of Yugoslavs got employed in FR Germany. The contemporary migrations from FR Yugoslavia to Germany resulted from the economic and political crisis in the former SFRY as well as from the civil wars that were waged in the Yugoslav territory. FR Germany became the most important destination country of Yugoslav migrants - workers, refugees, false asylum-seekers and political emigrants. Different categories of migrants from Yugoslavia to Germany enjoy the treatment that is in accordance with the immigration policies of the German governments as well as with the degree of development of the German-Yugoslav political and economic relations, and the degree of the established co-operation in the field of legal assistance and social welfare. Migrant workers, who have legally regulated their employment and residence status, could in the future expect to gain assistance from their mother country in getting efficient protection of their rights and interests in all stages of the migration process. Numerous migrants asylum-seekers, in spite of the proclaimed international protection, share, however, the fate resulting from the politically motivated measures and actions taken by the German authorities within the arbitrary decision-making of the right and/or abuse of the right to asylum. This is the reason why as early as in late 1994 the Government of FRG announced that it would expel foreigners from the country. The remaining refugees, or actually the so-called false asylum-seekers in FR Germany, share the fate of forced repatriation. Within this category special emphasis should be placed on the attitude of the German government to the Albanians and Roma from Kosovo. At first, the Germans treated the Albanians from Kosovo as politically persecuted persons, offering them refuge. Then they declared them (and Roma also) to be false asylum-seekers and insisted on readmission - their gradual repatriation to Kosovo. Considering both positive and negative implications of the migration process, the key issue for the citizens from Serbia and Montenegro who live in Germany remains the following: maintenance of their national identity, cherishing of their mother tongue and culture, keeping up relations with their mother country, social gathering - in various associations, clubs and organisations, education in their mother tongue, what particularly includes comprehensive additional teaching for children in Serbian, as well as better information dissemination.

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20

Funke, Michael, and Holger Strulik. "Growth and Convergence in a Two-Region Model of Unified Germany." German Economic Review 1, no. 3 (August 1, 2000): 363–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0475.00018.

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Abstract The paper sets up a two-region endogenous growth model to discuss growth and regional convergence of unified Germany. It emphasizes the role of private and public capital accumulation during the developing process. The theoretical part derives fiscal policy rules which establish convergence of regional output per capita and convergence of regional human wealth. To assess the speed of convergence the model is calibrated with German data. Given a fiscal policy rule that is consistent with the data on government spending in East and West Germany after unification the model suggests that East Germany will reach 80 per cent of West Germany's income per capita between 20 and 30 years after unification and that actual transfers are approximately sufficient to equalize regional human wealth. The results are compared with an extension of the model that includes wage-setting behaviour and unemployment in the eastern region.

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21

Miller, Jennifer. "Her Fight is Your Fight: “Guest Worker” Labor Activism in the Early 1970s West Germany." International Labor and Working-Class History 84 (2013): 226–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s014754791300029x.

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AbstractWhen the postwar economic boom came to a crashing halt in early 1970s West Germany, foreign “guest workers,” often the first to be laid off, bore the brunt of high inflation, rising prices, declining growth rates, widespread unemployment, and social discontent. Following the economic downturn and the ensuing crisis of stagflation, workers' uprisings became increasingly common in West Germany. The summer of 1973 saw a sharp increase in workers' activism broadly, including a wave of “women's strikes.” However, historical attention to the role of foreign workers, especially of foreign female workers, within these strikes has been limited. This article presents a case study of wildcat strikes spearheaded by foreign, female workers in the early 1970s, focusing specifically on the strikes at the Pierburg Autoparts Factory in Neuss, West Germany. For these foreign women, activism in the early 1970s had a larger significance than just securing better working conditions. Indeed, striking foreign workers were no longer negotiating temporary problems; they were signaling that they were there to stay. Foreign workers' sustained and successful activism challenged the imposed category of “guest worker,” switching the emphasis from guest to worker. Ultimately, the Pierburg strikes' outcomes benefited all workers—foreign and German, male and female—and had grave implications for wage discrimination across West Germany as well.

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22

Schnaus, Julia. "Das leise Sterben einer Branche – Der Niedergang der westdeutschen Bekleidungsindustrie in den 1960er/70er Jahren." Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte 62, no. 1 (March 10, 2017): 9–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zug-2017-0002.

