Journal articles on the topic 'Visy Paper (Firm)'

Abstract: This paper explores the differences between born global firms and born regional firms. It compares performance between born regional firms and born global firms within the same industry. This paper would investigate three independent variables which are: firm performance, firm size, and model on a company’s strategy. I argue that despite key success indicators being almost similar in both born global firms and born regional firms, there exist some unique commonality in born global firms that are not evident in born regional firms, and vise-versa. This uniqueness motivates them to internationalize quicker than born regional firms. This paper would contribute to IB research by explaining the motivations behind behaviors of international venture firms Keywords: Born global firms, Born regional firms, international venture firms, Internationalization, resource based theory, stakeholder theory, shareholder theory

How is economic policy made? In this paper we study a key determinant of the answer to the question: lobbying by firms. Estimating a binary choice model of firm behavior, we find significant evidence for the idea that barriers to entry induce persistence in lobbying. The existence of these costs is further confirmed in studying how firms responded to a particular policy change: the expiration of legislation relating to the H-1B visa. Due to its influence on firm behavior, we argue that this persistence fundamentally changes the environment in which legislation is made. (JEL D22, D72, D78, L21)

Purpose This paper aims to evaluate the performance of basic metals industry in India and analyze its determinants, using data envelopment analysis (DEA) method. It also intends to compare the results through conventional two-stage and bootstrap-based inferences. Design/methodology/approach Considering technical efficiency as a measure of performance, this paper specifically investigates whether the participation of a firm in the global market affects its performance. The conventional two-stage procedure is used to test the export intensity and firm performance nexus. The bootstrap-based algorithms (by Simar and Wilson, 2007) are used to correct the bias and serial correlation issues involved in the conventional approach. Findings The result shows a negative relation between export intensity and firm performance while following the conventional procedure. Even after accounting for serial correlation, the relation remains more or less similar to that of conventional analysis. However, a strong negative relation between export intensity and firm performance is not observed in a more reliable inference obtained after correcting for possible bias as well as serial correlation. Research limitations/implications This paper is based on cross-sectional analysis, and a more reliable result can be obtained by considering a larger sample and longer period. Originality/value This paper shows how the conventional two-stage procedure may result in misleading inferences due to bias in the estimation of efficiency scores and the serial correlation during the second stage inferential analysis. This paper also empirically exemplifies how the double bootstrap DEA procedure can overcome these limitations of the conventional two-stage approach.

Purpose In the intellectual property (IP) and management literature, the question of how external patent attorneys impact patent filings has been understudied. The purpose of this paper is to advance this area of research by examining how the use of external patent attorneys influences the patent filing strategies of firms and what impact firms’ level of experience with the exclusive use of in-house resources has on filing strategies. This study, thus, provides insights into the strategic dimension behind patent filing, a process which is affected by patent attorneys’ work and decision-making processes. Design/methodology/approach The econometric analysis is based on a patent database of 922,553 patents which is combined with an EPO patent database covering applications from 1990 to 2010. The authors test the hypotheses for this study using patent indicators addressing the impact of in-house firm experience vs the use of external patent attorneys on firm’s filing strategy. Findings This research finds empirical evidence that external patent attorneys’ work has an effect on patent scope, international scope, and patenting speed. Moreover, it can be shown that external patent attorneys have a positive impact on most filing dimensions, such as patent scope, international scope and the Patent Cooperation Treaty option, whereas the level of in-house firm experience has a negative impact on most filing dimensions. This implies that external patent attorneys seem to pursue a “maximization approach” while experienced firms seem to pursue a more differentiated approach to filing patents, for instance, drafting narrower and more focused patents. Practical implications The study suggests that effective filing strategies require an integrated approach between diverse IP stakeholders. More particularly, filing strategies should be communicated and aligned between all actors, including external patent attorneys in order to achieve the targeted patenting output. Originality/value The current study develops a patent filing typology, which accounts for patent attorneys’ decision options. In providing insights into patent attorneys’ work and their impacts on intellectual property rights management, the study is a useful complement to prior research, which has predominantly focused on applicants or examiners.

The present paper restricts to the analysis of some passages from the Vedic literature, viz. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and Vedāṅga Jyautiṣa, from the view point of mathematical astronomy.The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa in 2.1.2.1 to 2.1.2.5, refers to some ritual in which some fire has to be set up. It recommends Kṛttikā as the nakṣatra or the lunar asterism under which to set up the fire. For, there are some special features that Śatapatha-Brāhmana obviously considers as good points. According to the text, one good point about Kṛttikā is that it is ′the most numerous′; secondly, it rises ′in the east′.

This paper examines the sustainability of charcoal production that maximizes social welfare based on optimal control techniques visa-vis the activities of profit maximizing charcoal producing firms in South Sahara Africa. I set up a theoretical model involving the socially optimal charcoal production that will maximize the socially optimal discounted sum of net benefit of Charcoal production for both the private profit maximization firm and that which will yield sustainability. After solving for the optimal choices for both functions it reveals that there is indeed divergence between these two entities simply because environmental degradation and deforestation (externalities) associated with charcoal production are not internalized into the production function of the profit maximizing charcoal producing firms. These externalities would lead to unsustainability of the forest environment and subsequently deforestation. Fiscal policy measures and public ownerships are recommended to deal with externalities that are inherent in charcoal production so as to improve sustainability while ensuring charcoal continues to provide livelihood benefits for the numerous people that live in the charcoal producing belt.

In recent years historical film production or historical films — Historical Film, Historical Movie, Historical Cinema—have become increasingly massive in Indonesia. In its development, historical films in Indonesia are a massive medium to present a past that deserves to be remembered as a collective memory of society. Since the reform era, dozens of historical film titles have been produced and colouring the Indonesian film industry. As a result, many historical films have become references and reference sources for the community to find information about the past. It becomes reasonable to see the development of multimedia-based information technology (audiovisual) which has encouraged the emergence of post-literacy phenomena. In historical studies, historical films can be studied as a thematic study as well as in a methodological realm. As a thematic study, historical films are mental products (mentifact) and social products (sociofact) of society in a certain space of time. Whereas in the methodological realm, historical films can be explored through debates about historical sources or as narratives and representations of the past presented through film media. The study of historical films as a study of history is still a rare and less desirable subject for historians in Indonesia. This paper utilizes literature studies to answer some of the research problems posed. Literature studies of sources related to historical film studies are the focus of the researchers. In addition, a deeper understanding of the development of historical films in Indonesia is also a concern to uncover the souls of the times that surround historical film production. This study concludes that the existence of historical films in the present is a challenge for historians to face the era of openness and variety of media that presents information about the past.

While employers are playing an increasingly important role in immigration selection in Canada, little is known about how firm-level characteristics affect the economic integration of immigrants. Using a Canadian employer–employee matched dataset, this paper considers whether immigrants initially employed in low-paying firms in Canada experienced inferior earnings growth than those initially employed in high-paying firms. The results show that the large earnings differential observed between immigrants initially employed in low- and high-paying firms diminished only slightly over the subsequent 14 years, even when differences in demographic and general human capital characteristics are taken into account.Alors que les employeurs jouent un rôle de plus en plus important dans la sélection des immigrants qui s’établissent au Canada, on en sait peu sur la façon dont les caractéristiques au niveau de l’entreprise influencent l’intégration économique de ces derniers. Au moyen d’un ensemble de données appariées sur les employeurs et les employés, le présent document vise à déterminer si la croissance des gains des immigrants employés initialement au Canada par des entreprises à bas salaires est plus faible que celle des gains des immigrants employés au départ par des entreprises à hauts salaires. Les résultats montrent que l’écart important observé entre les gains des immigrants employés au départ par des entreprises à bas salaires et de ceux employés par des entreprises à hauts salaires ne diminuait que légèrement au cours des 14 années suivantes, même après avoir tenu compte des différences de caractéristiques démographiques et de caractéristiques générales du capital humain.

Comparing the Probability of Unemployment in Southern Greece Vis-À-Vis the Entire CountryThe basic aim of this paper is to investigate the impact that educational level of individuals and participation in training programmes (apprenticeship, intra-firm training, continuing vocational training, popular training) have on their job prospects in Southern Greece (namely the regions of Southern Aegean and Crete) during the implementation of the first Community Support Framework (1989-1993). We also research the differences between the two regions under study and the entire country. We try to see whether the educational level itself and participation in training programmes increased the chances of finding a job. More specifically, we research what are the social and demographic characteristics that increase the chances of someone in the examined population finding a job, how those chances change (if they do) after the introduction of training courses and, also, whether University graduates, in contrast to most of the rest of the EU member states, face greater difficulties in finding a job than non-University graduates, as a series of studies for Greece conclude. To the author's knowledge, this is the first attempt to analyse individual anonymised records (micro-data) from the Labour Force Survey (LFS) for both employed and unemployed in those two regions at NUTS 2 level.

A partir do começo do século 19, o Brasil abrigou fundições tipográficas habilitadas a manufaturar ou comercializar todo tipo de material utilizado nas oficinas tipográficas, entre elas encontra-se a Fundição de Typos Henrique Rosa, do Rio de Janeiro, e Funtimod – Fundição de Tipos Modernos, de São Paulo. Recentemente, as duas autoras deste artigo desenvolveram pesquisas com foco na firma carioca. Enquanto Edna Lucia Cunha Lima estava interessada na narrativa da família Rosa, Isabella Ribeiro Aragão intencionava responder questões comerciais, levantadas durante sua pesquisa doutoral sobre a Funtimod. Este artigo, portanto, visa contribuir com a história da tipografia no Brasil por meio da relação dos resultados dos estudos realizados, respectivamente, no Rio de Janeiro e Recife.*****Since the beginning of the 19th century, Brazil has housed type foundries qualified to manufacture or commercialize all types of material used at printing workshops, among them the Fundição de Typos Henrique Rosa, from Rio de Janeiro, and Funtimod – Fundição de Tipos Modernos, from São Paulo. Recently, the two authors of this paper have developed researches with interest in the carioca firm. While Edna Lucia Cunha Lima was interested in the story of the Rosa family, Isabella Ribeiro Aragão intended to answer commercial questions raised during her doctoral research on Funtimod. This paper, therefore, aims to contribute to the history of typography in Brazil by the results of the studies carried out, respectively, in Rio de Janeiro and Recife.

Movements of labor across the world is an ongoing debate in the literature in terms of its drivers and results in sending and receiving areas. Skill composition of immigrant labor has been discussed by several papers, although they generally focused on visa policies or firm level productivity. However, this paper focuses on the relationship between immigrants’ educational attainment and government budgeting on research and development (R&D). Panel data analysis is applied for European countries, along with instrumental variable approach as a robustness check. Findings reveal that higher budget allocation for R&D is associated with higher skill level of immigrants within overall immigrant population. This finding is driven by young immigrants whose ages are between 25 and 34 and female immigrants in these countries, suggesting that this relationship varies among sub-groups of immigrants, which would have significant policy implications. Hence, the novel and original approach of the paper resides in the deciding factors of immigrants’ skill composition.

