Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Vocabulary load'

The focus of this thesis was to develop vocabulary materials to supplement those already in use for emergent literate Burundian refugees preparing for the U.S. Citizenship Test. These learners study in conjunction with the International Rescue Committee in Salt Lake City, Utah, and with volunteer tutors who help them study. The flashcards and supporting activities were designed to better enable tutors to teach learners highly-dense vocabulary items, as well as to provide vocabulary scaffolding support for both learners and tutors and to increase depth of vocabulary knowledge with the target vocabulary. The U.S. Citizenship Test Vocabulary Flashcards and Vocabulary Support booklet were the products of a frequency-based vocabulary analysis to provide content-focused vocabulary instruction. This thesis details the steps and rationale of the process used to create these materials.

CITE/Language Arts
Ed.D.
This study investigates the Involvement Load Hypothesis proposed by Laufer and Hulstijn (2001). The involvement load hypothesis posits that vocabulary learning is determined by involvement load or mental effort. Involvement load has three components, need, search, and evaluation and each component is scored for three levels: index 2 for the strongest, index 1 for a moderate degree, and index 0 for none. Each participant learned six words with graphic organizers at the high involvement load (need index 1, search index 1, evaluation index 2, total index 4) and six at the low involvement load (need index 1, search index 1, and evaluation index 0, total index 2). Immediately and one week after completing the graphic organizer task, vocabulary knowledge was measured using three vocabulary tests that tested different levels of vocabulary knowledge: a translation test, a difficult multiple-choice test, and an easy multiple-choice test. Quantitative analyses of data from 291 university and college students in Japan were conducted, and audio-recordings from five pairs were analyzed to examine learning processes. Repeated measures MANOVA and ANOVAs revealed significant differences between the conditions of the two involvement loads in the translation test and the easy multiple-choice test, but not in the difficult multiple-choice test. The effects of Task and Time were statistically significant, but there was no interaction. There were significant differences between the immediate test and delayed test observed in the translation test and the easy multiple-choice test, but not with the difficult multiple-choice test. The current study supports the involvement load hypothesis, but caution is advised. Even though the high involvement load graphic organizers yielded more vocabulary retention than those with less involvement load in two out of the three vocabulary tests, the differences in mean scores were small and extensive differences were not observed in the participants' discussions. Additional statistical analysis indicated that the three vocabulary tests measured three levels of vocabulary knowledge. Determining the effectiveness of graphic organizers for vocabulary learning was only mildly successful as forcing greater involvement load proved to be challenging.
Temple University--Theses

The primary purpose of the present study is to compare the effectiveness of the jigsaw task and information gap tasks in understanding new words and retaining them. Sixteen pupils aged between eleven and twelve were involved in the study and divided into two groups. They were allocated either a jigsaw task or an information gap task. This study consists of a pre-test, immediate post-test, delayed post-test as well as a questionnaire. The pupils were required to carry out the chosen tasks, tested immediately and then one week later. The results of the questionnaire are also discussed in order to establish the pupils’ attitudes towards their allotted tasks.   The results revealed marginally higher scores in the immediate post-test for pupils performing the information gap task in terms of recognizing the meaning of words. However, this advantage disappeared when it came to the depth of vocabulary knowledge and word meaning retention. Pupils performing jigsaw task outperformed group B in productive vocabulary knowledge and their retention. The gain in vocabulary among pupils who performed the jigsaw task is most evident in the delayed post-test. This result is consistent with the pupils’ assertion that they enjoyed doing the jigsaw task more than the information gap task. To sum up, the jigsaw task best promotes pupils understanding of words and their retention.

Researchers and educators have always strived for creating appropriate instructional tools and resources that help students to acquire knowledge. Animated pedagogical agents (APAs) embedded within multimedia learning settings are one of the emerging technologies that provide a powerful and supportive learning environment. According to previous studies, APAs can effectively promote learning and support social interaction with learners (Johnson & Lester, 2016; Lane, 2016). However, APAs also may cause cognitive load without providing motivational benefits in some cases and distract learners during the learning process. In other words, the results of previous studies on APAs do not provide enough evidence to argue that APA may be able to decrease cognitive load, promote motivational effects, or facilitate meaningful learning. The lack of enough evidence in the research findings seems to be variable depending upon the APA’s features, the learners, and the difficulty of the learning materials (Schroeder & Adesope, 2014). By focusing on these factors, this study provided new considerations related to embedding an APA’s role that facilitates “Word Parts” for adult students who speak English as a Second Language (ESL) with concentrating on their cognition, motivation, and vocabulary acquisition. Presenting two APA’s roles (expert model and peer model) differently influenced ESL learners’ motivation, specifically their satisfaction feelings. In addition, ESL learners’ prior knowledge affected their intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, motivation, and vocabulary acquisition. The two different APA’s roles and their effects on ESL learners’ perceptions and learning outcomes serve as a media comparison research. Further, examining APA as a model to teach ESL students vocabulary acquisition skills serves a Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) research.

English has been taught as a core and compulsory subject in China for decades. Recently, the demand for English in China has increased dramatically. China now has the world’s largest English-learning population. The traditional English-teaching method cannot continue to be the only approach because it merely focuses on reading, grammar and translation, which cannot meet English learners and users’ needs (i.e., communicative competence and skills in speaking and writing). This study was conducted to investigate if the Picture-Word Inductive Model (PWIM), a new pedagogical method using pictures and inductive thinking, would benefit English learners in China in terms of potential higher output in speaking and writing. With the gauge of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), specifically, its redundancy effect, I investigated whether processing words and a picture concurrently would present a cognitive overload for English learners in China. I conducted a mixed methods research study. A quasi-experiment (pretest, intervention for seven weeks, and posttest) was conducted using 234 students in four groups in Lianyungang, China (58 fourth graders and 57 seventh graders as an experimental group with PWIM and 59 fourth graders and 60 seventh graders as a control group with the traditional method). No significant difference in the effects of PWIM was found on vocabulary acquisition based on grade levels. Observations, questionnaires with open-ended questions, and interviews were deployed to answer the three remaining research questions. A few students felt cognitively overloaded when they encountered too many writing samples, too many new words at one time, repeated words, mismatches between words and pictures, and so on. Many students listed and exemplified numerous strengths of PWIM, but a few mentioned weaknesses of PWIM. The students expressed the idea that PWIM had a positive effect on their English teaching. As integrated inferences, qualitative findings were used to explain the quantitative results that there were no significant differences of the effects of the PWIM between the experimental and control groups in both grade levels, from four contextual aspects: time constraints on PWIM implementation, teachers’ resistance, how to use PWIM and PWIM implemented in a classroom over 55 students.