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AbstractUnnoticed Disappearance – The Decline of the West-German Clothing Industry in the 1960s/70sIn the beginning of the 20th century the German clothing industry used to be a considerable producer of consumer goods, manufacturing clothes for both home and export market. In the 1960s and 70s this branch of the German industry began to decline, mainly due to the pay gap between the labor costs in Germany and low-wage-countries located in Eastern Europe and Asia. In response to this development bigger German companies outsourced their production abroad to save labor costs. Smaller companies often lacked the needed financial resources and had to face bankruptcy as result. At the end only services like planning and quality control remained in Germany. In consequence of this development a lot of German seamstresses lost their jobs. The government did not care about these problems; the enterprises did not receive subsidies. The unions in the sector were weak due to a high percentage of working women and the high ratio of small and medium sized regionally dispersed enterprises.

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23

Riphahn, Regina T., and Daniel D. Schnitzlein. "Wage mobility in East and West Germany." Labour Economics 39 (April 2016): 11–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2016.01.003.

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24

Reber, Gerhard. "Investment-Wages : Theory and Application." Relations industrielles 26, no. 2 (April 12, 2005): 363–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/028219ar.

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25

Buettner, Thiess, and Johannes Rincke. "Labor Market Effects of Economic Integration: The Impact of Re-Unification in German Border Regions." German Economic Review 8, no. 4 (December 1, 2007): 536–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0475.2007.00417.x.

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Abstract This paper exploits the significant reduction in impediments to labor mobility in the process of German re-unification in order to identify labor supply shocks in the West German labor market. The focus is on the quasi-experiment of the border removal in the regions situated at the German-German border that faced a massive increase of cross-border labor supply. The results indicate that despite a gain in employment, the border removal was accompanied by a decline in wages and an increase in unemployment relative to other West German regions.

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26

Geist, Claudia, and Sarah Brauner-Otto. "Constrained Intentions." Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World 3 (January 1, 2017): 237802311668533. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2378023116685334.

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Using five waves of the German Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics ( pairfam), we examine how economic circumstances are related to fertility intentions in childless young men and women in East and West Germany. We explore multiple dimensions of fertility intentions: short-term intentions for the next two years, long-term expectations about family size, and uncertainty about these short- and long-term intentions. Our findings suggest that economic circumstances constrain fertility intentions and increase uncertainty. Although fertility intentions differ between men and women and by region, the broad mechanisms that predict intentions are very similar across groups for long-term intentions and uncertainty. However, group differences emerge in short-term intentions.

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27

Kluge, Jan, and Michael Weber. "Decomposing the German East-West wage gap." Economics of Transition 26, no. 1 (October 23, 2017): 91–125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecot.12137.

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28

Moses, A. D. "The Forty-Fivers: A Generation Between Fascism and Democracy." German Politics and Society 17, no. 1 (March 1, 1999): 94–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/104503099782486941.

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In 1999, Germans celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Federal Republic. Unlike the fiftieth anniversary of other events in the recent national past—the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, the anti-Jewish pogrom of November 1938, and the unconditional surrender in 1945—this is not an awkward occasion for the country’s elites. On the contrary, the Federal Republic is indisputably Germany’s most successful state, and its record of stability and prosperity compares favorably with that of two prominent neighbors, France and Italy. This anniversary gives us pause to pose the basic questions about West Germany. How was it possible to construct an enduring democracy for a population that, exceptions notwithstanding, had enthusiastically supported Hitler and waged world war to the bitter end?

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29

Fitzenberger, Bernd, and Gaby Wunderlich. "Gender Wage Differences in West Germany: A Cohort Analysis." German Economic Review 3, no. 4 (December 1, 2002): 379–414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0475.00065.

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30

Maas, Oliver, and Siegfried Raasch. "Wake properties and power output of very large wind farms for different meteorological conditions and turbine spacings: a large-eddy simulation case study for the German Bight." Wind Energy Science 7, no. 2 (March 25, 2022): 715–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/wes-7-715-2022.

