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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 25 January 2023

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1

Stegman, Trevor. "Implications for Wages Policy in Australia of the Living Wage Case." Economic and Labour Relations Review 8, no. 1 (June 1997): 143–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/103530469700800111.

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This paper considers the implications of the decision of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission in the April 1997 wage case (the ‘Living Wage Case’) for wages policy. The recent history of wages policy in Australia is analysed in terms of competing goals for wages policy and the changing priorities for these goals. The Living Wage Case decision is a continuation of developments in the Australian labour market that worsen the relative income position of the low paid, tend to create a two-tier wage structure, and worsen the prospects for reductions in unemployment because responsibility for the control of wage based inflation has been given to restrictive monetary policy.

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2

Mangan, John, and John Johnston. "Minimum wages, training wages and youth employment." International Journal of Social Economics 26, no. 1/2/3 (January 1, 1999): 415–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03068299910229820.

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High rates of youth unemployment, worldwide, have led governments to advocate a range of policies designed to increase job offers to young workers. For example, the Australian Government is currently introducing a system of “training wages” which will see effective youth wages set well below adult award wages for a designated training period. This policy is designed to simultaneously increase the human capital of young workers as well as help to overcome the initial barriers to entry into the labour market. However, youth‐specific wages have been criticized on the basis of age discrimination and on equity grounds. Also, some US data question the employment‐boosting potential of reduced minimum youth wages. In this paper recent international findings on the relationship between youth wages and employment are presented and compared with empirical tests of the relationship using labour market data for Australia as a whole as well as the State of Queensland. The results are used to examine the likely impact of the introduction of the training wage on the youth labour market in Australia and to provide further generalizations on the wider issue of employment and youth‐specific wages.

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3

Waring, Peter, and John Burgess. "Continuity and Change in the Australian Minimum Wage Setting System: The Legacy of the Commission." Journal of Industrial Relations 53, no. 5 (November 2011): 681–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185611419619.

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Australia has a long history of institutional minimum wage determination. We examine the features and the changes in the minimum wages system. We identify its enduring characteristics, its place the Australian system in an international context and see where Fair Work Australia is located in relation to previous arrangements. We ask why a minimum wage system is still required and we examine the legacy of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission and its predecessors in minimum wage determination.

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4

Healy, Joshua. "The Quest for Fairness in Australian Minimum Wages." Journal of Industrial Relations 53, no. 5 (November 2011): 662–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185611419618.

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The attainment of ‘fairness’ is widely regarded as a worthy goal of setting minimum wages, but opinions differ sharply over how to achieve it. This article examines how interpretations of fairness shaped the minimum wage decisions of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission between 1997 and 2005. It explores the Commission's approaches to three aspects of fairness in minimum wages: first, eligibility for increases; second, the form of increase; and third, the rate of increase over time. The Australian Industrial Relations Commission consistently gave minimum wage increases that were expressed in dollar values and applied to all federal awards. Its decisions delivered real wage increases for the lowest paid, but led to falls in real and relative wages for the majority of award-reliant workers. Fair Work Australia, the authority now responsible for setting minimum wages in the national system, appears apprehensive about parts of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission's legacy and has foreshadowed a different approach, particularly with respect to the form of adjustment.

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5

Stegman, Trevor. "“Jobsback” and the Future of Wages Policy." Economic and Labour Relations Review 4, no. 1 (June 1993): 50–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/103530469300400103.

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The implications of the Liberal-National Party Coalition's policy with regard to wage determination in Australia are assessed in relation to appropriate goals for wages policy. Although the current Accord-based system has shifted its focus over the last decade, from generally applied wage determination principles aimed at inflation control to an enterprise based system aimed at productivity enhancement, the Coalition's policy should not be seen as merely an extension of the current system. This is because, in pursuit of faster productivity gains, the Coalition policy aims at the permanent exclusion from the wage determination process of the two institutional elements which provide the scope for an anti-inflation incomes policy in Australia — the Industrial Relations Commission and the Australian Council of Trade Unions.

