Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Volumetric water content'

Volumetric water content evaluation in structures, substructures, soils, and subsurface in general is a crucial issue in a wide range of applications. The main weakness of subsurface moisture sensing techniques is usually related both to the lack of cost-effectiveness of measurements, and to unsuitable support scales with respect to the extension of the surface to be investigated. In this regard, Wireless Underground Sensor Network are increasingly used non-destructive tool specifically suited for characterization and measurement. It is undeniable that wireless communication technology has become a very important component of modern society. One aspect of modern society in which application of wireless communication technologies has tremendous potential is in agricultural production. This is especially true in sensing and transmission of relevant farming information such as weather, crop development, water quantity and quality, among others, which would allow farmers to make more accurate and timely farming decisions. Although many systems are commercially available for soil moisture monitoring, there are still many important factors, such as cost, limiting widespread adoption of this technology among growers. Our objective in this study was, therefore, to develop and test an affordable wireless communication system for monitoring soil moisture. WUSN is a specialized kind of WSN that mainly focuses on the use of sensors at the subsurface region of the soil, that is, the top few meters of the soil. This thesis emphasizes on comparison of experimental measurements conducted with wireless devices based on LoRa using point to point communication to the advanced channel models (precisely on single-path channel model) that were developed to characterize the underground wireless channel considering the characteristics of the propagation of EM waves in soil and their relationship with the frequency of these waves, the soil composition, and the soil moisture.

Thesis: M. Eng., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2018.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (page 73).
The work described in this thesis is aimed at exploring the use of single-board computers, specifically the Raspberry Pi platform, to measure volumetric water content of soils or other porous media. We first investigated the different methods to condition and measure signal frequencies. Subsequently, we designed and fabricated a Hardware Attached on Top frequency counter add-on board for the Raspberry Pi based on the reciprocal frequency counting method, and found that this accurately and precisely measures frequency signals from water content reflectometers. We then built a dormant deploy-and-forget sensor system around this hardware. The system will be used at our research field site in Brunei Darussalam to measure volumetric water content of peat. Further work focuses on improvements to the encapsulation of the electronic hardware, and designing a multiplexer-controlled relay board to acquire signals from multiple reflectometers simultaneously.
by Mohamad Idaly Bin Ali.
M. Eng.

Dielectric constant is a physical property of soil that is often measured using non-invasive geophysical techniques in subsurface characterization studies. A proper understanding of dielectric responses allows investigators to make measurements that might otherwise require more invasive and/or destructive methods. Previous studies have suggested that dielectric models could be refined by accounting for the contributions of different types of mineral constituents that affect the ratio and properties of bound and bulk water. This study tested the hypothesis that the dielectric responses of porous materials are mineral-specific through differences in surface area and chemistry. An experimental design was developed to test the dielectric behavior of pure quartz sand (Control), quartz sand/kaolin clay mixtures and ferric oxyhydroxide coated quartz sand. Results from the experiments show that the dielectric responses of quartz-clay and iron oxyhydroxide modified samples are not significantly different from the pure quartz Control. Increasing clay content in quartz sands leads to a vertical displacement between fitted polynomials. The results suggest that the classic interpretation for the curvature of dielectric responses appears to be incorrect. The curvature of dielectric responses at low water contents appears to be controlled by unknown parameters other than bound water. A re-examination of the experimental procedure proposed in this study and past studies shows that a properly designed study of bound water effects on dielectric responses has not yet been conduct
Master of Science

A method for determining the dependence of the dielectric permittivity of municipal refuse on its volumetric water content is developed and tested to monitor water contents throughout a municipal landfill. The method is based on time domain transmission (TDT) measurements collected with an automated network analyzer (ANA). Measurements in reference liquids, dry sand and spatially variably saturated sand were first made to test the method's ability to measure the apparent dielectric permittivity. The method was then extended to refuse samples collected from a closed 40 year old municipal landfill to determine whether a single calibration can be used to describe the relationship between the dielectric permittivity and the volumetric water content of refuse. The results show that the relationship between the dielectric permittivity and the volumetric water content within the refuse is highly site specific. The results do show, however, that a common calibration based on multiple samples collected throughout the landfill can be used to measure the volumetric water content with a root mean square volumetric water content measurement error ofless than 0.04 cm3 cm-3. It is recommended that such a calibration relationship be constructed from samples collected throughout a site before a dielectric permittivity method is selected to monitor water content at a municipal landfill.

Water availability and arable lands are increasingly limiting resources in many parts of the U.S., particularly in semi-arid and arid regions. As a means of addressing food and fuel demands associated with burgeoning population growth, highly productive and water-use efficient crops need to be identified. One potential crop, Agave, merits consideration and evaluation due to its putative capability to provide sustenance and energy despite growing in water-limited regions and on marginal soils. However, little is known regarding the productivity these succulent plants will have under growing conditions of the Southwest, where high concentrated saline soils are abundant, and water is often limited. The objectives of these studies were to determine the effects of high levels of salinity and different volumetric water content levels (VWC) on plant growth, biomass accumulation, and nutrient uptake. I used a hydroponic study to compare the effects of four salinity treatments (0.5, 3, 6, and 9 dS m-1) on productivity of four Agave species (Agave parryi, Agave utahensis ssp. kaibabensis, Agave utahensis ssp. utahensis, and Agave weberi). In a second study, an automated irrigation system was established to examine four pre-determined VWC threshold set-points and simulated a gradient of well-watered to drought conditions, to evaluate how A. weberi would respond to varying levels of water availability. Salinity concentrations did not significantly affect root and plant dry weight accumulation in A. weberi, but all other agave plants experienced less biomass accumulation under high saline conditions (>6 dS m-1). Seedlings of A. utahensis were two times more likely to die in the two highest saline treatments (6 and 9 dS m-1) than the two lower treatments (0.5 dS m-1 and 3 dS m-1). Calcium, Mg, S, Mn levels decreased in both A. parryi and A. weberi at higher salinity levels. Agave weberi was able to tolerate salinity, but it also experienced lower biomass production ≤3 dS m-1. In the water-stress study, Agave weberi plants experienced a decrease of 2.11 g as compared to plants in the highest treatment. Plants in the intermediate VWC treatments had similar dry mass values as those in the highest treatment, which suggests that this species could have moderately high yields under limited water conditions, and consequently should be evaluated as a potential bioenergy crop for semi-arid regions, such as the U.S. Southwest. Agave shows considerable potential to be grown in arid and semi-arid regions that are moderately high in salinity and have limited water availability. Indeed, the cultivation of Agave as a crop appears to be a viable option for many areas of the Southwest. While some of the Agave species evaluated were quite productive under moderate salt and water stress, it is uncertain if growth will be significantly reduced if under these stress conditions for periods longer than 3 months.