The value of this research hinges on the idea that exchanging illustrations for descriptive text can provide appropriate schemas for students with reading difficulties and thereby improve their comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. The research in this dissertation is based on theories and earlier research in the fields of psychology, education, reading, and narratology. A review of these fields offers a variety of perspectives on the processes involved in reading and comprehension. These processes range from the physical systems involved in reading (e.g., early childhood development, eye movement) to the psychological systems, which include cognitive load theory as well as image and text processing models. This study compares two reading methods by analyzing students vocabulary and comprehension gains. Both groups read the same text and completed the same pre- and post-tests. The control group read the text from the book which was text only. The experimental group read from a modified text on the computer screen. The text was modified by replacing some sentences with images designed to transmit the same information (e.g., descriptions of the setting, vocabulary items) in a graphic format. The images were in-line with the text, and designed to be read as part of the story, not as additional illustrations. Final analysis shows that the experimental format performed as well as the control format for most students. However, students who have learning disabilities, particularly language learners who have learning disabilities, did not make gains in the text only control format. These same students did show statistically significant gains with the experimental format, particularly the section of reading where the vocabulary words were explicitly presented in the images. Disparate, non-homogenous groupings of students reflect the actual teaching and learning circumstances in the school, as required by the school system. This situation thus represents the actual status quo situation faced by teachers in our school. We leave it to future researchers to work with more homogenous groups of students in order to attain clearer, stronger and more plaintively useful results.
Ph.D.
Department of English
Arts and Humanities
Texts and Technology PhD

English is considered an important language in Malaysia and taught beginning at the preschool level. However, the Malaysian examination system does not require students to pass English for them to move up in grades or to enter public tertiary institutions. This has led to student apathy towards English as they could easily enter and graduate from public universities without needing to be proficient in English. Limited proficiency in English has been cited as one of the main reasons for the rising number of unemployed public university graduates -- a great many of whom are bumiputeras. The main objective of the study was to explore whether the ESL learners' knowledge of English loan words in Malay could be a useful resource in their acquisition of English vocabulary. The focus is primarily on academic vocabulary from the Academic Word List (AWL) and ESL learners in Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia. The study, implemented in two phases, employed the mixed methods methodology combining a lexical analysis of a specifically designed corpus (500,000 running words), language assessment, and survey research methods (questionnaire and semi-structured interview). Phase 1 covered the linguistic dimension of the research with a preliminary analysis of the Academic Word List and the construction of the corpus taken from semiacademic articles from a Malay print media. Phase 2, on the other hand, covered the cognitive-affective dimension of the research which involved a language attitude questionnaire, two vocabulary tasks, and a focus group interview. The test instruments were earlier piloted with 34 students and in the main study there were 101 participants (70 bumiputeras, 31 non-bumiputeras). The preliminary analysis revealed that English loan words in Malay comprised 40% of the most frequent word in the AWL. Results from the vocabulary tasks show that learners are familiar with the core meaning of the English word based on their knowledge of the word's loan form in Malay. This indicates that if teachers were to successfully use the loan words as a teaching aid, care should be taken to instruct learners in the meaning(s) and usage(s) of the English and its loan in Malay. The study also showed that students have a positive attitude towards English and the loan words in general.
Whole document restricted until March 2013, but available by request, use the feedback form to request access.

The specialised literature has suggested the intermediate position of television dialogue and subtitling along the continuum from spoken to written language (e.g. Díaz-Cintas 2003; Quaglio 2009; Forchini 2012). This dissertation adopts a corpus-driven methodology to tackle this issue from a descriptive, contrastive point of view. It reports on results of the analysis of the Corpus of Police Procedurals (CoPP), a corpus containing the transcribed dialogue (EN) and the DVD subtitling (ES) of fifteen episodes of three contemporary police procedurals, namely Dexter (Showtime, 2006), The Mentalist (Warner Bros, 2008), and Castle (ABC, 2009). A selection of syntactic and lexical features typically attributed to either poles of the continuum have been scrutinized from a quantitative and a qualitative approach. The statistical basis of the quantitative study allows identification of patterns of behaviour (i.e. norms) on the dialogue creators’ and the subtitlers’ part. Qualitative lexical analysis adapts the corpus pattern analysis (CPA) methodology proposed by Hanks (esp. 2004, 2013a), to date used for lexicographic purposes only, for the study of lexical exploitation, i.e. creativity, in this type of texts.
La bibliografía especializada ha sugerido la posición del diálogo televisivo y del subtitulado como géneros intermedios en el continuo oralidad-escritura (p. ej. Díaz-Cintas 2003, Quaglio 2009; Forchini 2012). Esta tesis adopta la metodología corpus-driven (‘dirigida por el corpus’) para abordar esta cuestión desde un punto de vista descriptivo y contrastivo, a partir del análisis del Corpus of Police Procedurals (CoPP), un corpus compilado para los propósitos de esta investigación que contiene, alineados, el diálogo (EN) y el subtitulado para DVD (ES) de quince capítulos de tres series de ficción policíaca procesal contemporáneas: Dexter (Showtime, 2006), El mentalista (Warner Bros, 2008) y Castle (ABC, 2009). Una selección de rasgos sintácticos y léxicos prototípicamente atribuidos a ambos polos del continuo han sido examinados tanto cuantitativa como cualitativamente. La base estadística de los análisis cuantitativos llevados a cabo revela patrones de comportamiento (normas) en los creadores del diálogo ficcional y en sus traductores. El análisis cualitativo del léxico adapta la metodología lexicográfica de análisis de patrones de corpus (CPA) propuesta por Hanks (esp. 2004, 2013a) para el estudio de la explotación léxica (creatividad) en este tipo de textos.