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6

Short, Christine. "Equal Pay—What Happened?" Journal of Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (September 1986): 315–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002218568602800301.

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Following the equal pay decisions of 1969, 1972 and 1974, equality in award wages between the sexes was widely assumed to have been achieved in Australia, but this assumption may be incorrect. In this paper the historical discrimination inherent in Australia's wage fixing system is briefly described. Statistics on minimum award wages and the records of the federal and two state Industrial Commissions are used to show how equalpay was implemented from 1950 onwards. The implementation of the 1972 equal pay for work of equal value decision is examined in some detail to reveal how the decision was not fully applied to female-intensive work areas. This resulted from the way work value has been traditionally approached in Australia and the failure of unions to bring the necessary cases to the Commission. A nurses' award is compared with four male awards to show how the nurses soon lost most of what they gained from equal pay. Finally, the 1986 Australian Capital Territory and Victorian nurses' cases are used to show how, when unions press the case for equal pay, and present it competently, advances can be achieved within the present centralized wage fixing system.

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7

Plowman, David H. "Protecting the Low Income Earner: Minimum Wage Determination in Australia." Economic and Labour Relations Review 6, no. 2 (December 1995): 252–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/103530469500600206.

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The Minimum Wage, in various variants, has been an important part of Australian wage determination for over a century. This paper documents the development of the minimum wage and in so doing highlights the pivotal role of the Sunshine Harvester case. That case left a number of legacies which are examined in other parts of the paper. These include the bifurcated nature of wage determination, consideration of family size, the sexual division of labour and wages, the conflict between needs and capacity to pay, wage adjustment indexes and the role of minimum wages in a decentralised wages system.

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8

Richardson, Sue. "Who Gets Minimum Wages?" Journal of Industrial Relations 40, no. 4 (December 1998): 554–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002218569804000404.

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There have been rising levels of inequality in the earnings distribution in some OECD countries (principally the English-speaking ones), together with stub bornly high levels of unemployment in many others. Australia has shared in the increases in earnings inequality and persistent unemployment. The increasing earnings inequality has led to renewed interest in the usefulness of legally binding minimum wages as an instrument for redressing it. The high unemployment has led to a renewed interest in removing restrictions on what employers must pay, in the hope that this will increase employment. This paper provides the first detailed examination of the low- wage group in Australia and its standing in the distribution of household equivalent income. It finds that low-wage workea s are varied in their socioeconomic characteristics. They are not typically new entrants to the labour force. They look very like all wage earners in their age distribution. A majority work full-time and are married; 40 per cent have dependent children. Most live in lower income households, but many do not. A cut in low wages that focuses on those around the Australian Industrial Relations Commission minimum would be regressive. The circumstances necessary to make the gain to the unemployed exceed the losses to low-wage workers who have a low income appear to be quite implausible.

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9

Burgess, John. "Aggregate Wage Indicators, Enterprise Bargaining and Recent Wage Increases." Economic and Labour Relations Review 6, no. 2 (December 1995): 216–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/103530469500600204.

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To what extent have wages recently increased in Australia? Have these increases been excessive? There are a myriad of wage data series produced by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. These series reflect different questions and different perspectives about wages. In the context of the previously centralised wage determination process the dissection and analysis of aggregate wage series was an important exercise for industry and academic economists. However, the analysis and interpretation of aggregate wage data has become more difficult in the light of a number of developments: (a) falling award coverage, (b) the development and uneven spread of enterprise bargaining, (c) the industrial and demographic restructuring of the workforce, (d) the growth in non-wage benefits, (e) the growth in non-standard employment What are the available options for measuring aggregate wages growth in the light of these above developments? To what extent has recent wage growth been excessive?