Recent research on unmet legal need in Canada suggests that access to justice problems may represent a latent market for some legal services. But there is relatively little Canadian research on how lawyers organize and run their practices, and on how those practices could improve access to justice. This paper provides a case study of Pivot Legal LLP, an innovative law firm in Vancouver’s Downtown Eastside neighbourhood that aimed to improve access to justice for community members. Interviews with the lawyers involved suggest that a similar firm could survive and thrive in the future. These findings have implications for legal entrepreneurs, and also for how the legal profession and the legal academy could better support practice-level innovations to improve access to justice in Canada. Selon de récentes recherches sur les besoins juridiques non comblés au Canada, les problèmes d’accès à la justice pourraient représenter un marché latent dans le cas de certains services juridiques. Cependant, peu de recherches ont été menées au Canada sur la façon dont les avocats s’organisent et gèrent leurs cabinets et la façon dont ces pratiques pourraient permettre d’améliorer l’accès à la justice. Ce document traite d’une étude du cabinet Pivot Legal LLP – cabinet d’avocats innovateur situé à proximité de la partie Est du centre‑ville de Vancouver – qui vise à améliorer l’accès à la justice pour les membres de la collectivité. De l’avis des différents avocats concernés qui ont été interrogés, un cabinet similaire pourrait survivre, voire prospérer au cours des années à venir. Ces constatations ont des incidences pour les entrepreneurs juridiques ainsi qu’en ce qui a trait aux moyens que les membres de la profession juridique et les professeurs de droit pourraient utiliser pour mieux appuyer les innovations de la pratique susceptibles d’améliorer l’accès à la justice au Canada.

Two-sided markets (or platforms) are defined as the platforms that provide goods or services to two distinct groups of customers, and that intermediate the transactions between these groups. Such platforms are of great importance in todays global business world and considerable amount of value is created by these platforms. The success of numerous firms in the business world, including but are not limited to Google, eBay, Amazon, Microsoft, Apple, Sony PlayStation, Visa, is mainly due to the advantages provided by the two-sided platforms. This paper is devoted to the two-sided markets phenomenon, its basic characteristics, architecture as well as mechanism. The paper explains the aforementioned information regarding two-sided markets by providing the case from Apples digital application platform. Furthermore, Apples competitive advantage stemming from this platform has been articulated by the theoretical perspective provided by the Resource Based View (RBV).

English Abstract: This paper deals with dirt, anomic behaviour, death and decay as productive and redemptive means within four very different traditional religions: Shinto, ancient Egyptian religion, classical Indian religion and Greek religion. In all four contexts, the motif is somehow anchored in mythology and makes sense first and foremost in ritualization, i.e. as part of the symbolic accompaniment of ritual metamorphosis. As others have demonstrated, the motif makes equally good sense in so-called post-axial religions, in which redemption is much more a matter of an inner, subjective breakthrough – but it is by no means a prerogative of such religions. Dansk resumé: Artiklen behandler eksempler på snavs, anomisk adfærd, død og råddenskab som religiøst produktive og forløsende i fire vidt forskellige traditionelle religioner: Shinto, oldtidens ægyptiske religion, klassisk indisk religion og græsk religion. I alle fire sammenhænge er motivet mytologisk forankret, og det giver først og fremmest mening som et rituelt virkemiddel, en del af det symbolske akkompagnement til rituelle forvandlinger. Som andre har vist, giver motivet også god mening i såkaldt post-aksiale religioner, hvor forløsning i højere grad forstås som et indre, subjektivt gennembrud – men det er altså ikke forbeholdt disse.

The paper analyses three different wood products used for research exposing them to the surface heat flow density of 30 kW/m2, 50 kW/m2 and 70 kW/m2 and applying the test method described in ISO 5660–1 Reaction‐to‐fire tests – Heat release, smoke production and mass loss rate – Part 1: Heat release rate (Cone calorimeter method). Research was performed applying 18 mm and 29 mm thick laminated wood chipboards and 24 mm thick medium density fibreboard. The paper provides an overview of the fire properties of wood products and discusses testing methods and the percentage composition of the tested wood products. Mean time to their ignition was determined. The mean values of the maximum heat release rate and time required to achieve them were investigated. Furthermore, the measurements of the released heat and efficient heat of combustion were taken. Further research covers the performance of statistic analysis, deriving empiric equations, correlation and determination coefficients, standard errors and Student criterion. The results of research are summarized. Conclusions are provided at the end of the paper. Santrauka Straipsnyje nagrinejami trys skirtingi medienos gaminiai, su kuriais atlikti tyrimai veikiant 30 kW/m2, 50 kW/m2bei 70 kW/m2 paviršiniais šilumos srautais taikant ISO 5660–1 “Reaction‐to‐fire tests – Heat release, smoke production and mass loss rate – Part 1: Heat release rate (Cone calorimeter method)” bandymo metoda. Tyrimai atlikti su 18 mm ir 29 mm storio laminuotomis medžio drožliu plokštemis bei 24 mm storio vidutinio tankio plaušo plokšte. Darbe apžvel‐giamos medienos gaminiu gaisrines savybes. Aptariama bandymo metodika ir tirtu medienos gaminiu procentine sudetis. Nustatytas vidutinis laikas iki ju užsidegimo. Ištirti vidutiniai maksimalios šilumos išsiskyrimo greičio ir laiko iki ju pasiekimo dydžiai, taip pat išmatuota visa išskirta šiluma ir efektyvi degimo šiluma. Atlikta statistine analize, gautos em‐pirines lygtys, koreliacijos bei determinacijos koeficientai, standartines paklaidos bei Stjudento kriterijai. Apibendrinami tyrimo rezultatai. Darbo pabaigoje suformuluojamos išvados.

This paper presents the results of a study of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films irradiated with Ar and Kr ions at both normal orientation and an angle of 40° to the normal. Normal irradiation was performed using Ar8+ and Kr15+ ions with an energy of 1.75 MeV/au and fluences in the range (2–500) × 1010 cm−2 for Ar8+ ions and (1.6 − 6.5) × 1010 cm−2 for Kr15+ ions. Kr ions with an energy of 1.2 MeV/au and charges of 13+, 14+, and 15+ were used for angled irradiation. For each Kr ion charge value, three fluence values were used: 5 × 1010, 1 × 1011, and 2.5 × 1011 cm−2. It is well known that irradiation of PET films by swift heavy ions results in a red shift of the UV-vis transmission spectra absorption edge. The experimental transmission spectra exhibit well-defined interference fringes, which obscure the underlying transmission response. Using an existing technique to obtain interference-free transmission curves Tα(λ) for both pristine and irradiated PET film samples, we found that S, the total radiation-induced absorption of light by the PET film, is proportional to the logarithm of the fluence F. In addition to this dependence on the irradiating fluence, we also found that the charge of the irradiating ion has a significant influence on the position of the absorption edge in the UV-vis spectra. This provides experimentally independent evidence to confirm our previous results showing that ion charge has an effect on the post-irradiation state of PET films. We present a physical interpretation of the observed absorption edge red shift in irradiated PET films as being due to the growth of extended conjugated systems via the formation of intermolecular helical structures. Our investigations into the stability of irradiation-induced effects in PET films show that comparison of UV-vis transmission spectra before and after annealing can provide information about the structure of deep traps in PET.

ResumoEste estudo visa analisar o filme Frankenstein de Mary Shelley a partir da visão de graduandos, para que o mesmo venha a ser empregado como recurso midiático para uma abordagem introdutória da História da Ciência no ensino. Para tanto, oito monitores de Química do Centro de Ciências e Planetário, graduandos de licenciatura em Química, assistiram ao filme, em seguida, realizaram uma sinopse e, posteriormente, e responderam a um questionário. As respostas apontaram que o filme consegue transpor a ideia do que era ser um cientista e como a Ciência se desenvolvia. Pontuam também vários temas que podem ser levantados pelos professores relacionados ao papel da ciência na sociedade. Isso mostra como mídias visuais são recursos dinâmicos para uma abordagem introdutória, visto que, além de narrar os fatos, fica gravado na mente dos alunos a impressão visual de como a ciência foi desenvolvida ao longo dos séculos. Palavras-chave: História da Ciência; Ensino de Ciências; Recurso didático.AbstractThis study aims to analyze the film Frankenstein from undergraduate vision, so that it will be used as a media resource for an introductory approach to the History of Science in teaching. Therefore, eight trainees of Chemical Sciences and Planetary Center, undergraduate students in chemistry, watched the film, and then held a synopsis and then answered a questionnaire. The answers showed that the film manages to transpose the idea of what was to be a scientist and a science developed. Also punctuate several issues that can be raised by teachers related to the role of science in society. This shows how visual media are dynamic resources for an introductory approach view that in addition to narrating the facts is engraved in the minds of students the visual impression of how science has developed over the centuries.Keywords: History of Science; Science Teaching; Teaching resource.

Este artigo visa analisar a produtividade energética de dois plantios experimentais de Tachigali vulgaris no Amapá, em ecossistemas e idades distintos, a partir da diferença de classes diamétricas. Foram coletadas 21 árvores (por plantio) distribuídas em 7 classes de diâmetro. Coletaram-se amostras de seções transversais do tronco para analisar a umidade máxima e densidade básica em diferentes posições axiais (base, meio e topo). O poder calorífico superior, densidade energética, materiais voláteis, teor de cinzas e biomassa seca foram analisados por classe diamétrica. Os dados foram avaliados por meio de análise de variância, teste de médias e relações lineares. A média da densidade básica nos plantios foi 581 kg/m³ (cerrado) e 562 kg/m³ (terra-firme). Houve efeito significativo na posição axial apenas no plantio de terra-firme. Somente neste ambiente não houve diferença significativa em materiais voláteis e PCS. No cerrado, a produtividade energética foi superior à terra-firme em todas as classes, devido à diferença de idade e ausência de competição. Em ambos os plantios a produtividade energética foi maior no diâmetro de 22 a 25 cm (classe 4), indicando ser esta a classe diamétrica ideal para colheita da madeira quando o objetivo for o manejo para bioenergia.Palavras-chave: florestas energéticas, biomassa, Tachigali vulgaris, madeira. ENERGETIC DENSITY OF Tachigali vulgaris WOOD BY DIAMETRIC CLASS IN TWO EXPERIMENTAL PLANTS IN THE AMAZON ABSTRACT:This paper aims to analyze the energy productivity of two experimental Tachigali vulgaris plantations in Amapá, in distinct ecosystems and ages, from the difference of diametric classes. 21 trees (by planting) were collected in 7 diameter classes. Samples of cross-sections of the trunk were collected to analyze the maximum moisture and basic density in different axial positions (base, middle and top). The higher heating value, energetic density, volatile materials, ash content and dry biomass were analyzed by diameter class. The data were evaluated through analysis of variance, test of means and linear relations. The means basic density of plantations was 581 kg/m³ (cerrado) and 562 kg/m³ (terra firme). There was a significant effect on the axial position only in the terra-firme planting. Only in this environment there was no significant difference in volatile materials and higher heating value. In the cerrado, the energy productivity was superior to the terra-firme in all the classes, due to the difference of age and absence of competition. In both plantations the energy productivity was higher in the diameter of 22 to 25cm (class 4), indicating that this is the ideal diametric class for harvesting the wood when the objective is the management for bioenergy.Keywords: energy forests, biomass, Tachigali vulgaris, wood.