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Abstract. Germany's expansion target for offshore wind power capacity of 40 GW by the year 2040 can only be reached if large portions of the Exclusive Economic Zone in the German Bight are equipped with wind farms. Because these wind farm clusters will be much larger than existing wind farms, it is unknown how they will affect the boundary layer flow and how much power they will produce. The objective of this large-eddy simulation study is to investigate the wake properties and the power output of very large potential wind farms in the German Bight for different turbine spacings, stabilities and boundary layer heights. The results show that very large wind farms cause flow effects that small wind farms do not. These effects include, but are not limited to, inversion layer displacement, counterclockwise flow deflection inside the boundary layer and clockwise flow deflection above the boundary layer. Wakes of very large wind farms are longer for shallower boundary layers and smaller turbine spacings, reaching values of more than 100 km. The wake in terms of turbulence intensity is approximately 20 km long, in which longer wakes occur for convective boundary layers and shorter wakes for stable boundary layers. Very large wind farms in a shallow, stable boundary layer can excite gravity waves in the overlying free atmosphere, resulting in significant flow blockage. The power output of very large wind farms is higher for thicker boundary layers because thick boundary layers contain more kinetic energy than thin boundary layers. The power density of the energy input by the geostrophic pressure gradient limits the power output of very large wind farms. Because this power density is very low (approximately 2 W m−2), the installed power density of very large wind farms should be small to achieve a good wind farm efficiency.

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31

Koopmans, Ruud. "The Dynamics of Protest Waves: West Germany, 1965 to 1989." American Sociological Review 58, no. 5 (October 1993): 637. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2096279.

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32

Friedrich, Martin. "Using Occupations to Evaluate the Employment Effects of the German Minimum Wage." Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik 240, no. 2-3 (February 25, 2020): 269–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbnst-2018-0085.

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AbstractThis paper evaluates the short to medium run employment effects of the 2015 introduction of a statutory minimum wage in Germany. The effect of the policy is recovered from variation in the bite of the minimum wage across occupations using a difference-in-differences estimator. The analysis reveals that the reform only had a small impact on employment and highlights the importance of regional effect heterogeneity. In East Germany, marginal employment decreased by about 18,000 jobs in the short run and 52,000 jobs in the medium run, respectively, due to the minimum wage. In West Germany, no negative employment effects are detectable, but regular employment increased temporarily because of the reform. The medium run estimates include the impact of the first marginal increase of the wage floor from €8.50 to €8.84 in 2017.

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33

Tetty, Marscolia. "Theory of origin of languages." Macrolinguistics and Microlinguistics 1, no. 1 (January 12, 2020): 13–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.21744/mami.v1n1.2.

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This paper aimed at exploring the theory of the origin of languages. The history of the English language begins with the birth of the English language on the island of Britain about 1,500 years ago. English is a West Germanic language derived from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to the island of Britain by Germanic immigrants from parts of the northwest of what is now the Netherlands and Germany. Initially, Old English was a group of dialects reflecting the origins of the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England. One of these dialects, West Saxon eventually came to dominate. Then the original Old English was influenced by two waves of invasion. The first wave of invasion was the invasion of speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the German language family. They conquered and inhabited parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. Then this second wave of invasion was the Normans in the 11th century who spoke a dialect of French. These two invasions resulted in English being "mixed up" to some degree (although it was never a literal mixed language).

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34

Gerlach, Knut. "A Note on Male-Female Wage Differences in West Germany." Journal of Human Resources 22, no. 4 (1987): 584. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/145701.

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35

Sidiropoulos, Moïse. "Unification allemande et effets macroéconomiques : une approche économétrique." Économie appliquée 45, no. 3 (1992): 121–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/ecoap.1992.2301.

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This paper deals with the effects of the german unification on West-German economy and on the others countries of the European Monetary System, in particular France. To deal with these issus, a small two-country macroeconometric model designed to analyze the major macroeconomic aggregates in the open economy of West-German and France. This model is an attempt to analyze inflation dynamics in a small open economy as a result of the interaction between wage and price determination behaviors and the interest rate - exchange rate feedback in the context of financial approach to exchange rate determination. Within this framework, simulations of the shocks of german unification to the West-German economy are presented. In this respect, we pay a particular attention to analyze the effects of demand shocks (i.e. increase of german budget deficit ) and the effects of a supply shock (i.e. immigration flows) on West-German economy and their transmission effects to France economy.

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36

Patch, William L. "Defending the “Peace of Sunday”: The Debate over Sunday Labor in the West German Steel Industry after the Second World War." Central European History 54, no. 4 (December 2021): 646–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938921000066.