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10

Preston, Alison, and Elisa Birch. "The Western Australian wage structure and gender wage gap: A post-mining boom analysis." Journal of Industrial Relations 60, no. 5 (October 31, 2018): 619–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185618791589.

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Whilst there is a large literature on the determinant of wages in Australia, relatively few studies have examined the determinants of wages at a state level. In this article, we present a study of the determinants of earnings in Western Australia, a state that experienced rapid growth during the mining boom of 2003–2013. We show that the relatively stronger wage growth in Western Australia since 2001 is the product of both compositional and price effects. We also report on the Western Australia and rest of Australia gender wage gaps. Our decomposition analysis of the mean gender wage gap shows that industry effects (as a result of gender segmentation across industry) account for a much larger share of the Western Australia gender wage gap than they do elsewhere in Australia, with the mining, construction and transport sectors driving the industry effects. Using quantile analysis we show that, relative to the rest of Australia, the Western Australia gender wage gaps are larger at both the bottom and the top of the wage distribution. At the median the Western Australia gender wage gap, at 2014–2016, is on par with that prevailing elsewhere in Australia, with women in both groups earning 10% less than their male counterparts, all else held equal.

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11

Forster, Colin. "Unemployment and Minimum Wages in Australia, 1900–1930." Journal of Economic History 45, no. 2 (June 1985): 383–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700034082.

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The paper focuses on the development in Australia of minimum wage-setting and its relationship to unemployment. A variety of industrial tribunals embarked on a course of wage-setting early in the twentieth century as part of their task of reducing industrial conflict. In varying degree, the tribunals kept in mind what was thought of as wage justice for workers with low bargaining power. By 1921 a standard minimum wage for unskilled men had emerged and formed the basis of the wage system. It was a wage which had a strong welfare basis. Other wages more closely reflected the market. During the 1920s unemployment was not high but was concentrated on less-capable unskilled men. The limited evidence available points to the wage structure as the main cause.

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12

Jackson, Sharon. "Wages and Fertility in Australia." Journal of the Australian Population Association 12, no. 1 (May 1995): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03029308.

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13

Seltzer, Andrew J., and Jeff Borland. "The Impact of the 1896 Factory and Shops Act on the Labor Market of Victoria, Australia." Journal of Economic History 78, no. 3 (September 2018): 785–821. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050718000359.

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This article examines the effects of the Victorian Factory and Shops Act, the first minimum wage law in Australia. The Act differed from modern minimum wage laws in that it established Special Boards, which set trade-specific minimum wage schedules. We use trade-level data on average wages and employment by gender and age to examine the effects of minimum wages. Although the minimum wages were binding, we find that the effects on employment were modest, at best. We speculate that this was because the Special Boards, which were comprised of industry insiders, closely matched the labor market for their trades.

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14

PICKARD, JOHN. "Shepherding in Colonial Australia." Rural History 19, no. 1 (April 2008): 55–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956793307002300.

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AbstractShepherds were a critical component of the early wool industry in colonial Australia and persisted even after fencing was adopted and rapidly spread in the later nineteenth century. Initially shepherds were convicts, but after transportation ceased in the late 1840s, emancipists and free men were employed. Their duty was the same as in England: look after the flock during the day, and pen them nightly in folds made of hurdles. Analysis of wages and flock sizes indicates that pastoralists achieved good productivity gains with larger flocks but inflation of wages reduced the gains to modest levels. The gold rushes and labour shortages of the 1850s played a minor role in increasing both wages and flock sizes. Living conditions in huts were primitive, and the diet monotonous. Shepherds were exposed to a range of diseases, especially in Queensland. Flock-masters employed non-whites, usually at lower wages, and women and children. Fences only replaced shepherds when pastoralists realised that the new technology of fences, combined with other changes, would give them higher profits. The sheep were left to fend for themselves in the open paddocks, a system used to this day.