This research addresses a sabaton, or an armour element protecting the foot, excavated in the western area of the prince’s palace of Mangup. The artifact is composed by seven cross-curved iron plates. The sabaton was attached to the shoe with strings, as evidenced by the through-holes in its central and lateral parts. The only archaeological analogy to the sabaton from Mangup is the two sets of plates for foot-protection from the collective burial of the participants of the battle of Visby (Sweden) in 1361. A significant number of analogies appeared among the manuscript miniatures and tombstones of Mediaeval Europe and Renaissance paintings and sculptures. According to the analysis of the analogies, the artifact in question is a knightly sabaton of the European pattern typical for the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The archaeological context allowed the one to date the find within the period of the functioning of the Mangup palace in 1425–1475. The most probable date for the sabaton to get into the cultural layer is 1475, when the Ottomans besieged and assaulted Mangup. This statement may be confirmed by the finds of other weapons and layers of fire, recorded in the western part of the palace. The paper presents assumptions about the personality of the owner of the sabaton. This person was one of the defenders of the town and, apparently, was wealthy enough to purchase or order expensive armour. The owner of the sabaton possibly was a local noble, a soldier of the 300 “Wallachians” known from written sources, or one of the Genoese nobles who fled to Mangup after the fall of Kaffa.

Este artigo visa a contribuir para o ensino de português brasileiro (PB) como língua estrangeira. Para tanto, segue dois argumentos: o de que a língua é um sistema adaptativo complexo – o que implica a necessidade de se conspirarem variáveis extralinguísticas no processo de ensino-aprendizagem em interação com variáveis linguística - e o de que é preciso conhecer a estrutura fonético-fonológica do PB e da língua materna dos aprendizes, para que se possa desenvolver uma abordagem próxima à realidade desses aprendizes. Para embasar tais argumentos, lançamos mão de dados português brasileiro produzidos por falantes nativos de crioulo haitiano e analisados acusticamente.REFERÊNCIASAlbano, E. C. O gesto e suas bordas – esboço de fonologia acústico-articulatória do português brasileiro. Campinas: Mercado de Letras/FAPESP, 2001.ALVES, U.K.; BRISOLARA, L.B.; PEROZZO, R.V. Curtindo os sons do Brasil – Fonética do Português do Brasil para Hispanofalantes. Lisboa: Lidel, 2017.Becker, M.R. Inteligibilidade da lingua inglesa sob o paradigma de língua franca: percepção de discursos de falantes de diferentes L1s por brasileiros. Tese de doutorado. Inédita. UFPR. 2013.Beckner, C. et al. Language is a complex adaptative system: position paper. Language Learning, v. 59, n. 1, p. 1-26, dez. 2009.Cadely, J.R. Haiti: the politics of language. Journal of Teaching and Education, 1(3):389–394, 2012.CADELY, J. R.. Les sons du Creòle haïtien. The Journal of Haitian Studies, 9 (2): 4-41, 2004.Celce-Murcia, M.; Brinton, D.M.; Goodwin, J.M.; Grainer, B. Teaching pronunciation: a course book and reference guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.Chan, S. Complex Adaptative Systems. Research Seminar in Engineering Systems. October 31, 2001/November 6, p. 1-9, 2001.DOVE, L. How does a forest fire benefit living things? DISPONÍVEL em https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/how-forest-fire-benefit-living-things-2.htm. ACESSO em 18/02/2019.MAJOR, R. C. Transfer in second language phonology. In: EDWARDS, J. G. H; ZAMPINI, M. L. Phonology and Second Language Acquisition. Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2008.SCHMICHECK, J. V. Produção de taps e laterais do PB por falantes de kreyòl. Relatório de Pesquisa de Iniciação Científica. Inédito. Universidade Federal do Paraná. 2018.Silva, A.H.P. Caracterização acústica de [r], [ɾ], [l] e [ʎ] nos dados de um informante paulistano. Cadernos de Estudos Linguísticos, 37:51-6, 1999.Silva, A. H. P. As fronteiras entre fonética e fonologia e a alofonia dos róticos iniciais em PB: dados de dois informantes do sul do país. Tese de doutorado. Inédita. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. 2002.Silva, A.H.P. Uma ferramenta para o ensino do acento primário do PB para falantes nativos do crioulo haitiano. Organon, 30 (58): 175-191, 2015.Tardieu, G.M. Gramè Kreyòl. Kopivit-Laksyon Sosyal, 2013. Recebido em 18-02-2019.Aceito em 21-02-2019.

Denne artikkelen handler om norske engelsklæreres kompetanse i å arbeide med barn som har et annet morsmål enn norsk, og som lærer engelsk som fremmedspråk. Problemstillingene er "Hva slags utdanning og kunnskap innen flerspråklighet har engelsklærere i Norge?," "I hvilken grad føler engelsklærere i Norge seg forberedt på å undervise i flerkulturelle og flerspråklige klasserom?" og "Hvilken type kunnskap, ferdigheter og ressurser føler de behov for?". Vi presenterer resultater fra en nasjonal spørreundersøkelse hvor i alt 176 engelsklærere deltok. I tillegg presenterer vi resultater fra fokusintervjuer med i alt fire lærere fra to skoler. Resultatene viser at selv om engelsklærerne til en viss grad føler seg forberedt på arbeid med elever som ikke har norsk som morsmål, har svært få av dem utdanning som fokuserer på flerspråklighet. Svarene fra spørreundersøkelsen og fra intervjuene viser at engelsklærerne gjerne vil ha mer kompetanse på dette området. Vi vil derfor understreke betydningen av utdanning i teori og praksis om flerspråklig utvikling og flerkulturell utdanningsteori, og ikke minst betydningen av tilgang til faglig utvikling som fokuserer på flerspråklighet i skolen og i samfunnet for engelsklærere i Norge.Nøkkelord: engelsklærere, kompetanse, språkpedagogisk kunnskap,flerspråklighet, lærerutdanningAbstractThis paper examines the extent to which English teachers in Norway are prepared to work with children whose mother tongue is not Norwegian, and who are acquiring English as a foreign language. The research questions are “What type of education and knowledge in the area of multilingualism do English teachers in Norway have?,” To what extent do English teachers in Norway feel they are prepared to teach in a multicultural and multilingual classroom?,” and “What kinds of knowledge, skills and resources do they feel a need for?” We present the results of a national survey completed by 176 teachers. In addition, we present results from focused interviews with four English teachers from two schools. The results show that although English teachers feel somewhat prepared for work with students who are not native speakers of Norwegian, very few of them have an education with focus on multilingualism. Responses from the survey and the interviews show that English teachers would like to have more expertise in this area. Therefore, we want to emphasize the importance of providing English teachers in Norway with education in theory and practice of multilingual development and multicultural education as well as access to professional development that focuses on multilingualism in schools and in society.Key words: English teachers, preparedness, knowledge of language teaching methods, multilingualism, teacher education

Traditionelt opfattes professioners autonomi som en direkte følge af den viden, de besidder, samt af de særlige opgaver denne viden tillader dem at løse, ikke mindst for staten. Denne autonomi er imidlertid sat under pres igennem talrige bølger af reformer i velfærdsstaten, hvad enten der er tale om reformer med henblik på bedre opgavevaretagelse eller om simple nedskæringer. Mens det er velbeskrevet i professionslitteraturen, hvorledes velfærdsreformer forsøger at regulere de professionelles økonomiske interesser, fx igennem New Public Management-inspirerede tiltag, søger denne artikel at vise en anden type udfordring af professionel autonomi. Påstanden er, at velfærdsprofessioner som fx lærere eller socialrådgivere er blevet gjort til agenter for politiske strategier på hvert sit policyområder og det på en mere direkte og systematisk måde end tidligere. Inspireret af Foucault karakteriseres denne udvikling i artiklen som en ”guvernementalisering” af velfærdsprofessionerne. Det betyder, at professionernes viden og identitet søges orienteret systematisk efter, hvorledes den professionelle bør lede borgerne i overensstemmelse med centrale politiske ambitioner på området. Frem for at være agent for professionens egne pædagogiske principper kan en pædagog ifølge denne logik i stedet blive agent i en integrationspolitisk dagsorden, mens skolelærerens professionelle praksis bliver systematisk orienteret efter centrale konkurrencepolitiske mål. Artiklen består af en indledende udvikling af begrebet om guvernementalisering efterfulgt af en tekstanalyse, der applicerer begrebet på centrale dokumenter omkring indholdet af fire velfærdsprofessioner i en dansk kontekst, nemlig skolelærere, pædagoger, socialrådgivere og sygeplejersker. ENGELSK ABSTRACT: Lars Thorup Larsen: The ”Governmentalization” of the Welfare Professions The autonomy of professions is traditionally based on the knowledge required for the profession and the specific work that this knowledge enables professionals to carry out, not least for the (welfare) state. Waves of welfare state reform have put this autonomy under pressure, however, whether the reforms are aimed at efficiency or are simply cutbacks. A growing amount of literature about these professions shows how political reforms try to regulate the economic incentives of professionals, for example through initiatives inspired by New Public Management. This paper aims to show a different type of challenge to professional autonomy. It argues that welfare professionals such as teachers or social workers have become agents of new political strategies in their respective policy areas, and in a more direct and systematic way than previously. With inspiration from Foucault, this can be characterized as a “governmentalization” of the welfare professions. It means that both professional knowledge and identity become systematically restructured according to how the state would like professionals to govern its citizens in accordance with policy goals in the field. For instance, rather than being an agent of the profession’s own educational principles, a preschool teacher may be required to act professionally out of consideration of the national policy for the integration of immigrants because cultural norms are often exchanged in daycare facilities. Similarly, the professional work of a schoolteacher may be systematically retooled in order to improve the nation’s performance in international rankings of education. This paper develops the notion of “governmentalization” with respect to professions, which is then exemplified in a comparative textual analysis of four welfare professions – teachers, nurses, social workers and preschool teachers – in Denmark. Key words: Professions, governmentality, welfare state, bureaucrats, textual analysis.