This study provides some evidence in support of the Involvement Load Hypothesis proposed by Laufer & Hulstijn (2001) which claims that tasks inducing high levels of need , search , and evaluation of meanings of unfamiliar words are most effective for vocabulary acquisition. Immediate and delayed retention of ten unfamiliar words taken from a short story reading text were investigated in learning conditions of varying "Involvement Loads". These were: low, glossary provided; moderate, multiple choice glossary; high, dictionary based sentence production; and control, reading only. Participants were 118 students from seven intact ESL college level classes at a Montréal area college. On an immediate retention test, there was a statistically significant difference between the means from both the multiple choice glossary task and dictionary based sentence production task and the control group. For delayed retention, there was a statistically significant difference only between the means from the multiple choice glossary task and the control group results. With a view to addressing unanswered questions in previous Involvement Load research regarding how learners undertake reading comprehension and vocabulary tasks, the present study included a qualitative aspect in which ten participants provided concurrent think aloud protocols whilst completing vocabulary reading tasks of moderate and high involvement loads. Think aloud protocols provided valuable insights into both search and evaluation strategies used in lexical intervention tasks; furthermore it was clear that metalinguistic knowledge of parts of speech and etymology were enabling strategies. The protocols also highlighted the relative weight of 'need' in calculations of task Involvement Load as participants indicated a clear preference for the structure and format of multiple choice glossary tasks

碩士
國立嘉義大學
外國語言學系研究所
99
This study aimed to investigate the effect of different degrees of task-induced involvement load on vocabulary learning. A total of 209 EFL college students who participated in this study were randomly assigned to one of the four reading tasks. The participants assigned to Task 1 read three reading texts and answered comprehension questions. The participants assigned to Task 2 read reading texts with boldfaced target words and answered comprehension questions. The participants assigned to Task 3 read reading texts with boldfaced target words and answered comprehension questions with L2 dictionary entries. The participants assigned to Task 4 read reading texts, filled in the blanks with words from dictionary entries, and answered comprehension questions. Two immediate posttests were used to assess the participants’ vocabulary recall and vocabulary recognition. The participants also finished a questionnaire which was designed to survey the Amount of Invested Mental Effort (AIME) allocated to tasks. Compared to participants in Task 1, Task 2, and Task 3, those in Task 4 showed significant gains in both vocabulary recall and vocabulary recognition, indicating that a higher level of involvement load seems to promote vocabulary learning. Also, the participants in Task 4 invested significantly more mental effort than those in Task 1, Task 2, and Task 3. To conclude, the present study suggests that tasks with a higher level of task-induced involvement load facilitate vocabulary recall and vocabulary recognition yet require more mental effort, therefore providing English teachers with a better understanding of how task-induced involvement load relates to students’ vocabulary learning outcomes.

碩士
國立雲林科技大學
應用外語系
105
This paper attempted to examine the effects of Involvement Load Hypothesis on students’ vocabulary retention. Thirty-four eighth-graders were recruited from a public junior high school in Yunlin County. Three vocabulary tasks include the gloss task, the fill-in task, and the writing task. Participants were randomly allocated to one of the three tasks. After the completion of the tasks, participants were administered the vocabulary tests. Those participants who were randomly selected were subsequently participated in a semi-structured interview. The result indicated that the task with higher involvement load contributed to more sustainable vocabulary retention than the task with lower involvement load. However, the vocabulary retention was prone to decay with the passage of time. As regards the participants’ perspectives on the tasks, those who were assigned to the task with higher involvement load responded more optimistically than those who were allocated to task with lower involvement load. The conclusion can be drawn that tasks with higher involvement load positively correlates with students’ vocabulary retentions.

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
英語學系
107
The aim of this study is to explore the efficacy of three distinct contextualized learning tasks, the reading-comprehension task, the gap fill-in task, and the picture-writing task, and reading proficiency on the incidental vocabulary acquisition and retention of junior high school students in Taiwan. The three learning tasks are formulated based on the Involvement Load Hypothesis, which assumes that the task with higher involvement load will facilitate more vocabulary learning. Based on this assumption, the incidental vocabulary acquisition from the picture-writing task is assumed to outperform than the gap fill-in task. The reading-comprehension task will elicit the least word learning among the three learning tasks. Seventy-two EFL ninth graders from three classes in a junior high school in central Taiwan participated in this study for two weeks. Prior to the experiment, a reading proficiency test to check students’ reading ability and a pretest to check students’ knowledge of 18 target words were administered. Based on the results of reading proficiency test, the participants were assigned to three task groups, each studied 18 words in three sessions via one of the three learning tasks respectively with the effect of session order and embedded text counterbalanced. In each session, 6 words were studied followed by an immediate posttest. Five days later, a delayed posttest was carried out. The results from ANOVA analysis on immediate posttest indicated that while reading proficiency reflected a significant effect, learning tasks did not, nor did interactive effect of learning task and reading proficiency. However, reading proficiency revealed a large effect size and learning task did reveal a moderate effect size. Descriptive statistics showed that PW Group, especially the subgroup of lower-proficiency readers, yielded a markedly higher mean score than the other two groups, who scored similarly. ANOVA on the delayed posttest showed the same pattern of significant test as on immediate posttest: significant effect of reading proficiency, insignificant effect of task and insignificant interactive effect between learning task and reading proficiency, and the effect size of task was minimal and reading proficiency was small. When mean scores were examined, it was found that the superiority of PW Group waned, especially for the lower-proficiency subgroup, which showed in immediate posttest an equivalent mean to those in the higher-proficiency level in the other two task groups but decreased to a level similar to those of lower proficiency readers in the other two tasks. The findings from this study had a pedagogical implication that contextualized learning tasks, be it receptive or productive, may all be conductive to promote incidental vocabulary acquisition. Although sentence production with story-picture cues, seemed to instigate more word acquisition at the completion of task, with one-round of exposure-production, the retention for whatever type of task may not hold. It is therefore suggested that further studies testing the effect of task involvement load should consider different weights of the essential component, evaluation, in the Involvement Load Hypothesis and other task variables, such as time spent on task, chances of retrieval, as well as the individual factors, such as learners’ reading proficiency and knowledge.