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15

Preston, Alison, Elisa Birch, and Andrew R. Timming. "Sexual orientation and wage discrimination: evidence from Australia." International Journal of Manpower 41, no. 6 (July 19, 2019): 629–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijm-08-2018-0279.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to document the wage effects associated with sexual orientation and to examine whether the wage gap has improved following recent institutional changes which favour sexual minorities. Design/methodology/approach Ordinary least squares and quantile regressions are estimated using Australian data for 2010–2012 and 2015–2017, with the analysis disaggregated by sector of employment. Blinder–Oaxaca decompositions are used to quantify unexplained wage gaps. Findings Relative to heterosexual men, in 2015–2017 gay men in the public and private sectors had wages which were equivalent to heterosexual men at all points in the wage distribution. In the private sector: highly skilled lesbians experienced a wage penalty of 13 per cent; low-skilled bisexual women faced a penalty of 11 per cent, as did bisexual men at the median (8 per cent penalty). In the public sector low-skilled lesbians and low-skilled bisexual women significant experienced wage premiums. Between 2010–2012 and 2015–2017 the pay position of highly skilled gay men has significantly improved with the convergence driven by favourable wage (rather than composition) effects. Practical implications The results provide important benchmarks against which the treatment of sexual minorities may be monitored. Originality/value The analysis of the sexual minority wage gaps by sector and position on the wage distribution and insight into the effect of institutions on the wages of sexual minorities.

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16

Gregory, R. G. "Wages Policy and Unemployment in Australia." Economica 53, no. 210 (1986): S53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2554374.

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17

Pissarides, Christopher A. "Real Wages and Unemployment in Australia." Economica 58, no. 229 (February 1991): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2554974.

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18

BÅRDSEN, GUNNAR, STAN HURN, and ZOË MCHUGH. "Modelling Wages and Prices in Australia." Economic Record 83, no. 261 (June 2007): 143–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.2007.00390.x.

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19

ISLAM, ASADUL, and DIETRICH K. FAUSTEN. "Skilled Immigration and Wages in Australia*." Economic Record 84 (September 2008): S66—S82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.2008.00485.x.

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20

Miller, Paul W. "Occupational segregation and wages in Australia." Economics Letters 45, no. 3 (January 1994): 367–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1765(94)90039-6.

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21

COCKBURN, MALCOLM, and DONALD WHITEHEAD. "WAGES IN AUSTRALIA: PRACTICES AND PRESCRIPTIONS1." Bulletin of the Oxford University Institute of Economics & Statistics 24, no. 2 (May 1, 2009): 235–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1962.mp24002002.x.

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22

Forster, Colin. "Wages and wage policy: Australia in the Depression, 1924-34." Australian Economic History Review 30, no. 1 (January 1990): 23–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aehr.301002.

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23

Tawadros, George B. "The Cyclical Behaviour of Real Wages: Evidence from Australia." Economics Research International 2010 (July 21, 2010): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2010/250729.

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This paper analyses the behaviour of real wages over the business cycle for Australia, using quarterly observations for the period 1984 : 1–2008 : 2. The unobserved cyclical components of prices, real wages, and three other cyclical variables are extracted from the observed time series using Harvey's (1985, 1989) structural time series model. A model relating these components is estimated, producing results which show that both prices and real wages are procyclical.

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24

Jefferson, Therese, and Alison Preston. "Labour Markets and Wages in Australia: 2010." Journal of Industrial Relations 53, no. 3 (June 2011): 303–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185611402000.

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In this article we present data on earnings and hours in 2010 and, using data over a longer time frame, show how the character of the Australian labour market has significantly changed in recent decades. Among other things, we demonstrate a continued shift towards part-time work and, across full-time and part-time labour markets, a change in the distribution of jobs towards more highly skilled occupations. We continue to argue that traditional indicators of labour-market activity, such as headline unemployment and earnings in full-time employment, are only able to partially explain the health of the labour market. There is an urgent need to better understand other dimensions such as underemployment, part-time employment and part-time earnings.