Consulta: Uma Prefeitura Municipal consulta-nos se é possível contratar, sem licitação, determinada revista para realização de reportagem que dê divulgação ao município, suas obras públicas, suas possibilidades econômicas e seu desenvolvimento. Aduz, ainda, que a revista realizou, recentemente, no município, cobertura jornalística das solenidades presididas pelo Governador, relativas à atuação estadual em benefício da região. Acrescenta que, por já ter travado conhecimento com o município, suas obras e perspectivas, dispõe-se a cobrar pela reportagem preços inferiores aos de sua tabela oficial de preços, com redução significativa. Informa, afinal, que o município não tem legislação própria sobre licitação. Parecer A resposta à consulta supõe o exame de três questões: 1. Legislação aplicável às aquisições de bens, realização de obras e serviços pretendidos pelos municípios; 2. Características do objeto da licitação; 3. Casos de dispensa de licitação. Fixados estes pontos, será, então, possível oferecer uma resposta devidamente fundamentada ao caso “sub consulta”. I – A legislação aplicável aos municípios para aquisições de bens, realização de obras e serviços, em princípio e como regra, é aquela estabelecida pela Câmara Municipal. Isto, como resultado do art. 16 da Carta Constitucional brasileira que assegura a autonomia do município, atribuindo-lhe administração própria no que concerne ao seu peculiar interesse (art. 16, n. II). Requisito indispensável para a autoadministração e organização dos serviços locais (art. 16, n. II, “b”) é a fixação das normas através das quais o município se proverá dos bens e serviços necessários ao desempenho de sua função. Quem dá os fins não pode negar os meios, já observa, com lógica irrefutável, Rui Barbosa. O município é entidade autônoma e não autarquia. Isto significa que legisla para si; não se reduz – ao contrário da autarquia – a cumprir leis feitas por outras pessoas jurídicas. Tanto quanto a própria União e os Estados federados, o município tem sua origem jurídica no diploma constitucional, e suas prerrogativas derivam, do mesmo modo que as daqueles, da Lei Magna. Por isso, não é subordinado a quem quer que seja. O fato de integrar o Estado não o coloca em posição inferior, assim como o fato do Estado integrarem a Federação não os torna subalternos em relação àquela. No âmbito de suas competências, uns e outros são autônomos. Suas posições estão juridicamente definidas no próprio texto constitucional. Daí se segue que nenhuma lei pode amesquinhar-lhes a posição, redefinindo seus poderes, sob pena de ser afrontosa à Carta básica do País e, em face disto, nula de pleno direito. O município é, como os Estados e a Federação brasileira, pessoa jurídica pública de capacidade política; portanto, peça estrutura do sistema, dotada de poderes juridicamente tão sobranceiros quanto os dos Estados e os da União, embora circunscritos em limites e esferas de ação diversos daqueles. A tríplice ordem de entidades políticas, no Brasil, tem campos de atribuições específicos, privativos e, por tal razão, insusceptíveis de recíprocas penetrações. É verdade que a Lei Orgânica dos Municípios do Estado de São Paulo estabeleceu limites para licitação para obras, serviços e fornecimentos aos municípios, observada a legislação federal pertinente (art. 53), mas não se sabe que outorgou procuração ao Estado para decidir a respeito. Da Lei Magna brasileira – única definidora da competência, dos poderes da União, Estados e municípios – consta, apenas, como prerrogativa estatual, relativa aos seus municípios, estabelecer, através de lei complementar, os requisitos mínimos de população, renda e forma de consulta às populações locais para criação de municipalidades (art. 15 da Constituição Federal (LGL\1988\3)) e intervir neles exclusivamente se forem impontuais no pagamento de empréstimo garantido pelo Estado ou se deixarem de pagar, por dois anos consecutivos, dívida fundada ou se não prestarem contas a que estejam obrigados na forma da lei estadual (art. 16, §3º, da Carta federal). Já se vê o quanto foi audaciosa a Lei Orgânica, ao interferir no que não podia; ao irrogar-se prerrogativas que ninguém lhas deu. Donde, ser inconstitucional, nula de pleno direito, írrita, a disposição do art. 53 da Lei n. .842 de 19 de setembro de 1967 (Lei Orgânica dos Municípios). Segundo alguns, a legislação a vigorar nos municípios, sobre licitações, é o decreto-lei n. 200, de 27 de fevereiro de 1967, o qual, segundo sua própria ementa, “dispõe sobre a organização da Administração federal, estabelece diretrizes para a reforma administrativa e dá outras providências”. Nem seria necessário invocar a clareza da ementa mencionada, que deixa explícito tratar o decreto-lei citado de normas relativas aos serviços e atividades da União. A simples leitura do diploma referido revelaria, de imediato, que nunca teve como objeto – impossível, por inconstitucional – estabelecer ditames obrigatórios para municípios ou Estados. Sem embargo, tem sido sustentada a imperatividade dos art. 125 a 144 – que tratam da licitação – para Estados e municípios, fundando-se em que seriam “normas gerias de direito financeiro”, de competência, pois, da União, com base no permissivo do art. 8º, n. XVII, “c”, da Carta brasileira. Esdrúxulo entendimento! As regras sobre licitação, previstas no decreto-lei n. 200, nem são normas gerais, nem são de direito financeiro! Em nosso entender, tal se percebe em análise aligeirada. Com efeito, regras que minuciosamente dispõem sobre modalidade de licitações, valores determinantes da exclusão dela ou da adoção de suas diferentes formas, casos de dispensa e processos de realiza-la, são gerais unicamente no sentido que toda lei o é. Se as disposições em tela forem havidas como normas gerais – a despeito de sua escrupulosa minúcia, que nem campo deixa para regulamentação – forçoso será convir que inexiste a distinção constitucional entre “normas gerais” e normas a que se não atribui tal caráter. Se forem havida como normas gerais – repita-se – converter-se-ia em tal toda e qualquer lei e o legislador constitucional, ao firmar o discrímen em apreço, tê-lo-ia feito por maliciosa pilhéria. Mas, sobre não serem, evidentemente, normais geais, também não são de direito financeiro; são de direito administrativo estrito. Para entende-las como de direito financeiro seria necessário fundar-se em que esta caráter lhes advém da simples circunstância de regularem um procedimento relacionado com a despesa pública – já que o direito financeiro diz com os aspectos formais da receita, da gestão e da despesa. Ocorre que a licitação, antes de ser procedimento preliminar à despesa, é procedimento preliminar de um contrato, do qual advirá a despesa. Com maior razão se entenderia – se acolhido o entendimento profligado – serem as normas reguladoras do contrato administrativo, normas de direito financeiro, ou, dito e modo mais chocante, ser o contrato administrativo um contrato financeiro (!). O concurso para preenchimento de cargo público também é um procedimento preliminar à despesa, que ocorrerá com o pagamento dos vencimentos do funcionário admitido. Nem por isso alguém se lembrou de relacionar sua disciplina com o direito financeiro. Adotado o mesmo fundamento, que levou alguns a consolidarem a licitação matéria de direito financeiro, ter-se-á que incluir nesta qualificação a maior parte do direito administrativo, o qual seria engolido pela boca voraz das normas gerais de direito financeiro. O próprio fato do Estado de São Paulo haver adotado as disposições do decreto-lei n. 200, relativas à licitação – pelo singular processo de mandar aplica-las por decreto (!) – demonstra, ao contrário do que supõem os partidários da tese que rejeitamos, que não foram consideradas, entre nós, como regras expedidas com a força própria das normas gerais de direito financeiro. Se o Governo estadual as houvesse considerado assim, não necessitaria emprestar-lhes vigor no âmbito do Estado, eis que, por virtude própria já seriam aplicáveis, haurindo sua imperatividade no diploma constitucional. Contrariamente ao que tem sido sustentado por alguns, a adoção dos artigos relativos à licitação contemplados no decreto-lei n. 200 pelo Executivo estadual, longe de demonstrar sua obrigatoriedade em âmbito nacional, comprova a adoção de inteligência oposta. Com efeito, se normas gerais de direito financeiro fossem, receberiam sua impositividade do art. 8º, n. XVII, “c”, da Constituição brasileira, não o decreto estadual. Parece evidente que a lei suprema do País tem mais força que um decreto do Governo. O decreto, para justificar-se salvo delirante e aberratória pretensão jurídica, necessita estar escorado no pressuposto de que a norma em apreço não teria, por virtude constitucional, o poder de atingir o Estado. O que o Executivo paulista pretendeu fazer – conquanto por meio inidôneo (decreto) – foi se utilizar, no âmbito interno, do instituto conhecido no direito internacional privado como remissão, modalidade de conversão. No caso, incorporar ao direito estadual uma norma federal. Cumpre lembrar que a lei federal n. 5.456, de 20 de junho de 1968, mandou aplicar a Estados e municípios as normas de licitação do decreto-lei n. 200. Trata-se, na conformidade das observações até agora feitas, de investida juridicamente inaceitável na esfera privativa de competência destes. A lei em questão, pelos motivos expostos ao longo das páginas precedentes, é nula, gravada de irremissível inconstitucionalidade. Perante o Direito chegar a ser um ato ridículo. Cabe, entretanto, questionar: na ausência de normas municipais que tratem da matéria, como resolver a questão? Sem dúvida o princípio da licitação é acolho no direito brasileiro, como de resto o é, em todos os países civilizados. É norma de moralidade administrativa, valor constitucionalmente consagrado no art. 84 da Carta Federal. Cumpre saber quais a regras aplicáveis à licitação – que esta tem de existir – quando a legislação municipal não cogita do assunto. À falta de disposições específicas cumpre recorrer à analogia, valendo, aí sim, unicamente por esta razão, as disposições do decreto-lei n. 200 concernentes ao assunto. Reconhece-se, portanto, possibilidade de aplicação do decreto-lei federal, mas tão-só pela carência de normas municipais. II – A licitação exigida para alienação onerosa de bens municipais e aquisição onerosa de materiais, produtos, realização de obras ou contratação de serviços, visa a um duplo objetivo: salvaguardar a moralidade administrativa e oferecer à Administração Pública a possibilidade de adquirir pelo menor preço o melhor bem ou serviço (ou alienar pelo maior preço quando é a Administração que oferece o bem). Para que possa haver licitação é necessário que os bens a serem licitados sejam equivalentes, intercambiáveis, homogêneos. Não se licitam coisas desiguais. É pressuposto lógico do instituto que os bens a serem adquiridos ou os serviços a serem contratados não possuam uma individualidade tal que os torne únicos na espécie ou insusceptíveis de substituição por equivalente prefeito. Bem por isso a licitação tem lugar quando a Administração almeja obter cujas características não lhes confiaram especialidade que os singularize. Outrossim, porque a licitação se processa entre coisas de natureza e caracteres confortáveis, não teria sentido um cotejo de preço entre meses de madeira e mesas de aço, salvo se à Administração fosse indiferente, dada a utilização que lhes daria, um ou outro tipo. Se é verdade que nunca concorreriam, em uma mesma licitação, máquinas de calcular e máquinas de escrever, papeis sanitários e papeis de ofício, por terem natureza e destinação diferentes, não é menos verdade que poderiam ser licitados em uma mesma concorrência, de um lado, cadeiras de braço e sem braço e, de outro, moveis de aço e de madeira, para citarmos apenas dois exemplos. Com as hipóteses figuradas, deseja-se realçar que estes diferentes objetos, conquanto individualizáveis, por caracterizarem tipos de um mesmo gênero, para efeitos de licitação poderiam, ou não, concorrer juntos. O que os tornaria conjuntamente licitáveis – ou não licitáveis – seria um elemento externo, a saber: a irrelevância ou relevância, a juiz da Administração, da obtenção de um ou outro tipo. Pretende-se exalçar a ideia de que a individualidade do objeto nem sempre é um dado absoluto, mas se define através de um contemperamento entre as características genéricas dele e o critério administrativo fixador do grau de especificidade requerido para satisfação da necessidade da Administração. A interferência do critério administrativo especificador do objeto, obviamente, tem um limite mínimo e um limite máximo. Isto é, a elasticidade da ingerência do critério administrativo não é determinada unicamente pela vontade ou o juízo do administrador. Suas barreiras encontram-se sempre no próprio bem desejado: serviço ou produto. Assim, pela própria natureza das coisas, a Administração não pode ser indiferente à escolha entre livros ou cadernos; papel “buffon” ou papel “couchê”, embora possa – por não repugnar à natureza das coisas à natureza das coisas- haver como relevante ou irrelevante o material de composição de cortinas: “nylon” ou seda, por exemplo. De outro lado, se as coisas pretendidas não possuírem em si mesmas uma frisante individualidade, a Administração não pode fixar especificações que acabem por singularizar o objeto a ser adquirido, de maneira a excluir todos os outros bens que, de outro modo, poderiam concorrer. Deseja-se frisar nitidamente as seguintes ideias, para ulteriores conclusões: 1. Cabe licitação apenas entre produtos equivalentes; inexistindo equivalência não haveria que cogitar do instituto; 2. A equivalência não se determina unicamente pela verificação do gênero do objeto pretendido. Resulta de um contemperamento entre o gênero do objeto e o critério administrativo de especificação, dentro do gênero, do bem requerido para satisfação da necessidade a ser preenchida. 