The need for water conservation continues to increase as global freshwater resources dwindle. In response, many golf course superintendents are implementing new methods and tools to become more frugal with their water applications. For example, scheduling irrigation using time-domain reflectometer (TDR) soil moisture sensors can decrease water usage. Still, TDR measurements are time-consuming and only cover small scales, leading to many locations being unsampled. Remotely sensed data such as the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) offer the potential of estimating moisture stress across larger scales; however, NDVI measurements are influenced by numerous stressors beyond moisture availability, thus limiting its reliability for irrigation decisions. An alternative vegetation index, the water band index (WBI), is primarily influenced by water absorption within a narrow spectral range of near-infrared light. Previous research has established strong relationships between moisture stress of creeping bentgrass (CBG) grown on sand-based root zones, a typical scenario for golf course putting greens. However, this relationship characterizes only a small portion of total acreage across golf courses, which limits widespread adoption. In our research, �007� CBG and �Latitude 36� hybrid bermudagrass (HBG) were grown on three soil textures, USGA 90:10 sand (S), sand loam (SL) and clay (C), arranged in a 2 x 3 factorial design, randomized within six individual dry-down cycles serving as replications. Canopy reflectance and volumetric water content (VWC) data were collected hourly between 0700 and 1900 hr using a hyperspectral radiometer and an embedded soil moisture sensor, until complete turf necrosis. The WBI had the strongest relationship to VWC (r = 0.62) and visual estimations of wilt (r = -0.91) compared to the green-to-red ratio index (GRI) or NDVI. Parameters associated with non-linear regression were analyzed to compare grasses, soils, indices, and their interactions. The WBI and GRI compared favorably with each other and indicated significant moisture stress approximately 28 hr earlier than NDVI (P = 0.0010). WBI and GRI respectively predicted moisture stress 12 to 9 hr before visual estimation of 50% wilt, whereas NDVI provided 2 hr of prediction time (P = 0.0317). When considering the time to significant moisture stress, the HBG lasted 28 hr longer than CBG, while S lasted 42 hr longer than either SL and C (P �� 0.0011). Nonlinear regression analysis showed that WBI and GRI can be useful for predicting moisture stress of CBG and HBG grown on three diverse soils in a highly controlled environment. Our results provide substantial evidence and direction for future research investigating how WBI and GRI can expedite moisture stress assessment and prediction on a large-acreage basis.
Master of Science in Life Sciences
Managed turfgrasses provide several benefits including filtering pollutants, cooling their surroundings, generating oxygen, preventing erosion, serving as recreational surfaces, and increasing landscape aesthetics. Intensively managed turfgrass systems, such as on golf courses and sports fields, require more inputs to maintain acceptable conditions. Freshwater use is often excessive on intensively managed turfgrasses to maintain proper plant growth. Drought conditions often limit water availability, especially in regions with limited rainfall. Turf managers tend to over-apply water across large acreage when few localized areas begin to show symptoms of drought. Additionally, turf managers sometimes wrongly identify stressed areas from other factors as ones being moisture-deprived. Advancements such as the use of soil moisture meters have simplified irrigation decisions as an aid to visual inspections for drought stress. While this method enhances detection accuracy, it still provides no solution to increase efficiency. Expanding our current knowledge of turfgrass canopy light reflectance for rapid moisture stress identification can potentially save both time and water resources. The objective of this research was to enhance our ability to identify and predict moisture stress of creeping bentgrass (CBG) and hybrid bermudagrass (HBG) canopies integrated into varying soil textures (USGA 90:10 sand (S), sand loam (SL) and Clay (C)) using light reflectance measurements. Dry-down cycles were conducted under greenhouses conditions collecting soil moisture and light reflectance data every hour from 7 am to 7 pm after saturating and withholding water from established plugs. Moisture stress was most accurately estimated over time using two vegetation indices, the water band index (WBI) and green-to-red ratio index (GRI), with approximately ninety percent accuracy to visible wilt stress. The WBI and GRI predicted moisture stress of CBG in all soil types and HBG in SL and C approximately 14 hours before the grasses reached 50% wilt. While light reflectance varies on exposed soils, our research shows that underlying soils do not interfere with measurements across typical turfgrass stands. This research provides a foundation for future research implementing rapid, aerial measurements of moisture stressed turfgrasses on a broad application of CBG and HBG on constructed or native soils.