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25

Kramar, Robin. "Women's Wages in Australia: Stability and Change." Equal Opportunities International 9, no. 6 (June 1990): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb010531.

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26

Kortt, Michael A., Todd Steen, and Elisabeth Sinnewe. "Church attendance, faith and the allocation of time: evidence from Australia." International Journal of Social Economics 44, no. 12 (December 4, 2017): 2112–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijse-05-2016-0140.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the determinants of church attendance and the formation of “religious human capital” using a Becker-inspired allocation-of-time framework. Design/methodology/approach Data derived from three waves of the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey were used to estimate a reduced-form two-equation system where the endogenous variables were frequency of attendance at religious services and intensity of faith. Findings The results indicate that while the hourly wage rate accounts for some of the variation in the attendance and faith regressions (i.e. higher wages lead to lower levels of attendance and faith), “allocation of time” variables like working long hours also influence these dimensions. The findings also suggest that the decision to attend or not or to have any faith at all is generally independent from economic factors. However, once the decision to attend or to have faith is made, an individual’s wage influences the degree of attendance or faith to a significant level. Originality/value The study contributes to this embryonic body of empirical literature by providing – to the best of the authors’ knowledge – the first results for Australia.

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27

LIVERMORE, TANYA, JOAN RODGERS, and PETER SIMINSKI. "The Effect of Motherhood on Wages and Wage Growth: Evidence for Australia*." Economic Record 87 (July 1, 2011): 80–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.2011.00745.x.

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28

PICKARD, JOHN. "The Transition from Shepherding to Fencing in Colonial Australia." Rural History 18, no. 2 (October 2007): 143–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956793307002129.

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AbstractThe transition from shepherding to fencing in colonial Australia was a technological revolution replacing labour with capital. Fencing could not be widespread in Australia until an historical conjunction of technological, social and economic changes: open camping of sheep (from about 1810), effective poisoning of dingoes with strychnine (from the mid-1840s), introduction of iron wire (1840s), better land tenure (from 1847), progressive reduction of Aboriginal populations, huge demand for meat (from 1851) and high wages (from 1851). Labour shortages in the gold-rushes of the early 1850s were the final trigger, but all the other changes were essential precursors. Available data are used to test the alleged benefits of fencing: a higher wool cut per head; an increased carrying capacity; savings in wages and the running costs of stations; less disease in flocks; larger sheep; higher lambing percentages, and use of land unsuitable for shepherding. Many of the benefits were real, but some cannot be verified. By the mid-1880s, over ninety-five per cent of sheep in New South Wales were in paddocks, wire fences were spreading rapidly, and the cost of fences was falling. However, shepherding persisted in remote northern areas of Australia until well into the twentieth century.

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29

Watts, Martin J. "How Should Minimum Wages be Set in Australia?" Journal of Industrial Relations 52, no. 2 (April 2010): 131–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185609359441.

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30

Jefferson, Therese, and Alison Preston. "Labour Markets and Wages in Australia in 2009." Journal of Industrial Relations 52, no. 3 (June 2010): 335–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185610365637.

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The global financial crisis (GFC) of 2008 made it clear that traditional indicators of labour market activity such as headline unemployment, labour force participation and earnings in full-time employment can only partially explain the health of the labour market. In this article we argue the need for a nuanced approach that takes into fuller consideration issues related to hours of work and part-time earnings. Selected industry sectors show stark differences in labour market outcomes when these issues are examined.

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31

Jefferson, Therese, and Alison Preston. "Labour Markets and Wages in Australia in 2011." Journal of Industrial Relations 54, no. 3 (May 28, 2012): 293–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185612442281.

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32

Jefferson, Therese, and Alison Preston. "Labour markets and wages in Australia in 2012." Journal of Industrial Relations 55, no. 3 (June 2013): 338–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185613480739.