This study investigated the effects of output stimulus tasks and glosses on L2 incidental vocabulary learning. Two meta-analytic studies were conducted. The first was intended to provide a systematic statistical synthesis of the effects of output stimulus tasks on L2 incidental vocabulary learning. A total of 12 studies were included in this meta-analysis. Results showed that language learners gained more benefit from using output stimulus tasks to learn vocabulary than those who only read a text. Results also supported the involvement load hypothesis that language learners who perform a task with a higher extent of involvement load gain more L2 vocabulary. As opposed to studies with the low level of design quality, studies with high and medium levels of design quality were more likely to detect statistically significant differences among groups with different output stimulus tasks. Moreover, results suggested that time on task had a positive impact on L2 vocabulary learning. Learners who read a combination of expository and narrative texts outperformed those who only read either an expository or a narrative text in the vocabulary posttest. Learners who read a text with text-target word ratios of less than or equal to 2 percent did not learn significantly more vocabulary than those who read a text with a ratio of 2 percent to 5 percent. The second meta-analysis study used meta-analytic techniques to explore the effects of L1 textual and image-based glosses on second language (L2) incidental vocabulary learning while reading. Results revealed that language learners who were provided with textual glosses gained more vocabulary than those who had no access to glosses. Results suggested that text-target word ratios played an important role in second language vocabulary learning. Language learners who read a passage with a text-target word ratio of ≤2 percent outperformed those who read a passage with a text-target word ratio between 2 percent and 5 percent. No statistically significant difference was found between the groups that were provided with multiple-choice and single glosses. Compared to paper-and-pencil environments, computer-assisted settings did not significantly enhance L2 vocabulary learning. Language learners who read narrative reading materials did not significantly outperform those who were exposed to expository texts with regard to incidental vocabulary learning. No significant difference in L2 vocabulary learning was observed between groups who were given L1 textual glosses and those who had access to L1 textual image-based glosses.

碩士
國立清華大學
外國語文學系
91
ABSTRACT Learning foreign or second languages requires the acquisition of many thousands of words. Direct vocabulary instruction cannot account for the large amount of words that highly advanced ESL/EFL learners acquire. It is believed that the major way of acquiring vocabulary is through processing L2 information, a situation in which learners have no intention to commit the words appearing in the information to memory. This type of vocabulary learning is referred to as incidental vocabulary learning. Research on incidental vocabulary learning is of a large variety, and various factors conducive to effective incidental vocabulary learning have been found. Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) proposed Involvement Load Hypothesis (2001) to evaluate the factors, but there is only one empirical research on this hypothesis. Therefore, this study aimed to examine this hypothesis by investigating the effect of Involvement Load on English vocabulary acquisition in an incidental learning situation. Four tasks differing in their involvement load were designed and conducted. In terms of the involvement load, Task 4 was designed to induce the highest load, Task 3 the second highest, Task 2 the third highest, and Task 1 the lowest. The participants were given an unexpected vocabulary retention test upon completing the tasks, and were given another unexpected delayed posttest one week later. It was hypothesized that the vocabulary retention scores would be highest in Task 4, second highest in Task 3, third highest in Task 2, and lowest in Task 1. It was also hypothesized that consulting dictionary would have a better impact than reading glosses on vocabulary retention. Lastly, it was hypothesized that the text-based activity gap-filling would be beneficial to vocabulary learning. The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the results of the multiple-range Duncan test showed that on the immediate posttest in the first experiment Task 2 and Task 4 were the most effective tasks, Task 3 was the second best, and Task 1 was the least effective one. On the delayed posttest, Task 4 and Task 1 became the best tasks, Task 1 and Task 3 were the second best tasks, and Task 3 and Task 2 were the least effective tasks. On the immediate posttest of the second experiment, Task 4 and Task 1 were the best tasks, Task 1 and Task 3 were the second best tasks, and Task 2 was the least task. In the delayed posttest, Task 1 was the best task, whereas the remaining three tasks─Task 4, 3, and 2─were the second best ones. In sum, the first two hypotheses in this study were not supported. However, the third and fourth hypotheses were partially supported. The partial support for the third and the fourth hypotheses suggests that if there is only one exposure to words, there is no significant difference between consulting the dictionary and reading L1 glosses. Moreover, looking up words in the dictionary and also doing one extra text-based vocabulary activity are likely to result in better retention than reading L1 glosses and doing the same text-based vocabulary activity. The negative results of the research hypotheses raise questions about the validity of the Involvement Load Hypothesis. However, this study was restricted by several confounding variables, such as the design of the novel task (Task 4), time on each task, participants’ English level, the teacher factor, participants’ guessing behaviors, and participants’ exposure to L2. These confounding variables might have prevented the study from getting valid results. Future research should take them into account, and try to reduce their effects to a minimum. This study provides directions for modification of the Involvement Load Hypothesis. For future research on establishing theoretical constructs explaining the effectiveness of vocabulary-learning tasks, this study has provided preliminary suggestions and offered another empirical testing for the present theoretical construct.

博士
國立彰化師範大學
英語學系
102
Vocabulary learning has long been a focus area of research. Building on the conception of depth of processing and motivation, Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) proposed the Task Involvement Load Hypothesis which assumes that vocabulary learning and retention are dependent on a task’s involvement-induced load, which is determined by the constructs of the hypothesis: need, search, evaluation. A task which entails higher involvement load is claimed to be more effective than a task which induces lower involvement load. However, several empirical studies have found that tasks with higher involvement load do not lead to better vocabulary learning and retention as predicted by the hypothesis. Some researchers questioned whether the constructs of the hypothesis should be equally weighed. This study thus revisited the construct weights by exploring whether need, search, and evaluation alone, and their different combinations were equally effective for vocabulary learning and retention. Eight intact freshman English classes with a total of 252 intermediate learners were randomly assigned to complete search task, moderate need task, moderate evaluation task, strong need task, strong evaluation task, need plus search task, search plus evaluation task, or need plus evaluation task. The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) was administered to the groups as a pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest. MANCOVA was the statistical measure applied for the analysis of the data. The results exhibited search to be more effective than moderate need and moderate evaluation on both vocabulary learning and retention (p < .05). However, search became inferior when compared with strong need on immediate vocabulary learning (p < .05) although the effectiveness of search and strong need was not significantly different in terms of vocabulary retention. Strong need also brought about better effects than strong evaluation on both vocabulary learning and retention (p < .05). In addition, need plus evaluation and need plus search seemed to evoke superior effect than search plus evaluation (p < .05). The findings indicate that the weighing of the involvement constructs is not the same. Strong need and search alone tend to induce a more powerful effect than moderate need, moderate evaluation, strong evaluation, need plus search, search plus evaluation, and need plus evaluation. Strong need as well as search appear to weigh greater than the others for successful vocabulary learning and retention. As a result, the weighing of the Task Involvement Load constructs requires adjustment, and vocabulary task designers or instructors can incorporate search and/or strong need as the core element in vocabulary task design.