O interesse pela quantificação da biomassa florestal vem crescendo muito nos últimos anos, sendo este crescimento relacionado diretamente ao potencial que as florestas tem em acumular carbono atmosférico na sua biomassa. A biomassa florestal pode ser acessada diretamente, por meio de inventário, ou através de modelos empíricos de predição. A construção de modelos de predição de biomassa envolve a mensuração das variáveis e o ajuste e seleção de modelos estatísticos. A partir de uma amostra destrutiva de de 200 indivíduos de dez essências florestais distintas advindos da região de Linhares, ES., foram construídos modelos de predição empíricos de biomassa aérea visando futuro uso em projetos de reflorestamento. O processo de construção dos modelos consistiu de uma análise das técnicas de obtenção dos dados e de ajuste dos modelos, bem como de uma análise dos processos de seleção destes a partir do critério de Informação de Akaike (AIC). No processo de obtenção dos dados foram testadas a técnica volumétrica e a técnica gravimétrica, a partir da coleta de cinco discos de madeira por árvore, em posições distintas no lenho. Na técnica gravimétrica, estudou-se diferentes técnicas de composição do teor de umidade dos discos para determinação da biomassa, concluindo-se como a melhor a que utiliza a média aritmética dos discos da base, meio e topo. Na técnica volumétrica, estudou-se diferentes técnicas de composição da densidade do tronco com base nas densidades básicas dos discos, concluindo-se que em termos de densidade do tronco, a média aritmética das densidades básicas dos cinco discos se mostrou como melhor técnica. Entretanto, quando se multiplica a densidade do tronco pelo volume deste para obtenção da biomassa, a utilização da densidade básica do disco do meio se mostrou superior a todas as técnicas. A utilização de uma densidade básica média da espécie para determinação da biomassa, via técnica volumétrica, se apresentou como uma abordagem inferior a qualquer técnica que utiliza informação da densidade do tronco das árvores individualmente. Por fim, sete modelos de predição de biomassa aérea de árvores considerando seus diferentes compartimentos foram ajustados, a partir das funções de Spurr e Schumacher-Hall, com e sem a inclusão da altura como variável preditora. Destes modelos, quatro eram gaussianos e três eram lognormais. Estes mesmos sete modelos foram ajustados incluindo a medida de penetração como variável preditora, totalizando quatorze modelos testados. O modelo de Schumacher-Hall se mostrou, de maneira geral, superior ao modelo de Spurr. A altura só se mostrou efetiva na explicação da biomassa das árvores quando em conjunto com a medida de penetração. Os modelos selecionados foram do grupo que incluíram a medida de penetração no lenho como variável preditora e , exceto o modelo de predição da biomassa de folhas, todos se mostraram adequados para aplicação na predição da biomassa aérea em áreas de reflorestamento.
Forest biomass measurement implies a destructive procedure, thus forest inventories and biomass surveys apply indirect procedure for the determination of biomass of the different components of the forest (wood, branches, leaves, roots, etc.). The usual approch consists in taking a destructive sample for the measurment of trees attributes and an empirical relationship is established between the biomass and other attributes that can be directly measured on standing trees, e.g., stem diameter and tree height. The biomass determination of felled trees can be achived by two techniques: the gravimetric technique, that weights the components in the field and take a sample for the determination of water content in the laboratory; and the volumetric technique, that determines the volume of the component in the field and take a sample for the determination of the wood specific gravity (wood basic density) in the laboratory. The gravimetric technique applies to all components of the trees, while the volumetric technique is usually restricted to the stem and large branches. In this study, these two techniques are studied in a sample fo 200 trees of 10 different species from the region of Linhares, ES. In each tree, 5 cross-sections of the stem were taken to investigate the best procedure for the determination of water content in gravimetric technique and for determination of the wood specific gravity in the volumetric technique. Also, Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was used to compare different statistical models for the prediction o tree biomass. For the stem water content determination, the best procedure as the aritmetic mean of the water content from the cross-sections in the base, middle and top of the stem. In the determination of wood specific gravity, the best procedure was the aritmetic mean of all five cross-sections discs of the stem, however, for the determination of the biomass, i.e., the product of stem volume and wood specific gravity, the best procedure was the use of the middle stem cross-section disc wood specific gravity. The use of an average wood specific gravity by species showed worse results than any procedure that used information of wood specific gravity at individual tree level. Seven models, as variations of Spurr and Schumacher-Hall volume equation models, were tested for the different tree components: wood (stem and large branches), little branches, leaves and total biomass. In general, Schumacher-Hall models were better than Spurr based models, and models that included only diameter (DBH) information performed better than models with diameter and height measurements. When a measure of penetration in the wood, as a surrogate of wood density, was added to the models, the models with the three variables: diameter, height and penetration, became the best models.

The diploma thesis deals with measuring of infiltration by MiniDisk method and its evaluation, but also with analysis of intact and grab soil sample, by means of which it is possible to assess the soil quality. The measurements took place on 30.4.2019, 4.5.2019, 12.5.2019, 2.6.2019, 30.6.2019, 2.7.2019, 31.8.2019 and 21.9.2019 on grassland near the town of Luhačovice. Grab and intact soil samples were taken from the upper soil layer and processed in a pedological laboratory. The Zhang method was used to evaluate the infiltration results. The results of soil analyzes and infiltration were processed numerically, plotted and subsequently described and compared.