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33

Peetz, David, and Alison Preston. "Individual contracting, collective bargaining and wages in Australia." Industrial Relations Journal 40, no. 5 (September 2009): 444–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2338.2009.00537.x.

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34

BURNS, MICHAEL E., and WILLIAM F. MITCHELL. "REAL WAGES, UNEMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC POLICY IN AUSTRALIA." Australian Economic Papers 24, no. 44 (June 1985): 1–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8454.1985.tb00092.x.

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35

Kumar, Saten, Don J. Webber, and Geoff Perry. "Real wages, inflation and labour productivity in Australia." Applied Economics 44, no. 23 (June 28, 2011): 2945–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2011.568405.

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36

Crown, By Daniel, Alessandra Faggian, and Jonathan Corcoran. "High skilled immigration and the occupational choices of native workers: the case of Australia." Oxford Economic Papers 72, no. 3 (May 21, 2020): 585–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpaa009.

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Abstract This paper estimates the effect of a major skilled visa programme in Australia on the wages and occupation-specific skills performed by native workers. We combine data from the full population of approved Temporary Work Visa applications with the nationally representative Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) longitudinal survey from 2005–2015. Our findings indicate that skilled international workers increase the wages of natives, and induce native workers to specialize in occupations associated with a high intensity of communication and cognitive skills. We find no evidence of negative effects of the visa programme on the wages of high-skilled or low-skilled native workers, or on previous migrants who may be close substitutes to the skilled visa holders.

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Guthrie, Robert, and Rebecca Taseff. "Dismissal and Discrimination: Illegal Workers in England and Australia." International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations 24, Issue 1 (March 1, 2008): 31–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/ijcl2008003.

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Abstract: This paper deals with various topical issues in relation to illegal workers. The legal rights of illegal workers have become an international concern. In this paper two common law countries are examined. The engagement of illegal workers raises a number of delicate employment law and policy issues. This article compares the attitude of the courts in England and Australia in relation to the question of the rights of workers who work contrary to immigration laws (illegal workers). In England, the courts have tended to adopt a traditional approach of not enforcing contracts which are tainted by illegality in relation to cases involving payment of wages and termination of employment. This has often meant that workers employed illegally have no rights to enforce agreements with employers who are a party to the illegal agreement. However, in relation to discrimination cases the English courts have used a number of devices to sidestep this harsh approach, and recently a number of workers who have been engaged illegally have been successful in establishing that their employer has discriminated unlawfully against them. Within the last decade in Australia the picture is even less clear with a mixture of outcomes in relation to cases by workers claiming wages when they have been working illegally. No discrimination cases have emerged in Australia, although this paper speculates that the Australian courts may be receptive to adopting the English approach.

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38

Jha, Nikhil, and Cain Polidano. "Long-Run Effects of Catholic Schooling on Wages." B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy 15, no. 4 (October 1, 2015): 2017–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bejeap-2014-0108.

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Abstract Previous studies have linked Catholic schooling to higher academic achievement. We add to the literature on Catholic schooling by examining its effect on long-term wages in Australia, independent of effects on academic achievement. Using panel data from the Household Income and Labour Dynamics Australia (HILDA) survey and fixed effects estimation, we find that during the prime-age of a career, wages for Catholic school graduates progress with labor market experience at a greater rate, on average, than wages for public school graduates. Importantly, we find no evidence to suggest that these benefits are peculiar to Catholic schooling, with similar benefits estimated for graduates of independent private schools. These findings suggest that private schooling may be important in not only fostering higher academic achievement but also in better preparing students for a working life.

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Lye, Jenny N., and Ian M. McDonald. "Can loss aversion shed light on the deflation puzzle?" Review of Keynesian Economics 9, no. 1 (January 19, 2021): 11–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/roke.2021.01.02.