碩士
南臺科技大學
資訊工程系
104
When people learn English, the most commonly encountered problem is insufficient vocabulary. The amount of vocabulary a student knows will directly affect his English listening, speaking, reading and writing ability. If one can use the right method, the required time to recite English vocabulary can be shortened. The goal of this study aims to achieve maximum learning effectiveness by using brainwave signals to measure the attention and to find out the minimum cognitive load of the brain on reciting English vocabulary. From the experimental results, the brainwave signals of students appear to be in the relaxation condition. The reason might be that reciting English vocabulary does not need logic operation and solving difficult tasks. However, the readings of attention values are high. It indicates that students are also in attention condition when reciting English vocabulary. Through Neurosky brainwave, cognitive load and learning Performance as a research tool, discussion on the time and amount of English words in different conditions of English learning and memory, for learners attention, cognitive load and Performance differences affectal so further explore learners attention, cognitive load and Performance whether there is significant correlation between each other. The results from the study that the traditional way because English words do not need to solve the difficult task or logical operations, showing a relaxed state from the EEG signal, attention displayed learning English word is focus , When experimenter not enough to attention or experimental time too abundant, will experimenter attention have high value, after the interview experimenter, attention is easily distracted or experimental conditions has been completed but time yet to come, experimenter we'll start thinking other matters make attention value high. From experimental data that, attention value not just focus on the current task, thinking, recall or solve the task will also affect the attention. The results can be used for future reference in English language learning.

abstract: The purpose of this experimental study was to investigate the effects of textual and visual annotations on Spanish listening comprehension and vocabulary acquisition in the context of an online multimedia listening activity. 95 students who were enrolled in different sections of first year Spanish classes at a community college and a large southwestern university were randomly assigned to one of four versions of an online multimedia listening activity that contained textual and visual annotations of several key words. Students then took a comprehension and vocabulary posttest and a survey to measure cognitive load and general attitudes towards the program. Results indicated that textual annotations had a significant positive effect on listening comprehension and that visual annotations had a significant positive effect on how successful students felt. No statistically significant differences were found for other variables. Participants also reported positive attitudes towards vocabulary annotations and expressed a desire to see more annotations during multimedia listening activities of this type. These findings provide further evidence of the impact that multimedia may have on language acquisition. These findings have implications for multimedia design and for future research. Language listening activities should include a variety of vocabulary annotations that may help students to understand what they hear and to help them learn new vocabulary. Further research is needed outside of the laboratory, in the online and increasingly-mobile language learning environment in order to align the research with the environment in which many students currently study. The incorporation of motivation into multimedia learning theory and cognitive load should be explored, as well as new measures of cognitive load.
Dissertation/Thesis
Ph.D. Educational Technology 2010

碩士
國立中央大學
學習與教學研究所
100
To second language learners, using dictionary while reading helps them to solve the context clues mysteries and the problem of lack of vocabulary. The aim of this study is to explore the effect of computer-mediated dictionaries on incidental vocabulary acquisition. Twenty-seven college students were randomly assigned to three conditions: (1) no-aid (control), (2) click-on dictionary, and (3) key-in dictionary. The processes of headword finding and meaning finding were recorded using eye tracking. From the perspective of cognitive load and the learning performance of vocabulary, we explored if using a dictionary was beneficial or a hindrance to learners’ vocabulary acquisition. The results of this study were as follows: 1.The two groups which had dictionaries spent significantly more time on target words than the group without any aid. But the groups with and without dictionaries had no significant difference in the performance of vocabulary acquisition, and in the self-reported degree of difficulty of the article content and vocabulary. 2.In the process of headword finding, the key-in group spent significantly more time than the click-on group on the spelling test, the average search time of target words, and the average fixation duration of target words. The key-in group also had significantly more self-reported degree of difficulty of dictionary use than click-on group. The increased cognitive load is called germane cognitive load, and it brought benefit to the spelling test for the key-in group. 3.In the process of meaning finding, the key-in group had significantly more average number of transitions between the dictionary and the article, and paid more effort to find the suitable meaning. But the two groups had no significant difference in the performance of vocabulary meaning test, and in the fixation duration and effort spent on the dictionary content. Key-in group spent too much time on headword finding, and thus it caused to interrupt the process of storing the contents of the article in working memory, so the comprehension of the article needed to be complemented by the content of the dictionary after looking up words. Based on these results, this study can provide reference for practice and future researches.

碩士
淡江大學
英文學系碩士班
101
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of two treatments, reading only (RO) and reading plus vocabulary enhancement activity (RV), on EFL college freshmen’s vocabulary acquisition and retention. A total of 114 subjects from four intact Freshman English classes of a private university in northern Taiwan participated in this study. All the participants were local Taiwanese students who have been learning English in the Taiwanese school setting for at least nine years. Students in the RO treatment were given a reading plus a supplemental reading while those in the RV treatment had to read and complete vocabulary enhancement activities. The two treatments were alternatively administered to each class during the study. Four readings were instructed in four one-hour sessions by the two treatments. Each class received each treatment twice during the study. Ten words which the participants had almost no knowledge of were targeted in each reading, so forty words in total were included. Two posttests were delivered to test word acquisition in each reading. One was the vocabulary acquisition test administered immediately after the intervention and the other was the delayed posttest administered two weeks after the instruction. The subjects were measured on both the immediate and delayed posttests by a modified Chinese version of Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS). The result of the immediate posttests showed learners had highly significant word gains from the RV in all four readings. Yet without reviewing the words within the two-week interval the attainment waned. Only one reading showed the RV led to significantly better retention in the delayed posttests. When word acquisition of genders was compared, the female subjects outperformed significantly in the immediate posttests of both treatments. Consistently, the females assigned to the RV treatment retained significantly more words than the males in the delayed posttests. However, no significant difference between genders was found in the delayed RO treatment. When the effectiveness of the treatments was examined on classes of different proficiency levels, the result was that the scores in the RO and RV did not differ significantly in the highest and the lowest level classes. In contrast, the two classes which were in the middle level of the participating classes showed the RV led to significantly more word gains in both the immediate and delayed posttests. Due to the findings, the current study concluded that the RV was more effective in increasing word development of EFL learners.