Land application of wastes has become increasingly popular, to promote nutrient recycling and environmental protection, with soil functioning as a partial barrier between wastes and groundwater. Dairy shed effluent (DSE), may contain a wide variety of pathogenic micro-organisms, including bacteria (e.g. Salmonella paratyphyi, Escherichia coli. and Campylobacter), protozoa and viruses. Groundwater pathogen contamination resulting from land-applied DSE is drawing more attention with the intensified development of the dairy farm industry in New Zealand. The purpose of this research was to investigate the fate and transport of bacterial indicator-faecal coliform (FC) from land-applied DSE under different irrigation practices via field lysimeter studies, using two water irrigation methods (flood and sprinkler) with contrasting application rates, through the 2005-2006 irrigation season. It was aimed at better understanding, quantifying and modelling of the processes that govern the removal of microbes in intact soil columns, bridging the gap between previous theoretical research and general farm practices, specifically for Templeton soil. This study involved different approaches (leaching experiments, infiltrometer measurements and a dye infiltration study) to understand the processes of transient water flow and bacterial transport; and to extrapolate the relationships between bacterial transport and soil properties (like soil structure, texture), and soil physical status (soil water potential ψ and volumetric water content θ). Factors controlling FC transport are discussed. A contaminant transport model, HYDRUS-1D, was applied to simulate microbial transport through soil on the basis of measured datasets. This study was carried out at Lincoln University’s Centre for Soil and Environmental Quality (CSEQ) lysimeter site. Six lysimeters were employed in two trials. Each trial involved application of DSE, followed by a water irrigation sequence applied in a flux-controlled method. The soil columns were taken from the site of the new Lincoln University Dairy Farm, Lincoln, Canterbury. The soil type is Templeton fine sandy loam (Udic-Ustochrept, coarse loamy, mixed, mesic). Vertical profiles (at four depths) of θ and ψ were measured during leaching experiments. The leaching experiments directly measured concentrations of chemical tracer (Br⁻ or Cl⁻) and FC in drainage. Results showed that bacteria could readily penetrate through 700 mm deep soil columns, when facilitated by water flow. In the first (summer) trial, FC in leachate as high as 1.4×10⁶ cfu 100 mL⁻¹ (similar to the DSE concentration), was detected in one lysimeter that had a higher clay content in the topsoil, immediately after DSE application, and before any water irrigation. This indicates that DSE flowed through preferential flow paths without significant treatment or reduction in concentrations. The highest post-irrigation concentration was 3.4×10³ cfu 100 mL⁻¹ under flood irrigation. Flood irrigation resulted in more bacteria and Br⁻ leaching than spray irrigation. In both trials (summer and autumn) results showed significant differences between irrigation treatments in lysimeters sharing similar drainage class (moderate or moderately rapid). Leaching bacterial concentration was positively correlated with both θ and ψ, and sometimes drainage rate. Greater bacterial leaching was found in the one lysimeter with rapid whole-column effective hydraulic conductivity, Keff, for both flood and spray treatments. Occasionally, the effect of Keff on water movement and bacterial transport overrode the effect of irrigation. The ‘seasonal condition’ of the soil (including variation in initial water content) also influenced bacterial leaching, with less risk of leaching in autumn than in summer. A tension infiltrometer experiment measured hydraulic conductivity of the lysimeters at zero and 40 mm suction. The results showed in most cases a significant correlation between the proportion of bacteria leached and the flow contribution of the macropores. The higher the Ksat, the greater the amount of drainage and bacterial leaching obtained. This research also found that this technique may exclude the activity of some continuous macropores (e.g., cracks) due to the difference of initial wetness which could substantially change the conductivity and result in more serious bacterial leaching in this Templeton soil. A dye infiltration study showed there was great variability in water flow patterns, and most of the flow reaching deeper than 50 cm resulted from macropores, mainly visible cracks. The transient water flow and transport of tracer (Br⁻) and FC were modelled using the HYDRUS-1D software package. The uniform flow van Genuchten model, and the dual-porosity model were used for water flow and the mobile-immobile (MIM) model was used for tracer and FC transport. The hydraulic and solute parameters were optimized during simulation, on the basis of measured datasets from the leaching experiments. There was evidence supporting the presence of macropores, based on the water flow in the post-DSE application stage. The optimised saturated water content (θs) decreased during the post-application process, which could be explained in terms of macropore flow enhanced by irrigation. Moreover, bacterial simulation showed discrepancies in all cases of uniform flow simulations at the very initial stage, indicating that non-equilibrium processes were dominant during those short periods, and suggesting that there were strong dynamic processes involving structure change and subsequently flow paths. It is recommended that management strategies to reduce FC contamination following application of DSE in these soils must aim to decrease preferential flow by adjusting irrigation schemes. Attention needs to be given to a) decreasing irrigation rates at the beginning of each irrigation; b) increasing the number of irrigations, by reducing at the same time the amount of water applied and the irrigation rate at each irrigation; c) applying spray irrigation rather than flood irrigation.

L'augmentation de la décomposition de la matière organique des cryosols arctiques sous l'effet du réchauffement et de la dégradation du pergélisol contribuerait à une rétroaction positive sur les changements climatiques. Nous étudions le fonctionnement biogéochimique de deux Cryosols: un cryosol histique (H) et un cryosol turbique (T), en conditions naturelles et réchauffés. Les profils ont été instrumentés à Salluit (Nunavik, Canada) et les mesures ont été faites pendant les étés 2010 et 2011. Le réchauffement augmente la respiration de l'écosystème (ER) de manière plus intense pour H que pour T, bien que ER pour H soit plus faible. La sensibilité thermique de ER (Q10) est supérieure pour T que pour H et diminue avec le réchauffement. L'étude montre que les cycles journaliers de ER en fonction de la temperature forment des hystérésis. La variance de ER est mieux expliquée en utilisant la température minimale de la journée et la profondeur du front de dégel pour H. Pour T, l'ajout de la vitesse du vent et la radiation solaire améliore l'explication de la variance de ER. Nous montrons trois dynamiques spécifiques aux écosystèmes nordiques: 1) ER dépendant des propriétés du sol et de la solution du sol ; 2) rôle de variables thermo-indépendantes sur ER et 3) variations journalières du Q10 et interannuelles de la respiration basale. La décomposition de la matière organique est la principale source de CO2 pour H alors que les processus végétaux contrôlent ER pour T. Nos résultats contribuent à la compréhension et à l'extrapolation des mesures ponctuelles dans les écosystèmes de toundra, améliorant ainsi la modélisation du cycle du carbone dans les cryosols
Increased organic mater decomposition rate in Arctic Cryosols due to warming and to permafrost thawing can lead to the release of greenhouse gases, thus potentially creating a positive feedback on climate change. We studied the biogeochemical functioning of two different permafrost-affected soils (i.e. Cryosols): a Histic Cryosol (H) and a Turbic Cryosol (T), both in natural conditions and under an experimental warming. Profiles were instrumented in Salluit (Nunavik, Canada) and monitored during summers 2010 and 2011. The induced warming increased CO2 fluxes in both soils; this impact was however more striking at H even if ER was lower than at T. Temperature sensitivity of ER (Q10) was higher at T than at H and decreased both with warming. We highlighted that diurnal ER cycles as a function of temperature showed hysteretic loops. Linear models performed to explain ER variance were improved adding daily minimum temperature and thaw front depth at H. In contrast at T, adding wind speed and solar radiation in models improved the ER variance explanation. We showed three specific CO2 flux dynamics related to northern ecosystems: 1) the large difference of ER depending on soil properties and soil solution composition; 2) environmental variables strongly alter CO2 fluxes and 3) the diurnal Q10 variations and the inter annual variability of basal respiration. Our results support the assumption that organic matter decomposition might be the major source of CO2 at H while plant-derived processes dominated ER at T. Our results contribute to understand and extrapolate the numerous punctual measurements of CO2 fluxes from tundra ecosystems improving carbon cycle modeling in Cryosols