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This paper argues that the application of loss aversion to wage determination can explain the deflation puzzle: the failure of persistently high unemployment to exert a persistent downward impact on the rate of inflation in money wages. This is an improvement on other theories of the deflation puzzle which simply assume downward wage rigidity, namely the hysteresis theory, the lubrication theory and the efficiency wage theory. The paper presents estimates that support the loss-aversion explanation of the deflation puzzle for both the US and Australia. Furthermore, our estimation approach gives a more precise estimate of the potential rate of unemployment than does the natural rate approach and reveals potential rates of unemployment for the US and Australia at the end of 2017 of about 4 per cent and 3.3 per cent respectively.

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40

Beggs, Michael. "Labour in the Technocratic Frame: Macroeconomic Policy and Wages in 1950s Australia." Labour History: Volume 121, Issue 1 121, no. 1 (November 1, 2021): 129–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/jlh.2021.21.

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Though the labour market has always been central to macroeconomics, policy has usually had no instrument for intervening directly in the wage-setting process. But in the mid-twentieth century, economists commonly believed that there should be such an instrument. In 1950s Australia, it seemed that the arbitration system could potentially be used as such. This article uses Trevor Swan’s contemporary model of Australian policy in the 1950s to understand the tensions facing policy and explain why wage control seemed to be a solution. The arbitration judges began to consider macroeconomics in their decisions, and the unions adapted by presenting macroeconomic arguments of their own. In full employment conditions, labour had considerable economic power outside the tribunal, and the limitations of arbitration as an instrument of policy raised the shadow of unemployment as an alternative disciplining device.

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41

WADDOUPS, C. JEFFREY. "Unions and Wages in Australia: Does Employer Size Matter?" Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society 47, no. 1 (January 4, 2008): 136–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232x.2008.00508.x.

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42

Crew, Jenny. "Women's work and wages — Britain and Australia Pre 1914." Journal of Australian Studies 11, no. 21 (November 1987): 60–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14443058709386959.

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Koojaroenprasit, Sauwaluck. "Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in Australia." Australian Journal of Business and Management Research 03, no. 08 (August 10, 2013): 20–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.52283/nswrca.ajbmr.20130308a03.

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Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Australia were analyzed from 1986 to 2011, based on data availability. The determinants considered FDI inflows according to aggregate FDI inflows and FDI inflows by the top three source countries (USA, UK and Japan). Empirical studies identified four results. (1) For the determinants of FDI in Australia, a larger market size will attract more FDI, whereas more openness and a higher corporate tax rate will discourage FDI inflows into Australia. Lower customs duty and lower interest and depreciation of exchange rates will attract more FDI. The relationship between FDI inflows into Australia and wages was not significant. (2) For the determinants of US inward FDI in Australia, a larger market size will attract more US inward FDI in Australia, whereas more openness and an appreciation of the exchange rate will discourage US inward FDI in Australia. A negative and significant relationship was obtained between customs duty and US inward FDI in Australia. There were positive and significant relationships between US inward FDI in Australia and both the interest and corporate tax rates. (3) For the determinants of UK inward FDI in Australia, greater research and development in Australia will attract more UK inward FDI in Australia, whereas a higher corporate tax rate will discourage UK inward FDI in Australia. The positive relationship between market size and UK inward FDI in Australia was not significant. Openness, customs duty and inflation did not have significant relationships with UK inward FDI in Australia. (4) For the determinants of Japanese inward FDI in Australia, higher wages and greater research and development will attract more Japanese inward FDI in Australia, whereas higher customs duty and a higher corporate tax rate will discourage Japanese inward FDI in Australia. There was no significant relationship between Japanese inward FDI in Australia and either the interest or exchange rates.

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Smith, Meg. "Gender Equity: The Commission’s Legacy and the Challenge for Fair Work Australia." Journal of Industrial Relations 53, no. 5 (November 2011): 647–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185611419617.