碩士
國立臺灣科技大學
數位學習與教育研究所
104
The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of multimedia complexity on English vocabulary learning achievement and cognitive load. Meanwhile, the difference of visual behaviors during cognitive process were also examined. A repeated measure experimental design was conducted to investigate 30 participants reading English vocabulary E-book. The learning materials were the same but the order was randomized for individuals. (2X3: level of vocabulary [simple, difficult] and complexity of background picture [low, medium, high]). Participants’ visual behaviors were recorded by ASL mobile Eye-XG eye-tracking system during the reading process. A pretest was used to collect the participants’ prior knowledge regarding these vocabularies. Learning achievements and cognitive loads were assessed by a recall test and a cognitive load questionnaire right after the reading task. A retention test was conducted two weeks after the reading task. Pearson’s correlation analyses were used for examining the relationship among learning achievement, cognitive load and visual behaviors. Based on the results of correlation analyses, repeated 2X3 ANOVAs with post-hoc comparisons were used to compare the learning achievement and corresponding eye-tracking measures among different multimedia design groups. The results revealed that the pretest scores and intrinsic cognitive load had a significant correlation. The significant correlations between different types of cognitive loads and corresponding eye-tracking measures were shown in different areas of interest. And the pupil dilation on pictures has a significant correlation with immediate posttest (short-term memory). No a significant impact was found on the learning achievement in terms of the multimedia design; however, there were different visual behaviors on each design. Some suggestions were provided for future studies and designs of English vocabulary learning materials.

碩士
國立交通大學
教育研究所
103
The purpose of this study was to develop an experimental pictographic English vocabulary e-learning courseware, which optimizes learners’ cognitive processes based on cognitive load theory and cognitive theory of multimedia learning. To examine the effectiveness of this courseware, this study utilized the within-subjects quasi-experimental design. The participants were 108 graduate and college students who used the learning materials presented in the formats of text only, text-with-picture, and pictograph in the e-learning system. The results showed that students’ performance on the pictographic materials was significantly higher than that on the text-only materials while no significant differences were found between pictographic and text-with-picture materials; the cognitive load perceived on pictographic material was medium; the situational interest and focused attention perceived on the pictograph material were both the highest among the three formats; and the sustained attention, measured by EEG, on the pictograph material was also the highest. Results of this study serve as a valuable reference for future implications while providing new approach for designing English vocabulary courseware in multimedia environment.