The influence of several hardwoods and softwoods pulp fibre on the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets was investigated. The effect of properties such as density, grammage, Fractional Contact Area (FCA), Water Retention Value (WRV), fines content and fibre morphology were also investigated on the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets. Further, the influence of Lyocell fibre and glycerol on the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets is reported. Experimental results showed that in general the free shrinkage of hardwood pulps is a few percent higher than that of softwood pulps at the same density. It was found that although free shrinkage increases with fines content, a high fines content does not imply high shrinkage, and some pulp samples with higher amount of fines, exhibited lower free shrinkage. For all pulps at low densities there is little influence of grammage on free shrinkage, though as density increases a significant dependence is observed. The results showed that the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets formed from hardwood pulps is more sensitive to grammage compared to that of softwood pulps. Interestingly, it was shown that some pulp samples with the same intrinsic density, WRV and FCA exhibited different free shrinkage over the range of grammages. In addition, some pulp samples with stiffer fibres but higher amount of fines exhibited higher free shrinkage. Experimental results showed that longitudinal shrinkage of a fibre is an important parameter and pulp samples with higher microfibril angle (MFA) exhibited higher longitudinal shrinkage. Finally, the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets was reduced by applying Lyocell fibre and glycerol. Interestingly, by adding a small amount of Lyocell fibre, 2%, an increase in tensile index, tensile energy absorption (TEA) and modulus is observed, while the free shrinkage reduced up to 2%. In addition, adding glycerol to the pulp samples not only reduced the free shrinkage of isotropic paper sheets up to 1.5%, but also mechanical properties, such as tensile index and stretch slightly improved.

Diploma thesis evaluates quality and healthiness of the soil health located close to Bohate Malkovice focusing on changes in both physical and chemical characteristics of the soil in time. The theoretical part describes physical, chemical, and biological parameters of the soil. Selected physical parameters are structure, texture, determination of measured weight, bulk density of the soil, porosity, actual volumetric water content of the soil, aeration, saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, infiltration, and colour. Chosen chemical parameters are pH, carbonates, soil electrical conductivity, and humus content. Picked biological parameters are microbial biomass, respiration, nitrogen content, and weed infestation. The practical part analyses selected indicators of quality of the soil from the location of the experiment close to Bohate Malkovice. The area under evaluation has been treated using reduced tillage for long term. The practical part is based on the laboratory examination of disturbed and undisturbed soil samples taken between years 2016 and 2018. Based on outcome results we can evaluate the quality of the soil considering plants growth, development, and soil fertility.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
生物環境系統工程學研究所
96
The purpose of this study is to discuss the influences of the soil water content on earthworm movements. Three situations including earthworm movement in the soil with dry surface, and the movement of either healthy or sick earthworms in the soil during rainfall via numerical simulations were studied. This study was based upon two assumptions. First, the earthworms inhabit in the homogenous soil. Second, The earthworms go towards the soil with higher growth curve. Here, an 1-D earthworm movement-water content governing equation (EWE) was proposed to describe the relationship between earthworm movement and soil water content. The relationship between displacement of the earthworms and time, thus, was derived by integrating EWE with time. The simulation of the earthworm movement required with some experimental parameters, such as hydraulic conductivities, the theory maximum drilling velocity (TMDV) of the earthworm, etc. The simulation of earthworm movement was terminated once the earthworms reached the ground surface, since ultraviolet radiation can cause earthworms paralysis based upon the previous studies. The numerical simulation results match with the previous studies and show that (1) earthworms manage to move downwards to the soil as ground surface is drying, (2) earthworms tend to move to the surface under greater rainfall intensity, and (3) earthworms are more likely to move to the surface at rainfall while they are sick. All of the three conclusion match with the with former observations.

碩士
國立雲林科技大學
營建工程系
104
Recently, climate change in Taiwan has caused extreme weather conditions and resulted in many rainfall-induced slope failures. To predict the transient volumetric water content (VWC) in an unsaturated slope during rainfall, an optimization analysis method based on two dimensional finite element method and Levenberg-Marquart method was proposed. The proposed methodology was verified and proven to be applicable to simulate the transient VWC distributions. A series of inverse analyses on the measured transient volumetric water content of model slopes was performed. These analyses were specially focused on the effect of layout of volumetric measurements, the number of monitoring points, and the duration of monitoring time on the optimized soil parameters. Numerical results shows that for the case of using single monitoring point at shallow depth of slope, especially at the toe of slope, its optimized parameters were not as good as those of the cases using a deeper point. Besides, it was found that using multiple monitoring points with sufficient monitoring time can enhance the precision of inverse analysis.

This paper presents an innovative experimental approach for simultaneous measurements of the suction head, volumetric water content, and the acoustic admittance of unsaturated sands. Samples of unsaturated sands are tested under controlled laboratory conditions. Several types of uniform sand with a wide range of particle sizes are investigated. The reported experiments are based on a standard Buchner funnel setup and a standard acoustic impedance tube. It is a novel, nondestructive, and noninvasive technique that relates the key geotechnical parameters of sands such as volumetric water content, density, and grain-size distribution to the acoustic admittance and attenuation. The results show a very sensitive dependence of the acoustic admittance on the volumetric water content controlled by the value of suction head applied. Analysis of the obtained data demonstrates that the relationship between the volumetric water content and the real part of the surface admittance in the frequency range of 400–1,200 Hz can be represented using a logarithmic equation. It is found that the coefficients in the proposed equation are directly related to the uniformity coefficient and the acoustic admittance of the dry sample, which can easily be measured or predicted for a broad range of sands. A validation exercise is conducted to examine the accuracy of the proposed equation using a sand sample with markedly different properties. The results of the validation exercise demonstrate that the proposed relations can be used to determine very accurately the volumetric water content within the porous specimen from the acoustical data. The error in the acoustically measured volumetric water content is found to be ±2.0% over the full range of volumetric water contents ( 0≤θ≤n , where n is the sample porosity).

碩士
國立雲林科技大學
營建工程系碩士班
99
Recently, climate change in Taiwan has caused more extreme weather conditions and resulted in many rainfall-induced slope failures. To predict the transient volumetric water content (VWC) in an unsaturated slope during rainfall, an optimization analysis method based on two dimensional finite element method and Levenberg-Marquart method was proposed. The proposed methodology was verified and proven to be applicable to simulate the transient VWC distributions. A series of inverse analyses on the measured transient volumetric water content of two model slopes was performed. The effects of monitoring point location, the number of monitoring point, and the duration of monitoring time on the optimized soil parameters were presented. Among them, the location of monitoring point is the most crucial factor that may influence the results of inverse analyses. It is suggested that using the monitoring data from a sensor embedded in a shallow location can enhance the precision of inverse analysis.