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Two labour-market variables, wages and hours, are used to review the gender relations record of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission and its predecessors. This review informs an assessment of what features of Commission practice and capacity should and can be replicated by Fair Work Australia. Arbitration has been most decisive for women in paid work when it has enjoyed national and industry distribution. Advances in equal pay and leave linked to reproduction are two relevant examples, although these advances have been confronted more recently by frailties in federal gender pay equity regulation and policy shifts to enterprise and individual bargaining. The findings suggest an agenda for Fair Work Australia, notwithstanding the possibilities and limitations posed by the Fair Work Act 2009 and the tendency for changes to the gender contract to be highly contested.

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Fudge, Elizabeth. "When I'm 64' Public Policy Influences on Wellbeing in Retirement." Australian Journal of Primary Health 3, no. 3 (1997): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/py97020.

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Findings from a qualitative study of recently retired non-professional men in the southern metropolitan area of Adelaide, South Australia, highlighted policies that contributed to the men's feelings of increased autonomy and acceptance of retirement as a life stage; factors they related strongly to their experience of wellbeing in retirement. The policies aimed for full employment, high levels of home ownership, financial security in retirement, centralised wage fixing, high minimum wages and optional retirement age. However, the discourse of economic rationalism of Australian governments since the late 1980s appears to be placing many of these policies in jeopardy. Health workers are in a prime position to review, report and act on the effects on the health of citizens of such major policy changes. This article challenges them to do so in collaboration with the communities with whom they work.

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BLACKBURN, KEVIN. "The Living Wage in Australia: A Secularization of Cathloic Ethics on Wages, 1891–1907." Journal of Religious History 20, no. 1 (June 1996): 93–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9809.1996.tb00694.x.

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Sheldon, Peter, and Louise Thornthwaite. "Employer and employer association matters in Australia in 2019." Journal of Industrial Relations 62, no. 3 (April 9, 2020): 403–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022185620908908.

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The May federal election appeared particularly important to employers’ views of their industrial relations’ interests. Employers and their associations had long steeled themselves against an unwelcome Labor victory, fearing Labor’s promises of substantial changes to industrial relations’ structures, processes and outcomes as well as taxation. Associations appeared busier than ever, representing employers through politics-related public relations, lobbying and media. With enterprise bargaining withering and most wages stagnant, Labor’s defeat encouraged associations and the re-elected government to engage in another, for-now stalled, attack on what remains of unions’ capacity to collectively protect employees. They have also focused on emergent (individual) employment law challenges for employers but have mainly deflected on widespread evidence of wage underpayment. While the political context again strongly favours employers and their associations, they face substantial challenges from rising media and public criticisms over employers’ widespread abuses of their social licence to operate.

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BIRCH, ELISA ROSE, and PAUL W. MILLER. "How Does Marriage Affect the Wages of Men in Australia?*." Economic Record 82, no. 257 (June 2006): 150–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4932.2006.00312.x.

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Agrawal, Nisha. "Sources of Inequality Between Male and Female Wages in Australia." Australian Economic Review 21, no. 4 (June 1988): 26–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8462.1988.tb00565.x.

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Pocock, Barbara. "All Change, Still Gendered : the Australian Labour Market in the 1990s." Journal of Industrial Relations 40, no. 4 (December 1998): 580–604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/002218569804000405.

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The gendered character of the Australian labour market is rarely the subject of direct research and policy making in Australia at present. Conservative govern ments uncritically endorse the globalising and so-called deregulation of the labour market, suggesting that it offers a boon for women. This paper reviews aspects of women's current labour market experience by referring to characteristics that range across the boundaries of home and waged work and suggest continuing interdependencies between the spheres. These include work patterns; sex segregation; wages, conditions and bargaining; quality of working life and 'family-friendliness' in the workplace. The article summarises current literature and offers some new analysis and data. There are few signs that women's employment status is improving relative to men's, and instead some indicators suggest an increasing divide in tbe labour markets—both between the sexes and between women. The analysis is relevant to theory, policy and the practical business of combining paid work and home life.

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