It has long been acknowledged that lexical knowledge is essential to the development of second language (L2) proficiency (Schmitt, 2010). In the case of higher education conducted in the L2, researchers agree that students should focus on the learning of L2 academic words, rather than general L2 vocabulary (Nation & Webb, 2011). By learning academic words, university students should be able to understand and produce more diverse and elaborate L2 texts more quickly. Unfortunately, because academic words are often morphologically complex and abstract (Corson, 1997), they are difficult to be learnt incidentally alone (Knoch et al., 2015). Therefore, a more systematic approach to the teaching and learning of academic vocabulary is needed. First, it is necessary to assess learners in order to differentiate those who need explicit instruction of academic vocabulary from those whose level of academic vocabulary is sufficiently high. Then, it is paramount to identify tasks that may be used at university to enhance students’ knowledge of academic vocabulary. As a result, assessing L2 lexical knowledge at the academic level and measuring task effectiveness are both the focus of this PhD dissertation, which consisted of three studies. The main goal of the first study was the assessment of L2 academic vocabulary knowledge. The goal of the second and third studies was the identification of tasks that facilitate the learning of academic vocabulary. The first cross-sectional study measured the knowledge of academic vocabulary of over 100 first- and second-year BA English majors at the Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw. The participants took the Vocabulary Size Test (VST; Nation & Beglar, 2007), with 140 general English lexical items, and a tailor-made corpora-based Academic Vocabulary Test (AVT) assessing the knowledge of 105 Polish-English cognates and 300 English noncognates. I compared the knowledge of cognates and noncognates in both tests in order to identify signs of cognate inflation effects (higher scores for cognates due to guessing based on form). The statistical analysis found clear signs of cognate inflation effect in the VST and AVT. Then, cluster analyses combined the scores of the VST and AVT in order to find a threshold in the VST below which learners would be considered in need of extra academic vocabulary instruction. The results identified the threshold as a score of 9,900 in the VST and showed that nearly 50% of English majors scored below this threshold. The second and third studies were quasi-experiments investigating the potential of three writing tasks for the incidental learning of pre-specified academic keywords provided in a glossary. The studies compared the learning of academic words yielded by sentence writing (SW) tasks to the learning generated by composition writing (CW). In both studies, students first wrote a 300-400-word control essay (i.e., without using keywords) to evaluate their writing abilities. Then, in the second study, first-year BA learners wrote either sentences (SW) or two 60-minute argumentative essays (Timed CW), both tasks with 20 keywords. In the third study, first-year BA students wrote sentences (SW), one 60-minute argumentative essay (Timed CW), or one untimed argumentative essay (Untimed CW) with the same 20 keywords. It was assumed that some of these tasks might be more cognitively demanding than others, and thus less conducive to learning academic vocabulary. In both studies, in order to assess the cognitive load of the writing tasks, textual measures of accuracy, fluency, and overall text quality (i.e., holistic scores) were obtained from the control essays and the essays written in both conditions (Timed and Untimed). The results for the second study showed that SW was more conducive to learning than Timed CW in all variables analysed. The results for the third study demonstrated only a minor lexical-learning advantage of Untimed CW over SW and Timed CW. In both studies, the textual measures of accuracy, fluency, and quality provided evidence of an increase in cognitive load between the control essays and the essays written with the incorporation of keywords, especially the argumentative essays in the Timed CW condition. Overall, the studies presented in this dissertation have empirically demonstrated two valid points. First, that students' lexical knowledge can be assessed with the use of freely available tests and that Polish students majoring in English lack knowledge of academic vocabulary. Second, that in the academic context, quotidian tasks such as writing argumentative essays or sentences with keywords may help address the insufficiency in knowledge of academic words. Convincing evidence was found that when learners are required to incorporate keywords in their writing, their lexical learning is facilitated.
Już od dawna uznaje się, że wiedza leksykalna jest niezbędna do rozwoju biegłości w języku drugim (Schmitt, 2010). Badacze zgadzają się też, że w wypadku nauczania prowadzonego w języku drugim na poziomie akademickim, należy skupić się na nauce słów akademickich, a nie słownictwa ogólnego (Nation & Webb, 2011). Ucząc się słów akademickich, studenci powinni być w stanie szybciej rozumieć i tworzyć bardziej zróżnicowane i rozbudowane teksty w języku obcym. Niestety, jako że słowa akademickie są często złożone morfologicznie i abstrakcyjne (Corson, 1997), trudno jest się ich nauczyć wyłącznie w sposób incydentalny (Knoch i in., 2015). Dlatego potrzebne jest bardziej systematyczne podejście do nauczania i uczenia się słownictwa akademickiego. Po pierwsze, konieczne jest dokonanie oceny poziomu językowego studentów, aby odróżnić tych, którzy potrzebują wyraźnego nauczania słownictwa akademickiego, od tych, których poziom słownictwa akademickiego jest wystarczająco wysoki. Następnie ważne jest zidentyfikowanie zadań, które można wykorzystać na uniwersytecie w celu poszerzenia wiedzy studentów w zakresie słownictwa akademickiego. Niniejsza rozprawa doktorska koncentruje się zarówno na ocenie wiedzy leksykalnej w języku drugim na poziomie akademickim, jak i na pomiarze efektywności zadań taką wiedzę poszerzających. Przedstawia ona trzy autorskie badania. Głównym celem pierwszego badania była ocena znajomości słownictwa akademickiego wśród studentów anglistyki. Celem drugiego i trzeciego z raportowanych badań była identyfikacja zadań ułatwiających naukę słownictwa akademickiego. Pierwsze badanie korelacyjne mierzyło znajomość słownictwa akademickiego u ponad 100 studentów studiów licencjackich I i II roku w Instytucie Anglistyki Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego. Uczestnicy wykonali Vocabulary Size Test (VST; Nation & Beglar, 2007) obejmujący 140 słów należących do angielskiego słownictwa ogólnego, jak również Academic Vocabulary Test (AVT), specjalnie stworzony na potrzeby badania i oparty na korpusie tekstów akademickich z językoznawstwa stosowanego. AVT oceniał znajomość 105 polsko-angielskich kognatów i 300 angielskich niekognatów. Znajomość kognatów i niekognatów w obu testach porównano w celu zidentyfikowania zawyżonych wyników testu ze względu na zgadywanie kognatów w oparciu o ich formę. Analiza statystyczna wykazała wyraźne zawyżone wyniki dla kognatów w VST i AVT. Następnie, w analizie skupień połączono wyniki z VST i AVT w celu wskazania progu w VST, poniżej którego studenci potrzebowaliby dodatkowej nauki słownictwa akademickiego. Wyniki analiz określiły próg jako 9900 punktów w VST i pokazały, że prawie 50% studentów anglistyki uzyskało wynik poniżej tego progu. Drugie i trzecie badanie stanowiły quasi-eksperymenty badające w jakim stopniu różne zadania pisemne wspierają incydentalne uczenie się określonych kluczowych słów akademickich, które zostały przedstawione w glosariuszu studentom studiów licencjackich. W badaniach porównano incydentalne uczenie się słów akademickich w dwóch warunkach: przy pomocy pisania zdań (SW) oraz pisania różnego rodzaju wypracowań (CW). W celu oceny poziomu umiejętności tworzenia tekstu w języku angielskim w obu badaniach studenci najpierw napisali esej kontrolny (tj. bez użycia słów kluczowych) o długości ok. 300-400 słów. Następnie, w badaniu drugim, studenci musieli użyć słów kluczowych (20 słów) wykonując jedno z dwóch zadań: pisząc z nimi zdania (SW) lub dwie rozprawki (Timed CW), każdą w czasie 60-ciu minut. W badaniu trzecim studenci pisali: zdania (SW), jedną rozprawkę w czasie 60-ciu minut (Timed CW) lub jedną rozprawkę bez limitu czasu (Untimed CW). Wszystkie trzy zadania wymagały użycia tych samych 20 słów kluczowych. Założono, że niektóre z tych trzech zadań mogą być bardziej wymagające poznawczo niż inne, a tym samym mniej sprzyjać nauce słownictwa akademickiego. W obu badaniach, w celu oceny obciążenia poznawczego studentów przy pisaniu z użyciem słów kluczowych, zarówno z esejów kontrolnych i jak pisanych w obu warunkach (Timed i Untimed) uzyskano tekstowe miary dokładności, płynności i ogólnej jakości tekstu (tj. oceny holistyczne). Wyniki badania drugiego pokazały, że zadanie SW bardziej sprzyjało incydentalnej nauce słów akademickich niż zadanie Timed CW dla wszystkich analizowanych zmiennych. Wyniki badania trzeciego wykazały jedynie niewielką przewagę warunku Untimed CW nad SW i Timed CW w kwestii ucznia się słów. W obu badaniach tekstowe miary dokładności, płynności i jakości dostarczyły dowodów na wzrost obciążenia poznawczego między esejami kontrolnymi a esejami pisanymi z użyciem słów kluczowych, zwłaszcza esejami argumentacyjnymi w warunku Timed CW. Podsumowując, badania przedstawione w tej rozprawie wykazały empirycznie dwa ważne punkty. Po pierwsze, wskazano, że znajomość angielskiego słownictwa wśród polskich studentów anglistyki można ocenić za pomocą ogólnodostępnych testów, ale też że studentom brakuje znajomości słownictwa akademickiego. Po drugie, że w kontekście akademickim codzienne zadania, takie jak pisanie esejów argumentacyjnych lub zdań ze słowami kluczowymi, mogą pomóc w rozwiązaniu problemu ograniczonej znajomości słów akademickich. Znaleziono przekonujące dowody na to, że zadania wymagające użycia słów kluczowych w wypowiedziach pisemnych ułatwiają studentom naukę słownictwa.