碩士
國立臺北科技大學
土木工程系土木與防災碩士班
107
Taiwan has many hillsides and many slopes with steep slopes. When these unsaturated slopes are affected by rainfall, the infiltration of water leads to loss of matric suction, which causes the shear strength to decrease and, in turn, leads to the subsequent slope instability. In this study, numerical analysis is used to investigate the infiltration and the instability mechanism of unsaturated slopes affected by rainfall, Through the coupling of solid mechanics equation and the seepage governing equation together with the soil characteristics of the unsaturated soil and the hydrological characteristics of rainfall, stability of unsaturated soil slope is modeled. The safety factor is obtained by shear strength reduction method. The effects of different slope height, slope angle, groundwater level and elastic modulus on slope stability are also discussed. Finally, the critical volumetric water content and the potential sliding surface are obtained to inspect their possible correlation.

This paper describes how water content reflectometers (WCRs) were analyzed to develop a calibration equation. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) technique is the most prevalent method in in-situ moisture monitoring; and WCR is a type of low frequency TDR sensors, which is sensitive to soil type. Developing soil-specific calibration and investigating different environmental effects on WCR calibration is important. This study focused on investigation of the soil dry density and temperature effects on WCR calibration in RMA soil. Two series of tests to develop soil-specific calibration with dry density and temperature offset were conducted. Results from testing program showed that WCR response was positive related to volumetric water content, dry density, and temperature. Equations were developed to illustrate the response-density-temperature-moisture relation. Application to a field site was also presented to illustrate the difference in volumetric water contents obtained by using manufacturer method and the calibration procedure drawn in this paper.
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碩士
國立臺灣科技大學
營建工程系
103
ABSTRACT The majority of Taiwan’s hillsides belong to unsaturated soil slope. Seepage in these unsaturated slopes situated above groundwater level would easily lead to changes of hydrological characteristics (such as matric suction, etc.) when encountered rainfall, and then trigger subsequent slope stability problems. This study adopted a field case and used numerical analysis program SEEP/W and SLOPE/W module to conduct seepage simulation and stability analysis on unsaturated soil slopes under different rainfall scenarios. In addition to simulation and exploration of original alert modes (rainfall, groundwater level), this study also investigates changes of hydrological characteristics and stability in unsaturated soil slopes caused by rainfall infiltration, and then identify more accurate landslide disaster occurrence indicators also having a mechanical basis for potential application by related agencies in implementing disaster prevention and early warning measures. This study found that the slope stability analysis results of unsaturated soil slope would vary under same cumulative rainfall but different durations. Therefore, only cumulative rainfall was used as indicator parameter of whether landslide will occur or not, in terms of this case study, its accuracy still has room for improvement. And under different rainfall scenarios the changes of water level in slopes with thick colluvium or deep groundwater are not significant. The majority of damage types of unsaturated soil slope belong to shallow landslide, and slope failures mostly occur along the wetting front, while the generation of wetting front represents the dissipation of matric suction, as a result the shear strength of soil will also drop, and this is one of the important factors causing slope instability. The analytical results exhibit critical value characteristic of volumetric water content prior to slope failure induced by rainfall infiltration. In addition, this critical volumetric water content would not be influenced by rainfall conditions and positions in the slope. Therefore, using critical volumetric water content as a landslide disaster occurrence indicator should be a feasible direction and warrants further study.

碩士
國立臺灣大學
生物環境系統工程學研究所
107
Due to the impact of climate change and the rising frequency of extreme weather have caused the problem of food security and water resources. Precision agriculture in greenhouses is gradually becoming a trend because it is less affected by external environmental factors and easier to manage. In order to effectively improve the utilization of water resources and reduce wasting water, this study planted cherry tomatoes in the greenhouse and installed monitoring instruments to collect data. The soil temperature and volumetric water content during tomato growth can be predicted effectively by combining the weather forecast. The Hydrus-1D, random forest method and ICON were used to simulate the change of soil temperature and volumetric water content in the greenhouse. The results of the simulation show good performances among the three models. Further combined with weather forecast data, three models were applied to predict soil temperatures and volumetric moisture contents. Both of predicted soil temperature and volumetric water content by Hydrus-1D followed the trend of real measured data, but Hydrus-1D can’t predict the watering situation. The predicted performance of soil temperature by ICON was low. Nevertheless, both predictions by random forest method were better than others. This study simulated and predicted the soil temperatures and volumetric water contents by applying Hydrus-1D, random forest method and ICON to improve greenhouse management and increase water-use efficiency.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Non-rainfall waters such as fog and dew are considered as important source of water in drylands, and the knowledge of possible sources of its formation is very important to make future predictions. Prior studies have suggested the presence of radiation fog in drylands; however, its formation mechanism still remains unclear. There have been earlier studies on the effects of fog on soil moisture dynamics and groundwater recharge. On the contrary, no research has yet been conducted to understand the contribution of soil moisture and groundwater to fog formation. This study, therefore, for the first time intends to examine such possibility in a fog-dominated dryland ecosystem, the Namib Desert. The study was conducted at three sites representing two different land forms (sand dunes and gravel plains) in the Namib Desert. This thesis is divided into two parts: the first part examines evidences of fog formation through water vapor movement using field observations, and the second part simulates water vapor transport using HYDRUS-1D model. In the first part of the study, soil moisture, soil temperature and air temperature data were analyzed, and the relationships between these variables were taken as one of the key indicators for the linkage between soil water and fog formation. The analysis showed that increase in soil moisture generally corresponds to similar increase in air or soil temperature near the soil surface, which implied that variation in soil moisture might be the result of water vapor movement (evaporated soil moisture or groundwater) from lower depths to the soil surface. In the second part of the study, surface fluxes of water vapor were simulated using the HYDRUS-1D model to explore whether the available surface flux was sufficient to support fog formation. The actual surface flux and cumulative evaporation obtained from the model showed positive surface fluxes of water vapor. Based on the field observations and the HYDRUS-1D model results, it can be concluded that water vapor from soil layers and groundwater is transported through the vadose zone to the surface and this water vapor likely contributes to the formation of non-rainfall waters in fog-dominated drylands, like the Namib Desert.