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AbstractWorking hours were largely unregulated in nineteenth-century Germany, but a powerful alliance emerged in the 1890s between the Christian churches and the socialist labor movement to prohibit most industrial labor on Sunday, including most production of steel. In the 1950s steel management persuaded organized labor that it would be advantageous to produce steel continuously throughout the week, the prevalent system in other countries. The Evangelical Church retreated in this debate, but the Catholic Church waged a fierce and partly successful campaign from 1952 to 1961 to defend the old prohibition. Until the 1980s organized labor continued to cooperate with both major churches to keep Sunday industrial labor quite rare. Their influence declined suddenly after national reunification in 1990, however, and many Germans have come to prize individual freedom above the old principle, honored by Christians and the unchurched alike, that most people should have the same day of rest.

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37

Ganßmann, Heiner, and Grover McArthur. "Arbeitslosigkeit und Einkommensverteilung." PROKLA. Zeitschrift für kritische Sozialwissenschaft 25, no. 99 (June 1, 1995): 205–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.32387/prokla.v25i99.959.

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The development of the wage-profit-distribution in post-war Germany is analyzed, applying the»cost-of-job-loss«-concept which has been elaborated in the social-structure-of-accumulation framework by radical US-economists. Statistical estimates show that the costs of job loss (as adeterminant of work and conflict behavior of workers) exercise a significant influence on the development of income distribution in (West) Germany.

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38

Prantl, Susanne, and Alexandra Spitz-Oener. "The Impact of Immigration on Competing Natives' Wages: Evidence from German Reunification." Review of Economics and Statistics 102, no. 1 (March 2020): 79–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00853.

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After the fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, and the collapse of the German Democratic Republic, a sudden, unexpected, and massive influx of East German migrants hit the entire West German labor market. The context is well suited for investigating whether immigration influences natives' wages and how the effects depend on product and labor market conditions. We propose direct measures of potential migration with exogenous variation, compare migrants to natives with similar capabilities, and segment the labor market along predetermined margins. We find that immigration can have negative effects on the wages of natives. These effects surface when product and labor markets are competitive but not under regulations that restrict the entry of firms and provide workers with a strong influence on firms' decision making.

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39

Serwin, Karol, Bogusz Aksak-Wąs, and Miłosz Parczewski. "Phylodynamic Dispersal of SARS-CoV-2 Lineages Circulating across Polish–German Border Provinces." Viruses 14, no. 5 (April 24, 2022): 884. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v14050884.

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Introduction: The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has evolved into a worldwide outbreak, with significant molecular evolution over time. Large-scale phylodynamic studies allow to map the virus spread and inform preventive strategies. Aim: This study investigates the extent of binational dispersal and dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 lineages between seven border provinces of the adjacent countries of Poland and Germany to reconstruct SARS-CoV-2 transmission networks. Methods: Following three pandemic waves from March 2020 to the end of May 2021, we analysed a dataset of 19,994 sequences divided into B.1.1.7|Alpha and non-Alpha lineage groups. We performed phylogeographic analyses using the discrete diffusion models to identify the pathways of virus spread. Results: Based on population dynamics inferences, in total, 673 lineage introductions (95% HPD interval 641–712) for non-Alpha and 618 (95% HPD interval 599–639) for B.1.1.7|Alpha were identified in the area. For non-Alpha lineages, 5.05% binational, 86.63% exclusively German, and 8.32% Polish clusters were found, with a higher frequency of international clustering observed for B.1.1.7|Alpha (13.11% for binational, 68.44% German and 18.45% Polish, p < 0.001). We identified key transmission hubs for the analysed lineages, namely Saxony, West Pomerania and Lower Silesia. Conclusions: Clustering patterns between Poland and Germany reflect the viral variant transmission dynamics at the international level in the borderline area. Tracing the spread of the virus between two adjacent large European countries may provide a basis for future intervention policies in cross-border cooperation efforts against the spread of the pandemics.

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40

Serwin, Karol, Bogusz Aksak-Wąs, and Miłosz Parczewski. "Phylodynamic Dispersal of SARS-CoV-2 Lineages Circulating across Polish–German Border Provinces." Viruses 14, no. 5 (April 24, 2022): 884. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v14050884.