3. O campo de interferência do critério administrativo localiza-se ao longo de um intervalo contido entre dois limites: o termo mínimo, que é o gênero do produto ou serviço desejado, e o termo máximo cujos confins adiante serão aclarados. Desde logo se pode concluir que intervenção do critério administrativo não apenas é lícita e conveniente como, ainda, necessária. Formularemos um exemplo para tornar mais evidente a ideia: a Administração pública se desejar adquirir mesas poderá, ou não, fazer interferir um primeiro critério de especificação do produto: exigirá que as propostas se restrinjam a mesas de aço, ou permitirá – abstendo-se de especificar – que concorram mesas de madeira e de aço. A seguir, é facultado fazer interferir um segundo critério, ainda mais especificador: circunscreverá, no edital de licitação, as propostas a mesas de dois gaveteiros. Finalmente, poderá incluir um terceiro critério: na exigência de um nível mínimo de qualidade, excluirá de um nível mínimo de qualidade, excluirá as mesas de pinho, exigindo que só se apresentem propostas relativas a produtos de qualidade simular à imbuia, peroba do campo etc. Como se vê, no exemplo proposto, sucessivas especificações, individualizadoras do objeto, surgiram a partir de um limite mínimo: o gênero de bem requerido, no caso o objeto – mesa. Houve, portanto, legítima interferência do critério administrativo individualizador do bem. Por aí se percebe que a noção de equivalência não se determina unicamente em função do próprio produto. É a Administração quem circunscreve, até certo ponto, o nível de equivalência. Cumpre indagar, até que ponto? Se é fácil reconhecer o limite mínimo, a partir do qual se inicia a intervenção do critério administrativo, é tormentoso reconhecer o limite máximo permissível. Pode-se, contudo, afirmar que a margem máxima encontra seu ermo final no ponto em que a intensidade da especificação se converte em singularização de bens ou serviços que, por mesmos, não sejam singulares. Isto nos leva a indagar quais os bens suscetíveis de serem havidos como singulares. São singulares os bens que possuem uma individualidade tão específica que os torne inassimiláveis com quaisquer outros da mesma espécie. Esta individualidade referida pode provir: a) natureza íntima deles; b) da circunstância de serem únicos; 1) quer em sentido absoluto; 2) quer em razão de evento externo a eles. Ainda aqui, os exemplos constituem o melhor recurso para elucidação. Uma produção intelectual – como um livro de crônicas verbi gratia – uma obra de arte, são singulares pela própria natureza íntima deles. Um selo de que foi emitido um só exemplar é singular, por ser único em sentido absoluto. Uma espada utilizada em momento histórico relevante é singular e única em razão de evento externo a ela. Poderão existir inúmeras do mesmo formato, fabricação, época e composição metálica, sem embargo, àquela aderiu irremovivelmente uma qualidade externa que a singularizou. Serviços singulares são os que se revestem análogas características. A produção de um quadro, por um artista, é singular pela natureza íntima do trabalho a ser realizado. De modo geral, são singulares todas as produções intelectuais, realizadas isolada ou conjuntamente – por equipe – sempre que o trabalho a ser produzido se define pela marca pessoal (ou coletiva) expressa em características técnicas e ou artísticas. Neste quadro cabem os mais variados serviços: uma monografia escrita por jurista, uma intervenção cirúrgica praticada por experiente cirurgião, uma pesquisa sociológica empreenda por uma equipe de planejamento urbano, uma reforma administrativa implantada por técnicos em administração uma cobertura jornalística efetuada por empresa de notoriedade, um curso de alfabetização promovido por educadores qualificados, um ciclo de conferencias efetuado por professores, uma exibição de orquestra sinfônica, uma perícia técnica sobre o estado de coisas ou das causas que o geraram. Todos estes serviços se singularizaram por estilo ou por uma orientação pessoal. Note-se que a singularidade mencionada não significa que outras não possam realizar o mesmo serviço. Isto é, são singulares, embora não sejam necessariamente únicos. Por certo uma monografia sobre tema jurídico poderia ser escrita por outro jurista, uma exibição sinfônica por outra orquestra, uma perícia, por outro perito, um quadro valioso, por outro artista, um levantamento sociológico, por outra equipe. São trabalho singulares, embora não únicos. Por isso, tal como os bens, que podem ser singulares, embora não únicos. Por isso, tal como os bens, que podem ser singulares, sem serem únicos, tanto quanto estes, em razão da peculiaridade que os caracteriza, não são licitáveis. Eventualmente, nas hipóteses em que caiba concurso, por esta via devem ser obtidos. Quando, porém, seja impossível ou desaconselhável o concurso, pela natureza da atividade ou pelo natural desinteresse que suscitaram, seja pelo método de trabalho das empresas que fornecem o serviço requerido, seja elos ônus que acarretariam, sem compensação garantida ao eventual fornecedor, a solução cabível é contratar diretamente. Em conclusão: a) A Administração pode e deve interferir com seu critério administrativo para especificar o bem ou serviço desejado. Eis por que a individualidade do bem nem sempre é um dado absoluto em si mesmo. Sua caracterização resulta de um contemperamento entre o gênero do objeto ou serviço requerido e o critério administrativo determinado em função da necessidade a ser satisfeita. b) O critério administrativo não pode interferir além do ponto em que a especificação singularize bem ou serviço que não seja, por si mesmo, singular. c) Os bens ou serviços singulares seja, ou não, únicos, por esta mesma qualidade, não são objeto de licitação; em rigor, não tem similares. Não são concorríveis, por faltar o pressuposto da licitação, que é igualdade dos produtos ou serviços oferecidos. A licitação supõe concorrência dos mesmos, bens ou serviços. Os bens e serviços singulares pela marca do estilo ou pela orientação peculiar, pessoal que os caracteriza nunca serão os mesmos que os prestados por outros. III – Os casos de dispensa de licitação são contemplados no art. 126, § 2º, do decreto-lei n. 200, de 27 de fevereiro de 1967. A inteligência das hipóteses previstas, contudo, só pode ser corretamente feita à vista das considerações expendidas ao longo do título II deste parecer. A letra de um dispositivo só integra o sentido desde quando se lhe conhece o espírito, o qual deriva sempre de uma investigação teórica ordenada em função de captar a natureza íntima do instituto e seu objeto. Declara o § 2º do art. 126 ser dispensável a licitação: - nos casos de guerra, perturbação grave da ordem ou calamidade pública – inciso “a”; - quando sua realização comprometer a segurança nacional, a juízo do Presidente da República – inciso “b”; - quando não acudirem interessados à licitação anterior, mantidas, neste caso, as condições preestabelecidas – inciso “c”; - quando a operação envolver concessionário de serviço público ou, exclusivamente, pessoas de direito público interno ou entidades sujeitas ao seu controle majoritário – inciso “f”; - nos casos de emergência, caracterizada a urgência de atendimento de situação que possa ocasionar prejuízos ou comprometer a segurança de pessoas, obras, bens ou equipamentos – inciso “h”; - nas compras ou execução de obras e serviços de pequeno vulto, entendidos como tal os que envolverem importância inferior a cinco vezes, no caso de compras e serviços, e a cinquenta vezes, no caso de obras, o valor do maior salário mínimo mensal – inciso “i”. Nenhuma destas diferentes hipóteses, contempladas nos incisos “a”, “b”, “c”, “f”, “h” e “i”, dizem com o objeto da licitação e são realmente casos de dispensa. O critério do legislador, determinado por motivos vários (de segurança, de urgência, de economia, conforme o caso), exclui a obrigação de licitar que, em princípio, existiria. Já as hipóteses previstas nos incisos “g”, “e” e “d”, em rigor não são casos e dispensa. Inexiste a obrigação de licitar porque a própria natureza do objeto os tornaria insusceptíveis de se adaptarem ao supor lógico da licitação: concorrência dos mesmos bens. As figuras delineadas nas letras supramencionadas referem-se a objetos e serviços singulares, no sentido retro firmado, e, bem por isso, ilicitáveis. Na letra “g”, cogita-se da aquisição ou arrendamento de imóveis destinados singular, tornando único por evento externo: a destinação que se lhe dará de que nenhum imóvel que não o escolhido poderia apresentar a mesma individualidade necessária, quando mais não seja impossibilidade de se encontrar na mesma situação especial. Este óbice, torna único o objeto. Na letra “e”, trata-se igualmente de bem singular, ou pela natureza – é o caso da obra artística – ou por haver tornado único em razão de evento externo – é o caso do objeto histórico. Finalmente a letra “d” refere-se à “aquisição de materiais, equipamentos ou gêneros que só podem ser fornecidos por produtor, empresa ou representante comercial exclusivos, bem como na contratação de serviços com profissionais ou firma de notória especialização”. A primeira parte do dispositivo – produtos em que haja um único fornecedor – não é o bem que é singular, mas quem pode oferecê-lo. Existe, portanto, impossibilidade absoluta de ser realizada a licitação pela existência de ofertante único. A segunda parte do dispositivo é que interessa ao caso vertente, sub consulta: “contratação de serviços com profissionais ou firmas de notória especialização”. A contratação de reportagem com revista em questão inclui0se entre os serviços de firma notória especialização? Não teríamos dúvida em responder afirmativamente, mesmo se o texto não oferecesse – como oferece – elementos tão amplos para avalizar, em interpretação lógica, a inexistência da obrigação de licitar. Trata-se, na conformidade do exposto na segunda parte do parecer, de um serviço singular; isto é, produção intelectual necessariamente caracterizada por um estilo, por uma marca individualizadora que resulta de um trabalho profissional especializado. Reportar acontecimentos é uma especialidade que se caracteriza por um feitio próprio. Sobremais, cada revista se individualiza, em função da orientação especializada da empresa não só em um gênero – no caso a reportagem – como também em um tipo de mercado a ser atingido. Além disto, cada revista tem penetração em diferentes camadas, segundo os padrões profissionais especializados a norteiam. O tipo de paginação, a forma da composição, a seleção e distribuição de matérias, a diagramação, o conteúdo e o teor a reportagem, o estilo de linguagem, a predominância de textos ou de fotografias, a preferência por imagens, mais artísticas ou mais informativas, tudo isto confere uma individualidade singular a cada revista e é, sem dúvida, uma definição especializada. A revista em apreço, inquestionavelmente, acha-se colhida do espírito do texto do art. 126, § 2º, “d”, entre as firmas de notória especialização. Finalmente, o serviço de reportagem pretendido da revista em questão não seria licitável pela natureza mesma da atividade solicitada. Não haveria por que cotejar preços se se pretende o serviço especializado de um veículo especializado cuja produção apresenta um estilo, uma marca de trabalho, forçosamente inconfundível, diversa de qualquer outra. Trata-se, no caso de serviço singular, conquanto não único. De resto, a licitação também é instrumento moralizador. Se, como afirmado na consulta, a revista em tela, pelo fato de já haver efetuado cobertura jornalística no município, dispõe de possibilidade de cobrar abaixo de sua tabela oficial de preços, oferecendo, pois, condições vantajosas, sem comprometimento da moralidade administrativa, ressalva-se a defesa daquele valor com o asseguramento da vantagem econômica do município, que é, afinal, o próprio objetivo da licitação, quando necessária. No caso em tela tanto pelo caráter singular do serviço que o excluiria, in limine, da possibilidade de licitação, quanto pelo disposto no art. 126, §2º, “d”, do decreto-lei n. 200, em cujo espírito se alberga o caso concreto, entendemos possível contratar os serviços da empresa sem licitação. Nunca é demais recordar a máxima adequada como princípio da interpretação: Littera enim occidit, spiritus autem vivificat (São Paulo aos Corínthios, Epístola II, capítulo 3, versículo 6). É o meu parecer, sub censura dos doutos.