[ES] La escasez de agua se está convirtiendo en un problema en zonas áridas y semiáridas del mundo, donde se localiza parte de la producción de los principales cultivos hortícolas, como en el área mediterránea. La sequía es uno de los principales factores limitantes en la agricultura y está afectando gravemente a la producción de cultivos hortícolas. La mejora de la productividad del agua en la agricultura puede lograrse mediante la utilización de determinadas estrategias. El riego deficitario consiste en el aporte de agua por debajo de las necesidades de riego (NR) de los cultivos, de manera que se produce una reducción de la evapotranspiración. Puede realizarse de manera continua o sostenida (RDS) o controlada (RDC). Con el riego deficitario se puede mejorar la eficiencia del uso del agua de riego, manteniendo el rendimiento, e incluso en ocasiones, podría mejorarse la calidad de la cosecha. En este estudio, realizado en el Centro Experimental Cajamar de Paiporta (Valencia) se evalúa el efecto del riego deficitario en cuatro de los principales cultivos hortícolas cultivados al aire libre, en el área mediterránea: coliflor, cebolla, pimiento y sandía. En la evaluación se ha analizado: crecimiento y estado hídrico de las plantas, rendimiento, eficiencia del uso del agua de riego, calidad de la producción y rentabilidad de los cultivos. En la primera campaña se ensayó el RDS, lo que permitió establecer las diferentes etapas de crecimiento de cada cultivo, que se utilizaron en las siguientes campañas en el RDC. En los cuatro cultivos, las plantas control (100% NR) han mostrado un adecuado estado hídrico, tanto en el contenido relativo de agua como en el índice de estabilidad de la membrana, mientras que las sometidas a un RDS severo, han mostrado los menores valores de ambos índices. El efecto negativo del riego deficitario sobre el rendimiento ha resultado menos importante en los cultivos de otoño-invierno que en los cultivos de primavera-verano, especialmente en la coliflor. El RDS del 50% NR ha reducido drásticamente el rendimiento comercial y, consecuentemente, los ingresos brutos, aunque haya supuesto una mejora en la eficiencia del uso del agua de riego para los cultivos de otoño-invierno. Del análisis individual de los cultivos se deduce que el rendimiento en pellas de coliflor obtenidas con RDS al 75% NR o RDC al 50% NR durante la fase juvenil, se ha mantenido en niveles similares al control, mejorando la eficiencia del uso del agua de riego. En cebolla, en caso de restricción hídrica severa, sería aconsejable aplicar RDS con el 75% NR o RDC al 50% NR durante la maduración del bulbo, ya que estas estrategias han disminuido ligeramente el rendimiento, mejorando la eficiencia del uso del agua de riego. En condiciones menos restrictivas, RDC al 75% NR durante la maduración del bulbo ha dado lugar a un rendimiento satisfactorio, con un aumento de la eficiencia del uso del agua de riego. En pimiento dulce italiano, la aplicación de RDC al 75% NR durante la recolección ha dado lugar a una reducción considerable del rendimiento, y por tanto, de los ingresos brutos, aunque con importantes ahorros de agua y con un incremento en el contenido de sólidos solubles y de compuestos fenólicos de los frutos. Acortando el ciclo de cultivo hasta principios de septiembre, cuando ya se ha cosechado la mayor parte del rendimiento comercial, se conseguiría un importante ahorro de agua y permitiría utilizar la parcela en otros cultivos. El RDS al 75% y al 50% NR, o RDC al 50% NR durante la cosecha han dado lugar a una alta incidencia de frutos afectados por blossom-end rot. En sandía puede recomendarse la aplicación de RDC, tanto al 75% como al 50% NR durante la maduración del fruto, ya que ha conducido a rendimientos comerciales aceptables. De manera general se puede afirmar que la aplicación de RDS y de RDC en los cuatro cultivos, no ha afectado de manera importante a la calidad de la producción,
[CAT] Resum L'escassesa d'aigua s'està convertint en un problema en zones àrides i semiàrides del món, on es localitza part de la producció dels principals cultius hortícoles, com és el cas de l'àrea mediterrània. La sequera és un dels principals factors limitants en l'agricultura i està afectant greument a la producció de cultius hortícoles. La millora de la productivitat de l'aigua en l'agricultura en general, i en l'horticultura en particular, es pot aconseguir mitjançant la utilització de determinades estratègies. El reg deficitari consisteix en l'aportació d'aigua per sota de les necessitats de reg (NR) dels cultius, de manera que es produeix una reducció de l'evapotranspiració. Es pot fer de manera contínua o sostinguda (RDS) o controlada (RDC). Amb el reg deficitari es pot millorar l'eficiència de l'ús de l'aigua de reg, mantenint el rendiment, i fins i tot de vegades, podria conduir a una millora de la qualitat de la collita. En aquest estudi, realitzat al Centre Experimental Cajamar de Paiporta (València, Espanya) s'avalua l'efecte del reg deficitari en quatre dels principals cultius hortícoles conreats a l'aire lliure, a l'àrea mediterrània: dos de cultiu de tardor-hivern (coliflor i ceba) i dues de cultiu primaveral-estival (pimentó i meló d'Alger). En l'avaluació s'han analitzat els següents paràmetres: creixement i estat hídric de les plantes, rendiment, eficiència de l'ús de l'aigua de reg, qualitat de la producció i rendibilitat dels cultius. A la primera campanya es va assajar el RDS, el que va permetre establir les diferents etapes de creixement de cada cultiu, que es van utilitzar en les següents campanyes en el RDC. En els quatre cultius, les plantes control (100% NR) han mostrat un adequat estat hídric, tant en el contingut relatiu d'aigua com en l'índex d'estabilitat de la membrana, mentre que les sotmeses a un RDS sever, han mostrat els menors valors d'ambdós índexs. L'efecte negatiu del reg deficitari sobre el rendiment ha resultat menys important en els cultius de tardor-hivern que en els cultius de primavera-estiu, especialment en la coliflor. El RDS del 50% NR ha reduït dràsticament el rendiment comercial i, conseqüentment, els ingressos bruts, encara que hagi suposat una millora en l'eficiència de l'ús de l'aigua de reg per als cultius de tardor-hivern. De l'anàlisi individual dels cultius es dedueix que el rendiment de coliflors obtingudes amb RDS al 75% NR o RDC al 50% NR durant la fase juvenil, s'ha mantingut en nivells similars al control, millorant l'eficiència de l'ús de l'aigua de reg. En ceba, en cas de restricció hídrica severa, seria aconsellable aplicar RDS amb el 75% NR o RDC al 50% NR durant la maduració del bulb, ja que aquestes estratègies han disminuït