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Introduction: The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has evolved into a worldwide outbreak, with significant molecular evolution over time. Large-scale phylodynamic studies allow to map the virus spread and inform preventive strategies. Aim: This study investigates the extent of binational dispersal and dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 lineages between seven border provinces of the adjacent countries of Poland and Germany to reconstruct SARS-CoV-2 transmission networks. Methods: Following three pandemic waves from March 2020 to the end of May 2021, we analysed a dataset of 19,994 sequences divided into B.1.1.7|Alpha and non-Alpha lineage groups. We performed phylogeographic analyses using the discrete diffusion models to identify the pathways of virus spread. Results: Based on population dynamics inferences, in total, 673 lineage introductions (95% HPD interval 641–712) for non-Alpha and 618 (95% HPD interval 599–639) for B.1.1.7|Alpha were identified in the area. For non-Alpha lineages, 5.05% binational, 86.63% exclusively German, and 8.32% Polish clusters were found, with a higher frequency of international clustering observed for B.1.1.7|Alpha (13.11% for binational, 68.44% German and 18.45% Polish, p < 0.001). We identified key transmission hubs for the analysed lineages, namely Saxony, West Pomerania and Lower Silesia. Conclusions: Clustering patterns between Poland and Germany reflect the viral variant transmission dynamics at the international level in the borderline area. Tracing the spread of the virus between two adjacent large European countries may provide a basis for future intervention policies in cross-border cooperation efforts against the spread of the pandemics.

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41

Serwin, Karol, Bogusz Aksak-Wąs, and Miłosz Parczewski. "Phylodynamic Dispersal of SARS-CoV-2 Lineages Circulating across Polish–German Border Provinces." Viruses 14, no. 5 (April 24, 2022): 884. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v14050884.

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Abstract:

Introduction: The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has evolved into a worldwide outbreak, with significant molecular evolution over time. Large-scale phylodynamic studies allow to map the virus spread and inform preventive strategies. Aim: This study investigates the extent of binational dispersal and dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 lineages between seven border provinces of the adjacent countries of Poland and Germany to reconstruct SARS-CoV-2 transmission networks. Methods: Following three pandemic waves from March 2020 to the end of May 2021, we analysed a dataset of 19,994 sequences divided into B.1.1.7|Alpha and non-Alpha lineage groups. We performed phylogeographic analyses using the discrete diffusion models to identify the pathways of virus spread. Results: Based on population dynamics inferences, in total, 673 lineage introductions (95% HPD interval 641–712) for non-Alpha and 618 (95% HPD interval 599–639) for B.1.1.7|Alpha were identified in the area. For non-Alpha lineages, 5.05% binational, 86.63% exclusively German, and 8.32% Polish clusters were found, with a higher frequency of international clustering observed for B.1.1.7|Alpha (13.11% for binational, 68.44% German and 18.45% Polish, p < 0.001). We identified key transmission hubs for the analysed lineages, namely Saxony, West Pomerania and Lower Silesia. Conclusions: Clustering patterns between Poland and Germany reflect the viral variant transmission dynamics at the international level in the borderline area. Tracing the spread of the virus between two adjacent large European countries may provide a basis for future intervention policies in cross-border cooperation efforts against the spread of the pandemics.

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42

Suedekum, Jens. "Selective migration, union wage setting and unemployment disparities in West Germany." International Economic Journal 18, no. 1 (March 2004): 33–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1351161042000180629.

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43

Kühhirt, Michael, and Volker Ludwig. "Domestic Work and the Wage Penalty for Motherhood in West Germany." Journal of Marriage and Family 74, no. 1 (January 11, 2012): 186–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00886.x.

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44

DUSTMANN, CHRISTIAN, and ARTHUR SOEST. "Wage Structures in the Private and Public Sectors in West Germany." Fiscal Studies 18, no. 3 (August 1997): 225–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1997.tb00262.x.

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45

Boiko, Mykhailo. "Denazification of Germany in german historiographical and social discourse (1945–2021)." Scientific Papers of the Kamianets-Podilskyi National Ivan Ohiienko University. History 34 (December 29, 2021): 9–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.32626/2309-2254.2021-34.9-28.