We study how access to high-skill labor affects the outcomes of start-up firms. We obtain exogenous variation in firms’ ability to access skilled labor by using win rates in H-1B visa lotteries. Relative to other firms that also applied for H-1B visas, firms with higher lottery win rates are more likely to receive additional venture capital funding and to have a successful exit via an IPO or acquisition. H-1B visa lottery winners also subsequently receive more patents and patent citations. Overall, our results suggest that access to high-skill labor is a critical determinant of success for start-up firms. This paper was accepted by Gustavo Manso, finance.

Absorbance spectra and energy band gap of synthesizing polyene from dechlorination of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) with varying synthesizing reaction times and doping percentages were examined in this paper. The reaction time of dechlorination was varied from 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours and 4 hours. Polyene obtained from the dechlorination reaction was doped with potassium iodide (KI). Sample for UV/Vis test was prepared in the form of film. Modified EO film as control sample showed that there is only a single absorption peak around 327nm. The C-Cl adsorption band link from source link polymer was observed at 422nm and all polyene film samples and new bands absorption were observed from 422nm to 590nm, and 683nm upon the increase in reaction time. The lower energy band gap was observed at 683.18nm absorption with 1.08eV.

PurposeRecent studies on contingent workers highlight their boundaryless and protean nature, and depict them as free agents who reject organisational forms of career support. Going beyond such current view, this paper aims to shed light on the career support provided by labour market intermediaries (LMIs) to skilled contingent workers (SCWs), the latter known as freelancers and consulting firms' employees.Design/methodology/approachUsing a qualitative stance and an inductive approach, the authors draw on 33 interviews to grasp SCWs' discourses on the career support offered by LMIs, and their account managers. The thematic analysis reveals two main themes: the career support delivered by LMIs to SCWs, and the expectations of SCWs regarding potential additional forms of career support from LMIs.FindingsThe authors show that SCWs are supported by LMIs in their career via a number of career management practices and operational support, and account managers a likely to play a key role in the careers of SCWs by providing transactional and relational career support. Moreover, the authors stress that SCWs are free agents, yet seeking for forms of support from LMIs.Originality/valueThe present paper addresses the roles of LMIs regarding non-standard population of workers through the lens of SCWs, what has barely been undertaken in recent research. This paper also enriches current debates on the organisational support SCWs are willing to accept and benefit from, despite the idiosyncratic nature of their careers.

In this paper, we report an alternate technique for the deposition of nanostructured TiO2 thin films using the electrohydrodynamic atomization (EHDA) technique us- ing polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) as a stabilizer. The required parameters for achieving uniform TiO2 films using EHDA are also discussed in detail. X-ray diffraction results con- firm that the TiO2 films were oriented in the anatase phase. Scanning electron microscope studies revealed the uniform deposition of the TiO2. The purity of the films is charac- terized by using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spec- troscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), con- firming the presence of Ti–O bonding in the films without any organic residue. The optical properties of the TiO2 films were measured by UV-visible spectroscopy, which shows that the transparency of the films is nearly 85% in the visi- ble region. The current–voltage (I –V ) curve of the TiO2 thin films shows a nearly linear behavior with 45 mQ cm of elec- trical resistivity. These results suggest that TiO2 thin films deposited via the EHDA method possess promising applications in optoelectronic devices.

ABSTRACTThe investigation of nanocrystalline Ge (nc-Ge) directly prepared with high dose Ge ion implantation of 1×1016, 1×1017, 5×1017 and 1×1018cm-2 respectively without subsequent annealing is presented in this paper. The specimens were measured by means of GIXRD, LRS and PL. The results show the nc-Ge, which possesses strong compressive stress, can be fabricated when the implanting dose of Ge ions is over the threshold dose∼1×1017cm-2. The content and size of nc-Ge will enlarge with increasing dose. The nc-Ge formation mechanism may be the Ge atoms in the amorphous Ge (a-Ge) clusters, which are formed through the aggregation of implanted Ge ions, obtain energy from the instant local annealing zone induced by the incident Ge ion and reconstruct to nc-Ge existing in a-Ge clusters. The PL results indicate the strong PL peaks centered at about 295, 400 and 570 nm can be observed in implanted samples. The intensity of these PL peaks increases with increasing dose. The related PL mechanism in Ge-ion-implanted SiO2 film has also been discussed.

In this paper we examine an instance of subject cliticisation in child Catalan previously unattested in the literature (1),. Given the lack of an adult counterpart to (1) in the input the child is exposed to, the claim is made that its occurrence, far from being accidental, must result from deep properties of grammar, also detectable in other Romance varieties. <dl> <dt>(1)<dd>M'he vist una pel.lícula. (Lena, 5;9)<br> 1sCL have seen a film<br> 'I have seen a film.' </dl> This subject clitic is sensitive to the presence of a person feature - it is limited to first person singular - and tense-sensitive - it is only found in the present perfect. The subject clitic is analysed as a means to identify the empty subject of the sentence in cases where incorporation of be to yield have is taking place, along the lines of Kayne (1993). The analysis extends to also previously unattested existential constructions found in child Catalan, which involve instances of <em>be</em> instead of <em>have (Hi era un caçador instead of Hi havia un caçador </em>'There was a hunter' (Joan 3;5)) , but not vice-versa.

Indian tourism sector is one of the world’s leading excursion zone. As per the India Brand Equity Foundation [IBEF]. India has 30 world heritage sites to showcase its rich tourism diversity. In 2018, The Foreign Tourism Arrivals [FTA] was recorded approx. 10.6 crores which are a whopping 5% escalation from the previous year. Indian movies are way popular throughout the world. Several Oscar-winning movies were shot in India. Some of them are Life of Pi (2012), Slumdog Millionaire (2008), Gandhi (1982) etc. With the popularities of these movies, scenes and location too got popular. The worldwide popularity of such movies escalates the tourism business catalytically. The escalation of tourism leads to improved tourism revenue, jobs, foreign exchange and occupation. The media-induced tourism is the key to the growth of a country’s tourism income but sustainable planning is needed to encash tourism revenue. Even after receiving the tourist major concern are tourist safety, comfort, expenditure, visa process and a lot more. Our proposed paper is about the discussion over cinematographic tourism, the relation of film-induced tourism and measures taken over the upliftment of media-induced tourism.

ABSTRACTIn order to think the current culture, the communication practices, the incidence of interference image in the production of new types of knowledge, in this paper we will approach the relationship between image as cinematic apparatus and its conceptual, historical and technical aspects to analyze its performance as narration. In an era in which it appears that the images intervenes in consciousness and in the contemporary representation and thus is becoming an important device in the revelation of realities and the construction of the social imaginary, the present work analyzes the Brazilian film City of God, conducted by director Fernando Meirelles, in 2002, considered a landmark in Brazilian cinema of the period, by the boldness of the language used to convert to images the history of violent gangs fighting over the control of drug trafficking in a community of the city of Rio de Janeiro. We will try, then, to identify the techniques used by the camera as devices able to create the effects needed to immerse the viewer in the narrative of the film.RESUMOCom a preocupação de pensar a cultura atual, as práticas comunicacionais, a incidência da interferência da imagem na produção de novas formas de saber tentaremos abordar neste trabalho a relação da imagem como dispositivo cinematográfico e seus aspectos conceituais, históricos e técnicos para examinar a sua atuação como narração. Numa era em que se constata que as imagens intervêm na consciência e na representação contemporâneas e, portanto, vêm se impondo como um dispositivo importante na revelação de realidades e na construção do imaginário social, o presente artigo visa analisar o filme brasileiro Cidade de Deus, realizado pelo diretor Fernando Meirelles, em 2002, considerado um marco no cinema brasileiro do período, pela ousadia da linguagem utilizada para converter em imagens a história de gangues violen-tas em disputa pelo controle do tráfico de drogas em uma comunidade da cidade do Rio de Janeiro. Tentaremos, então, identificar as técnicas usadas pela câmera como dispositivos capazes de criar os efeitos necessários para imergir o especta-dor na narrativa do filme.

Este texto tem por objetivo analisar a narrativa “Retrato de Mónica” — Contos exemplares —, de Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, na tentativa de depreender uma poética que chamaremos “anti-Mónica”. Vale lembrar que, em “Retrato de Mónica”, a personagem nomeadora do título está intimamente ligada ao “Príncipe deste Mundo” — um possível pseudônimo para ditadores nazifascistas. Pois, Mónica, de acordo com a narração, “[...] é o seu maior apoio, o mais firme fundamento do seu poder.” (ANDRESEN, 2015, p. 137). Neste sentido, como a obra de Sophia apresenta um continuum entre as dimensões da estética/ética e da justiça/justeza, isto é, a autora não se nega a dar “testemunho”, à maneira de Jorge de Sena, do seu tempo, Mónica — enquanto representação cristalizada de um certo feminino dentro da produção andreseniana — é a negação dos valores que a poeta visa transmitir. Nesta senda, conforme mostraremos, se obra de Sophia se organiza sobre a negação desse tipo de representação do(s) feminino(s), outras questões surgem: a) qual ou quais seria(m) a(s) representante( s) feminina(s) mais coerente(s) com universo andreseniano; b) qual ou quais faria(m) contraponto(s) à personagem Mónica? Logo, será necessário também analisar poemas como “Catarina Eufémia” e “Maria Natália Teutónio Pereira”, por exemplo. Tais poemas apresentam figuras femininas que, à maneira de Antígona, recusam/recusaram o papel de “fêmea” e lutam/lutaram em nome da liberdade. Por isso, transpuseram a destruição e transcenderam a própria imanência humana: ergueram no vento os seus risos — parafraseando um verso de Sophia.