lleugerament el rendiment, millorant l'eficiència de l'ús de l'aigua de reg . En condicions menys restrictives, RDC al 75% NR durant la maduració del bulb ha donat lloc a un rendiment satisfactori, amb un augment de l'eficiència de l'ús de l'aigua de reg. En pimentó dolç italià, l'aplicació de RDC al 75% NR durant la recol·lecció ha donat lloc a una reducció considerable del rendiment, i per tant, dels ingressos bruts, encara que amb importants estalvis d'aigua i amb un increment en el contingut de sòlids solubles i de compostos fenòlics dels fruits. Retallant el cicle de cultiu fins a principis de setembre, quan ja s'ha collit la major part del rendiment comercial, s'aconseguiria un important estalvi d'aigua i permetria utilitzar la parcel·la en altres cultius. El RDS al 75% i al 50% NR, o RDC al 50% NR durant la collita han donat lloc a una alta incidència de fruits afectats per blossom-end rot. En meló d'Alger es pot recomanar l'aplicació de RDC, tant al 75% com al 50% NR durant la maduració del fruit, ja que ha conduït a rendiments comercials acceptables. De manera general es pot afirmar que l'aplicació de RDS i de RDC en els quatre cultius, no ha afectat de maner
[EN] Water scarcity is becoming a critical problem in arid and semi-arid areas of the world, where part of the production of the main horticultural crops is located, as is the case of the Mediterranean area. Drought is one of the main limiting factors in agriculture and it is seriously affecting the production of horticultural crops. The improvement of water productivity in agriculture in general, and in horticulture in particular, can be achieved through the use of certain strategies. Deficit irrigation consists of the supply of water below the irrigation water requirements (IWR), so that there is a reduction in evapotranspiration. It can be done continuously (CDI) or regulated (RDI). With deficit irrigation, the irrigation water use efficiency can be improved, maintaining yield, and it could even lead to an improvement in the quality of the harvest. This study, carried out at the Cajamar in Paiporta Experimental Center (Valencia, Spain), analyzes the effect of deficit irrigation on four of the main cultivated horticultural crops, open field cultivated in the Mediterranean area: two of autumnal-winter crops (cauliflower and onion) and two spring-summer crops (pepper and watermelon). In the evaluation, the following parameters have been analyzed: plant growth and water status, yield, irrigation water use efficiency, quality of production and crop profitability. In the first season the CDI was tested, which allowed to establish the different growth stages for each crop, which were used in the following season for the RDI. In the four crops, the control plants (100% IWR) have shown an adequate water status, in terms of both relative water content and membrane stability index, while those subjected to a severe CDI, have shown the lowest values of both indexes. The negative effect of deficit irrigation on yield has been less important in autumn-winter crops than in spring-summer crops, especially in cauliflower. The CDI at 50% IWR has drastically reduced the marketable yield and, consequently, the gross revenue, although it has supposed an improvement in the irrigation water use efficiency for the autumn-winter crops. From the individual analysis of the crops, it can be stated that cauliflower yield obtained with CDI at 75% IWR or RDI at 50% IWR during the juvenile phase, has remained at levels similar to the control, improving the irrigation water use efficiency. In relation to onion, in case of severe water restriction, it would be advisable to apply CDI with 75% IWR or RDI at 50% IWR during bulb ripening, since these strategies have slightly decreased yield, improving the irrigation water use efficiency. In less restrictive conditions, RDI at 75% IWR during the bulb maturation has led to a satisfactory yield, with an increase in the irrigation water use efficiency. In Italian sweet pepper, the application of RDI to 75% IWR during the harvesting has resulted in a considerable reduction of the yield, and therefore, of the gross income, although with important water savings and increasing the fruit soluble solids and phenolic compounds content. By shortening the cultivation cycle until the beginning of September, when most of the marketable yield has already been harvested, significant water savings would be achieved, and the land could be used in other crops. CDI at 75% IWR and 50% IWR, or RDI at 50% IWR at harvesting have resulted in a high incidence of fruit affected by blossom-end rot. In watermelon the RDI application can be recommended, both 75% and 50% IWR, during the fruit ripening, since it has led to acceptable marketable yields. In general terms, it can be affirmed that the application of CDI and RDI in the four crops has not significantly affected the product quality, in terms of the analyzed parameters.
My grateful thanks to the Cultural Affairs and Mission Sector, Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education for supporting me with a scholarship.
Abdelkhalik, AGA. (2019). Effect of continued and regulated deficit irrigation on the productivity of four vegetable crops in open-field conditions in the Mediterranean area [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/129868
TESIS

Moisture in a sandstone body plays a notable role in hydrological, weathering, biological and other processes. Knowledge about presence and movement of moisture within porous medium of natural sandstone exposures is, however, rather limited. Aim of the doctoral thesis was thus to quantify selected moisture characteristics of several natural sandstone exposures in Český ráj (Czech Republic). According to long-term logging, mean annual temperature at studied areas was between 8.5 řC to 11.5 řC, mean annual relative humidity was between 73 % to 85 %. Deforested area was found warmer and drier and amplitude of the values was higher there than at the forested areas. Values of water content (more than 400 measurements) and suction (more than 150 measurements) of the exposures including their spatial-temporal changes were obtained. Mean volumetric water content in zone from the sandstone's surface to 12 cm depth was from 3 % to 10 % and mean suction in depth 2-12 cm was from 2 kPa to more than 130 kPa. Using uranine powder coloring, spatial distribution of moisture near the sandstone's surface was visualized repeatedly for the first time. The coloring divided the surficial area of the sandstone into capillary (wet) and diffusion (dry) zone. The sharp transition between the two zones was represented by...