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Based on the analysis of published works of German scholars (historians, political scientists, philosophers) and public opinion leaders, the author aims to identify the main stages, trends and assessments in the study and coverage of the process of denazifi cation of Germany over the past 60 years. Denazifi cation had its specifi city in the British and French zones of occupation before the creation of Bisone, and later Trizonia, because there was no generalizing practice of Western democracies regarding the denazifi cation of West Germany. Denazifi cation first became a topic of family and, consequently, social debate in the 1960s, thus removing the public taboo on scholars’ research. Th e problem of denazifi cation remains one of the relevant topics of German historical discourse today, but the Ukrainian scientifi c community has not yet presented a separate analysis of German historiography, which determines the novelty of the proposed article. Based on the methods of historiographical analysis, problem-chronological and retrospective approaches, it was found that among the German academic community there were different approaches to the perception and evaluation of denazification, which infl uenced on the formation of three waves in social and historiographical discourse. It has been established that the fi rst wave was formed during the 1960s and 1970s as a result of the internal demand of public opinion leaders and the younger generation, without the involvement of professional scholars, when denazifi cation remained a very sensitive topic for society. In the second stage, which lasted until the mid–1990s, denazifi cation became the subject of special historical research, which revealed the specifi cs of responsibility for Nazi crimes, the issue of political stability and overcoming the past. Since the early 2000s, a third wave of historiographical discourse has emerged, representing modern approaches and assessments of denazifi cation: in–depth study of its aspects and analysis in the context of related political and legal processes, including clarifying the role of justice in the occupation period, guilt and personal responsibility for both recent and current political processes in the context of intensifying radical movements in Germany. The change of generations, the growing role of the media, unifi cation with the GDR, the collapse of the USSR – is not an exhaustive list of factors that infl uenced not only the revision of approaches to assessing the implementation of denazifi cation, but also the possible application of German experience abroad. The practice of public dialogue in the format of public discussions and research on sensitive historical topics determines the level of individual and collective responsibility for the political situation in Germany. Representatives of German historiography agree that denazifi cation was a component of interethnic reconciliation, but diff er in views on the methods of its implementation.

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46

FitzRoy, Felix, and Michael Funke. "Real wages, investment and employment: New evidence from West German sectoral data." Review of World Economics 130, no. 2 (June 1994): 258–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02707709.

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47

Huber, John T. "Neotype designation for Anaphes brevis Walker (Hymenoptera, Mymaridae)." Journal of Hymenoptera Research 63 (April 30, 2018): 51–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/jhr.63.24427.

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A neotype for Anaphesbrevis Walker (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) is designated from among specimens reared in a laboratory culture on Lygus sp. (Hemiptera: Miridae). Based on specimens examined, the distribution of A.brevis extends west-east from UK (Wales) apparently as far as China and north-south from Germany to Morocco. The species also apparently occurs in North America.

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48

Bruns, Benjamin. "Changes in Workplace Heterogeneity and How They Widen the Gender Wage Gap." American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 11, no. 2 (April 1, 2019): 74–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20160664.

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Using linked employer-employee data for West Germany, I investigate the role of growing wage differentials between firms in the slowdown of gender wage convergence since the 1990s. The results show that two factors are at play: first, high-wage firms experience higher wage growth and employ disproportionately more men, and second, male firm premiums grow faster than female premiums in the same firms. These developments were catalyzed by a decline of union coverage, coupled with more firm-specific wage setting in collective bargaining agreements. Taken together, these conditions prevented the gender gap from narrowing by approximately 15 percent between the 1990s and 2000s. (JEL J16, J51, J31, J71)

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49

Atesoglu, H. Sonmez. "A rational expectations model of price and wage inflation for West Germany." Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv 124, no. 3 (September 1988): 480–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02708661.

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50

Daynes, V. O. "The 2nd Guards Tank Army in the Berlin Strategic Offensive Operation." MGIMO Review of International Relations, no. 2(41) (April 28, 2015): 37–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2015-2-41-37-44.

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One of the greatest battles of the Great Patriotic and also the World War II took place on the outskirts of the capital of Nazi Germany on April 16, 1945. Three magor fronts - 1st Belorussian, 2nd Byelorussian, 1st Ukrainian - and four tank armies were involved. They were not used as highly mobile groups to enter Berlin from the north and north-west, they were sent first to break powerful enemy defenses, and then to wage battles on the streets. The Supreme Command and the commanders of the 1st Byelorussian and 1st Ukrainian fronts understood the inevitability of heavy losses in tanks and troops, but deliberately took this step. The aim was not only a speedy capture of the German capital and the end of the war, but also to be ahead of allies on their way to Berlin. The article deals with the planning and preparation for the Berlin Strategic Offensive Operation, the use of 2nd Guards Tank Army, who played along with other tank divisions a magor role in the success of this operation.

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