Ємельяненко Є. О. Лексика та фразеологія системи освіти Великобританії та США, особливості перекладу українською мовою : кваліфікаційна робота магістра спеціальності 035 «Філологія» / наук. керівник В. В. Погонець. Запоріжжя : ЗНУ, 2021. 90 с.
UA : Дипломна робота − 90 стор., 114 джерел. Об’єкт дослідження: концептосфера освіти та її репрезентація в англійській та українській мовах. Мета роботи: дослідити лінгвальні особливості англомовної лексики та фразеології системи освіти Великобританії та США, способи та засоби перекладу українською мовою. Теоретико-методологічні засади: ключові положення, які стосуються поняття лексико-семантичного поля, мікрополів і груп у складі лексикосемантичного поля, розроблені Й. Тріром і Й. Л. Вайсгербером; дослідження лексики і фразеології у складі лексико-семантичного поля системи освіти Великобританії та США В. І. Кантора; принципи теорії перекладу, розроблені В. Карабаном, І. Корунцем, Т. Кияком, К. Райс та ін.). Отримані результати: Системи освіти Великобританії та США мають багато спільного в етапах та рівнях навчання, основна різниця полягає в тривалості навчання, різних спеціалізаціях та номінаціях учбових закладів. У межах лексико-семантичного поля “Education” можна виділити такі групи: терміни (терміни власне терміносистеми освіти, суміжні терміни) і колоквіалізми (розмовну шкільну лексику: студентську лексику, професійну розмовну лексику викладачів і вчителів). Вибір стратегії перекладу лексики та фразеології системи освіти Великобританії та США українською мовою залежить від специфіки лексичних та фразеологічних одиниць, типу тексту оригіналу, його прагматичних та жанрово-стилістичних особливостей, цільової аудиторії і мети тексту перекладу. При перекладі використовуються різні види транскодування, 5 транскодована реномінація, калькування, синомічна заміна, аналоги, описовий переклад.
EN : The thesis deals with the vocabulary of British and American education system, the peculiarities of translation into Ukrainian. Modern linguistics pays a lot of attention to the study of terms in terminological systems that reflect different socially significant conceptospheres. Terminological system of education or educational vocabulary, along with the terminological systems of law, public administration and others, belongs to such important fields. In addition, educational vocabulary is developing differently in different cultures and it contributes to the necessity of our research as it is of particular interest to translators. Educational vocabulary of Ukrainian and English languages consists of: 1) terms (general and specific); 2) nomenclature; 3) colloquialisms: pupil’s vocabulary, student’s vocabulary, professional teachers’ vocabulary. Lexical-semantical groups of semantic field “Education” are the following: 1) individual in the process of training; 2) learning subject; 3) educational institution; 4) type, form, process and means of training; 5) assessment, result and graduation documents. Insufficient uniformity and not always accurate interpretation of some terms of Ukrainian educational terminology complicate the inventory of the constituents of lexical-semantical field “Education” in the Ukrainian language. Compared to Ukrainian, English language educational vocabulary (in both British and American cultures) is more stable, due to the chronological differences in the formation of these branches of public life. Differences in the components of the lexical-semantic field “Education” in the Ukrainian and English languages can be represented in the following scheme: початкова освіта − primary education − elementary education, середня освіта − secondary education, vocational training- професійно-технічнa освіта and further education, вища освіта − higher education, tertiary education. Synchronous translational contrastive comparison of lexical-semantic field “Education” in Ukrainian and English makes it possible to distinguish several types of lexical correlates. The first group includes equivalents with a similar phonographic design, as well as the same etymology (mostly borrowed from Latin or Greek). The first group of this type is not numerous (names of subjects and studies). The second group includes mainly polysemantic lexemes with an identical set of certain lexicalsemantic variants. Lexeme “school” has more semantic components than its equivalent in Ukrainian (the following coincide: school - institution for educating children, an educational institution that provides general education and upbringing of the younger generation; building used by such an institution, the premises in which such an institution is located; all the pupils or all the pupils and teachers in a school, a team of students of an educational institution; students and teachers of such an institution). The examples of the second group are as follows: report card (a written statement about a pupil's work and behavior), names of subjects, examination marks, marks for the pupil's term work, teacher’s comment on pupil's general progress, etc. 75 The third type consists of lexemes which do not have an equivalent for the following reasons: a) the absence of a referent in the target language (e.g. Eleven plus (an examination taken at the age of eleven, to decide which type of secondary school a child should go to), Ivy League (a group of traditional universities in the eastern USA with a reputation for high academic standards and a high social status) - American Ivy League, the oldest and most prestigious universities in New England (Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, University of Pennsylvania, Prinston University, Yale University); b) no concise verbal design to indicate an existing referent (e.g. reentrant - (American) a teacher who did not work in the school system for a certain period of time and then returned to school. Differences in the conceptual structure of the education systems of the United Kingdom, the United States of America and Ukraine, and, accordingly, between the educational vocabulary of the Ukrainian and English languages create multiple problems. This fact necessitates finding accurate translation equivalents to overcome barriers in interlingual communication. The results of our research show that the main methods and techniques of translating Ukrainian educational vocabulary into English are the following: transcoding (seminar - семінар); transcoding and variant equivalent (dissertation, treatise, thesis – dissertation –дисертаціятрактат;); loan- translation (самовчитель- self-teacher); use of regular equivalents (post-graduate student - аспірант). The research also analyses educational neologisms as a socio-linguistic and translation issue and outlines the further potential of the problem under consideration. It was found out that the emergence of neologisms in education is caused by various factors: the development of scientific and methodological conceptions, education reform, changes in curricula, emergence of new courses, innovations in education funding, development of technical teaching aids, changes in politics, the degree of openness of society, its multinationality and internationalization, etc.