The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires. — William Arthur WardIntroductionThe first documented use of the term Mentor can be traced back to the 8th century BC poem by Homer entitled Odyssey (Hay, Gerber and Minichiello). Although this original representation of Mentor is contested in the literature (Colley), historically the term mentor has evolved to imply a wise and trusted other who advises, teaches, protects and supports someone younger who is inexperienced and not so knowledgeable with the ways of the world. The mentor within a 21st century construct still aligns to this historical portrayal, however the evolution of society, the influence of technology, the growth of entrepreneurship, and a greater understanding of the impact of our interactions with others has forced us to consider mentoring in contemporary ways. As such, popular culture, through books, film and images, provide many impressions of the mentor and what it means to mentor in both historical and contemporary circumstances. Similarly, popular culture provides us with a variety of impressions of the teacher. Throughout old and new history, teaching is considered to be a honourable profession, one that is complex and involves specific skills and knowledge to be effective (Marsh). Society has high expectations of teachers as they are entrusted with shaping the future generation (Parkay). Although the levels of respect and trust of teachers changes within different cultural circumstances, society allows teachers to be one of the most influential figures in a child’s life. Popular film often picks up on this theme and portrays teachers as inspirational figures, pillars of society and those that can have a major influence over the development of the student’s in their care. Within the brief story that a film provides, teachers are more often than not, positioned as a ‘mentor type’ figure to the students entrusted in their care, who guides and supports them to become who they want to be. This paper explores the constructs of the mentor and mentorship through a popular culture lens. Culture is broadly described as the “bricks and mortar of our most commonplace understandings” (Willis 185) and our understandings are shaped by what we see, hear and do. The paper is framed by and seeks to answer the following question: To what extent is the teacher as mentor portrayed in popular film a realistic image? Accordingly this paper will examine the rise of the teacher as mentor and determine what images are portrayed through the medium of film. In order to answer the question, the paper will briefly examine current literature for the characteristics and roles of mentors and teachers. The paper will then delve into the way that teachers are portrayed in film and will be followed by an examination of a selection of films that portray teachers as mentors. A comparison will be made between the characteristics of mentors and the characteristics that the movie teachers display. Analysis through the use of reader-response theory will provide insight into the extent of the reality of the teacher as mentor that are portrayed. Mentors and Teachers: A Review of Selected Literature Mentoring consists of a series of interactions that can be of a social, intellectual or emotional nature (Lentz and Allen). Mentoring can be described as a helping relationship whereby two or more people work together in order to achieve personal and professional goals (Johnson and Ridley). Effective mentoring is also known to be mutually beneficial to all participants (Ambrosetti, Knight and Dekkers). When scanning the literature there are a number of common descriptors that are used consistently to situate the interactions a mentor undertakes: supporter, guide, advisor, teacher, protector and counselor (Sundli; Hall et al.). Such descriptors indicate that a mentor performs a series of roles that change according to the needs of those being mentored (Ambrosetti and Dekkers). If the mentor has a series of roles to perform, then it is logical that the mentee also will also have a number of roles to play, however these are lnot well documented in the literature. The roles that both mentors and mentees play during a relationship can be identified and underpinned through the three dimensions of mentoring: the relationship itself, the developmental needs of the participants and the integration of the context in which the mentoring is situated (Ambrosetti, Knight and Dekkers). The interactions that a mentor engages in with a mentee span over a number of dimensions and are often reactive in nature. The three dimensions of mentoring can assist in describing a mentor and the roles they play. The relational dimension includes such roles as supporter, protector, friend and counselor. The roles of guide, teacher/trainer, collaborator, facilitator and reflector can be classified as developmental whereas being a role model can be both a developmental role and contextual role (230). There are a number of characteristics that are common to a mentor. Johnson and Ridley summarize them to include the following traits: exuding warmth, listening actively, showing unconditional regard, tolerating idealization, embracing humor, not expecting perfection, being trustworthy, having interpersonal competence, respecting another’s values and not being jealous of the mentee (43-62). The above list of traits are personal and often linked to personality, thus can be connected explicitly to the relational dimension of mentoring. The possession (or non-possession) of such traits can impact on the interactions that occur within mentorship. Accordingly it can be assumed that the characteristics, in conjunction with the roles that mentors play, that not everyone is suited to the role of mentor. Most people have experienced schooling at some stage in their life and is therefore familiar with the role of a teacher. Teaching is one most well known professions and can be described as a “creative act in which teachers continually shape and reshape lessons, events and the experiences of their students”(Parkay 45). The role of a teacher is to teach both knowledge and skills to their learners in order to prepare them as citizens for the future. More specifically, the role of the teacher is to design and deliver learning experiences that cater for and challenge the learners, that develop skills and knowledge both inside and outside of the classroom, and help them become confident, creative and responsible citizens. Despite this important role, the image of teachers is split between two types: one that is bitter, spiteful and egocentric, and the other being caring, accepting and reflective (Connell). We remember teachers according to such categories. The types of characteristics that teachers hold are extensive, however the following encompasses those that are key within the literature. Teachers generally have compassion, empathy and a caring nature. They can be flexible, creative, personable, humorous, positive, knowledgeable, motivational and dependable. Teachers are often well organised people, fair minded and resourceful (Howell). When examining the characteristics of teachers and the traits of mentors, similarities can be seen indicating that a particular type of person may be more suited to being a teacher and/or mentor. Teachers as Mentors in Film Teachers seem to be a popular subject of feature films. Films such as Goodbye Mr Chips (1939), Blackboard Jungle (1955) and To Sir with Love (1967) provide us with insight into the way teachers are portrayed in society and the role they play. Film however, has the specific ability to shape the cultural understanding we develop and allows us to make comparisons to our own experiences and those that are played out in fictional circumstances (Delamarter). While there are some films that provide a negative portrayal of teachers, generally they provide a view that teachers are positive influences on the students in their care.A search of the World Wide Web about the teacher as mentor brings up a treasure trove of film titles that span from the 1930s to the present day. Despite such a choice of titles, the following films have been selected to examine in this paper: Dead Poets Society (1989), Dangerous Minds (1995), Freedom Writers (2007) and the Harry Potter series of films (2001-2011). Selection of these films was based on the following two criteria: 1) they occurred within in a school setting and 2) are embedded within a contemporary theme of struggle where rebellion and/or other teenage angst are highlighted. Reader-response theory will underpin the analysis of the teachers in each of the films selected, so that an answer to the earlier posed question can be illuminated. Broadly speaking, reader-response theory is concerned with how readers, or in this case viewers, “make meaning from their experience with the text” (Beach 1). There are many perspectives on reader-response theory and how one might focus upon when responding to a text. In this instance the author will highlight the transaction that occurs between the reader, the text and the context. The transactions will include the social, cultural, experiential, psychological and textual viewpoints (Beach 8). Firstly, each film will be briefly described. This will be followed by an analysis of the teachers portrayed in the films. Dead Poets Society (1989) is set at a conservative secondary boys academy in the late 1950s and focuses on a group of students completing their senior year. Mr Keating is a new English teacher who uses unconventional teaching methods in the classroom. He inspires his students to ‘seize the day’ and ‘make your lives extraordinary’ and does this through the teaching of poetry. He encourages them to stand on desks during his lessons and to throw out tradition. It is Keating’s messages to his students to question what they believe that permeates the film and inspires his students to pursue what they want to do and become. The film Dangerous Minds (1995) is set in a low socio-economic area, where un-privilege and protecting yourself is a way of life. The teacher in this film is new and young, but is an ex US Marine. The class the film centres on is a difficult one to teach. This teacher uses unorthodox methods to gain the attention and trust of her students. The film makes a point to show us that she makes particular effort to relate the curriculum to the students’ interests in order to engage them in learning. Emphasis is also on the fact that she takes an interest in the students and many become her ‘personal projects’ and helping them to realize who they can become. Freedom Writers (2007) is set in the years directly following the Los Angeles riots of 1992 whereby issues of racism, segregation and inequality along with the changing view of the world is the focus. The students in the classrooms of this film are from diverse backgrounds and un-trusting of the education system. Their teacher is new and young and her first attempts to earn their trust fail until she begins to get to know the students and make links between what is being taught to their own lives. She inspires her class to learn tolerance, apply themselves and pursue further education. In the Harry Potter (2001-2011) series of films, there are several teachers who make an impact upon the young wizards. Although set in a fantasy world, the audience is treated to both inspirational teachers looking to nurture, protect and develop their charges, and teachers who are painted as egocentric and suspicious. Inspirational teachers include Dumbledore and McGonagall who offer subtle life lessons, specific skills and knowledge and protect the young wizards from danger. Egocentric and somewhat suspicious teachers include Snape and Quirrell who look to thwart the wizard’s time at school, however they too offer subtle life lessons to their students. The theme of good versus evil is paramount throughout the film series and the teachers are aligned with this theme.Teachers as Mentors – An AnalysisAlthough only a brief description of each film has been offered, the teachers as mentors to their students is the focus. Mr Keating (Dead Poets Society) and LouAnne Johnson (Dangerous Minds) are both described as unorthodox as they each use teaching methods that are frowned upon by others. However their purposeful and different teaching methods draw their students into their lessons so that life learning can occur. In each film, the unorthodox teaching touches the students in ways unknown to them before and in both cases the students demonstrate intellectual and personal growth. The unorthodox methods provide an avenue for a different relationship that is far from the traditional. In some scenes friendship is hinted at where guiding and supporting the students towards their hopes and dreams is highlighted. Aspects of mentoring can be seen through relational, developmental and contextual domains as the students are supported, guided and provided explicit role modeling. The young teacher in Freedom Writers, Erin Gruwell, uses a teaching approach that includes taking time to get to know her students. This approach, like Keating and Johnson, provides the opportunity to tweak the curriculum to the interests of the students and thus engage them in academic learning. They teach skills and knowledge in ways which relate to the students’ lives and interests. They guide, support the students towards the unfamiliar and facilitate opportunities for success. They help them to set goals and make them realise that they have a future and can be successful in their lives. The transformations that occur due to the teaching approaches used by the teachers cause their students admire and want to be like them. In Harry Potter, teachers Dumbledore and McGonagall are wise in years and life experience. They offer wisdom, protection and guidance to the young wizards throughout the series. These teachers, like Keating, Johnson and Gruwell, are role models in that they represent what life can be like and how best to achieve that life. Snape and Quirell also take an interest in their students, but represent an alternative view of life and learning. The difference between the four Harry Potter teachers can be drilled down to the traits of effective teachers. Two of which emulate the traits and two whom do not readily display any of the traits. Dumbledore and McGonagall can be considered as teacher mentors whereas Snape and Quirell cannot. In each film the student can be seen as central to the teacher as mentor and this in turn influences the way in which they behave. The teachers in these films pass on life lessons through their teaching. Throughout the films the teachers are guiding, supporting, befriending, protecting and training their charges. Interactions that occur between the teachers and the students are followed by a reflective phase by the teachers, whereby solutions to problems are sought or self-realisation occurs. In many instances the films show the teacher learning from the student and thus learning their own life lessons through reflection. From a social and cultural perspective, what is portrayed within the storylines are often close to the reality of what is expected from teachers. In many instances these lead towards a stereotyping of who teachers are and how they behave. However, from an experiential point of view, our expectations of the actions that teachers undertake do not usually take such form. In reality, teachers are busy people with a complex job to do (Connell) and often do not have time to take personal interest in all of their students individually. The teachers within the films chosen seem to have one class to prepare for, whereas in reality, a school teacher will have many classes to consider. Psychologically, some teachers and the style they embrace appeal to a particular a type of student or group of students. In the case of Dead Poets Society, Dangerous Minds and Freedom Writers, the storyline painted the students as those needing a particular type of teacher, someone who would save them from their circumstance and visa versa. The textual perspective was well highlighted by the teachers in the Harry Potter films as the viewer expects to see teachers with rather unusual but interesting teaching styles. However the text (within all films) included insight into mentor characteristics such as warmth, humour, tolerance, respect and unconditional regards. Generally, the films examined highlight two different types of teachers, challenging the categories written about by Connell. The first type of teacher highlighted was one who was seen as being more contemporary. One who is individual, unorthodox, and maybe a little rebellious; this teacher highlights that you need to be ‘different’ to make a difference. The second type was one who aligns to the traditional form of teacher; one who uses their knowledge, wisdom and life experience to break through to their student. Each of the films were underpinned by the relationship, the developmental needs and the context in which the narrative was played out, however the relationship between the students and the teacher was highlighted as being central to the storyline. Thus films of this nature often portray teachers as those who help their students in the emotional sense rather than the intellectual sense (Delamarter). Conclusion Several understandings about the teacher as mentor have been brought to light through the examination of the teacher as mentor in film. Firstly, in revisiting the mentoring definitions offered within this paper, it can be said that the teachers highlighted in the discussed films were mentoring their students in a way unique to the relationship developed between teacher and student. In each instance the teacher worked with their students to identify teaching approaches that would be successful in the context in which they were situated. Each film demonstrated that the teachers were committed to creating a relationship that met the developmental needs of their students. Interestingly, it was observed that the relationships were mutually beneficial in that the teachers grew along with the students with many coming to realisations about themselves through reflection and self thought. Secondly, the teachers within the films were portrayed as playing several important roles within their students’ lives. The teachers were role models inside and outside of the classroom. Each film’s storyline positioned the teacher as an influential other, whether they be portrayed as rebellious and unorthodox, evil and suspicious or inspirational and wise. The teachers in these films can be considered as mentors as they were supporting, guiding, protecting and nurturing the students to become better versions of themselves. However, the question that this article sought to answer was: to what extent is the teacher as mentor portrayed in popular film a realistic image? In looking back at the image the teacher in society and the role that they play in developing citizens of the future, it can be said the image presented has slivers of realism. In the real world, teachers must conform to society’s expectations, educational policies and codes of professionalism. Professional relationships with students do not encompass them in behave a student as a ‘personal project’, although catering to their needs is encouraged within the curriculum. It would be thought that if teachers did not encourage their students to be the best they can be, then they would not be doing their job. Many figures throughout our cultural history have been viewed as a mentor due to the role they play and how these roles align to societal beliefs and values. Thus, the portrayal of mentors and mentorship through a popular culture lens provides insight into our understanding about what mentorship is and how this may develop in the future. Both in the past and present, teachers are seen as inspirational figures and pillars of society, and are often considered a mentor by default. Films portray teachers in a variety of fashions, however there are many films that subtly position the teacher as a mentor to their students and it is this that this article has focused on. ReferencesAmbrosetti, Angelina, and John Dekkers. “The Interconnectedness of the Roles of Mentors and Mentees in Pre-Service Teacher Education Mentoring Relationships.” Australian Journal of Teacher Education 35.6 (2010): 42-55.Ambrosetti, Angelina, Bruce Allen Knight, and John Dekkers. “Maximizing the Potential of Mentoring: A Framework for Pre-Service Teacher Education.” Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning 22.3 (2014): 224-39.Beach, Richard. A Teacher’s Response to Reader-Response Theories. Illinois: National Council Teachers of English, 1993.Blackboard Jungle. Directed by Richard Brooks. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1955.Colley, Helen. “Righting Rewritings of the Myth of Mentor: A Critical Perspective on Career Guidance Mentoring.” British Journal of Guidance & Counselling 29.2 (2001): 177-197.Connell, Raewyn. “Teachers.” Education, Change and Society. Eds. Raewyn Connell, Anthony Welch, Margaret Vickers, Dennis Foley, Nigel Bagnall, Debra Hayes, Helen Proctor, Arathi Sriprakash, and Craig Campbell. South Melbourne: Oxford, 2013. 261-275.Dangerous Minds. Directed by John N. Smith. Hollywood Pictures/Don Simpson/Jerry Bruckheimer Films/Via Rosa Productions, 1995.Dead Poets Society. Directed by Peter Weir. Touchstone Pictures/Silver Screen Partners IV, 1989.Delamater, Jeremy. “Avoiding Practice Shock: Using Teacher Movies to Realign Pre-Service Teachers’ Expectations of Teaching.” Australian Journal of Teacher Education 40.2 (2015): 1-14.Freedom Writers. Directed by Richard LaGravenese. Paramount Pictures, 2007.Goodbye Mr Chips. Directed by Sam Wood. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Denham Studios, 1939.Hall, Kendra M., Rani Jo Draper, Leigh K. Smith, and Robert V. Bullough. “More than a Place to Teach: Exploring the Perceptions of the Roles and Responsibilities of Mentor Teachers.” Mentoring and Tutoring: Partnership in Learning 16.3 (2008): 328-45.Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone. Directed by Chris Columbus. Heyday Films/1492 Pictures, 2001.Hay, Terence, Rod Gerber, and Victor Minichiello. “Mentorship: A Review of the Concept.” Unicorn 25.2 (1999): 84-95.Howell, Jennifer. Teaching and Learning: Building Effective Pedagogies. South Melbourne, Vic.: Oxford University Press, 2014.Lentz, Elizabeth, and Tammy D. Allen. “Reflections on Naturally Occurring Mentoring Relationships.” The Blackwell Handbook of Mentoring: A Multiple Perspectives Approach. Eds. Tammy D. Allen and Lillian T. Eby. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. 159-162.Johnson, W. Brad, and Charles R. Ridley. The Elements of Mentoring. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Marsh, Colin. Becoming a Teacher: Knowledge Skills and Issues. 5th ed. Frenchs Forest Pearson, 2010.Parkay, Forrest W. Becoming a Teacher. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.Sundli, Liv. “Mentoring: A New Mantra for Education?” Teaching and Teacher Education 23 (2007): 201-14.To Sir with Love. Directed by James Clavell. Columbia British Productions, 1967.Willis, Paul. “Shop-Floor Culture, Masculinity and the Wage Form.” Working Class Culture: Studies in History and Theory. Eds. John Clarke, Chas Critcher, and Richard Johnson. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2007. 185-200.

<strong><span style="font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><p align="left"> </p><p align="left"> </p><p align="left">har vært økende helt siden registreringen startet tidlig på 1950-tallet. Data fra Oslo har i denne statistikken</p><p align="left">alltid vært presentert samlet som et fylke. I denne artikkelen vises hyppighet av kolorektal kreft fordelt på</p><p align="left">kjønn og 25 bydeler samt for fire regioner i Oslo. Utviklingen over tid fra 1956 til 1995 er vist for Oslo og Norge.</p><p align="left">Den økende hyppighet av både tykktarm- og endetarmkreft gjennom flere tiår ser ut til å avta noe. Dette gjelder</p><p align="left">særlig for tykktarmkreft for kvinner og endetarmkreft for menn i hele landet. Det er store variasjoner mellom</p><p align="left">bydelene i Oslo for begge krefttyper og kjønn. Det er ingen signifikant samvariasjon på bydelsnivå mellom menn</p><p align="left">og kvinner for hver av de to kreftformene. Det er heller ingen samvariasjon mellom sosioøkonomiske faktorer i</p><p align="left">bydelene og hyppighet av kolorektal kreft.</p><p align="left">Sykdommens utvikling fra adenomatøs polypp til adenocarcinom over en lang periode på 10-15 år gjør den velegnet</p><p align="left">til screening. En planlagt screeningundersøkelse for kolorektal kreft i Telemark og Oslo er nærmere beskrevet.</p><p align="left">Resultatene av prosjektet forventes å danne grunnlaget for en samlet nasjonal strategi mot kolorektal kreft.</p><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><p align="left">Stensvold I, Grotmol T, Glattre E.</p></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">SAMMENDRAG</span></span></strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">Kreft i tykktarm og endetarm (kolorektal kreft) er den hyppigste kreftform i Norge for begge kjønn samlet. Hyppigheten</span><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><p align="left"> </p></span></span><p align="left"><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">Colorectal cancer – secular trend from 1956 through 1995: Results from<p align="left">Telemark and Oslo and new screening for colorectal cancer prevention.</p></span></span></strong><em><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT;"><em><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT;"><p align="left">Nor J Epidemiol</p></span></span></em></span><em><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT;"><p align="left"> </p></span></em></span><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">ENGLISH SUMMARY</span></span></strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><p align="left">Colorectal cancer is the most common cancer form in Norway for both genders combined. The incidence rate has</p><p align="left">been increasing ever since the registration started in the early 1950s. Data from Oslo have always been presented</p><p align="left">as one county in the registry. This paper presents the incidence rates for colorectal cancer split by genders and the</p><p align="left">25 areas in Oslo. In addition, the secular trend from 1956 through 1995 is shown for both Oslo and Telemark</p><p align="left">counties as well as for the whole country. The increasing incidence rates of both colon and rectal carcinomas have</p><p align="left">apparently levelled off over the last 10 years. This applies particularly to colon carcinoma in women and rectal</p><p align="left">carcinoma in men for the whole country.</p><p align="left">There was a large variation between the 25 areas of Oslo for both cancer forms and between genders. There</p><p align="left">was no significant correlation between men and women for either of the two cancer forms at the area level in</p><p align="left">Oslo. Nor was there any correlation between socioeconomic factors in areas of Oslo and the incidence rate of</p><p align="left">colorectal cancer.</p><p align="left">The vast majority of colorectal carcinomas develop from an adenomatous polyp over a period of 10 to 15 years.</p><p align="left">This long time span makes the disease well suited for screening. A prospective, randomized sigmoidoscopy</p><p align="left">screening for colorectal cancer prevention in Telemark and Oslo is being planned, and the present data from these</p><p>counties serve as important background information before the screening is scheduled to start in January 1999.</p></span></span></em><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">1998; </span></span><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">8 </span></span></strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">(1): 37-43.</span></span></p>

<strong><span style="font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><p align="left"> </p></span></span><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">SAMMENDRAG</span></span></strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><p align="left">Oslohelsa viste at det var store forskjeller i total dødelighet mellom regionene og bydelene i Oslo. Det er</p><p align="left">tidligere vist at dødeligheten i Oslo for menn har hatt en noe gunstigere utvikling enn landet for øvrig. I</p><p align="left">foreliggende artikkel blir det presentert sammenlikninger av dødelighet innen Oslo med flere europeiske</p><p align="left">land. Videre vises analyser av endring i totaldødelighet hos menn og kvinner i fire regioner for to perioder,</p><p align="left">samt årlig endring hos menn i 25 bydeler for perioden 1990 til 1996.</p><p align="left">For en treårsperiode 1990-92 har vi sammenliknbare dødelighetsdata for aldersgruppen 45-74 år med</p><p align="left">europeiske data fra tolv land. Total dødelighet i Ytre vest er lavest innen Oslo, men noe høyere enn i Island</p><p align="left">for menn og i Frankrike for kvinner. Dødeligheten i Indre øst i Oslo ligger omtrent på samme nivå som i</p><p align="left">Polen for begge kjønn, henholdsvis 2,1 (menn) og 1,9 (kvinner) ganger høyere enn i Ytre vest. I perioden</p><p align="left">1990-96 var det en årlig prosentvis nedgang i dødelighet for Oslo som helhet på 3,2% for menn og 0,3%</p><p align="left">for kvinner. Dødeligheten i Indre øst og Indre vest viste en økning for kvinner i denne perioden.</p><p align="left">Det blir diskutert mulige forklaringer på de observerte forskjellene innen Oslo og landene i Europa: 1)</p><p align="left">ulike insidensrater av f.eks. hjerte-karsykdommer og kreft; 2) forskjellig letalitet ved kroniske fatale</p><p align="left">sykdommer; 3) selektiv innflytting til billigere bydeler av personer med høyere risiko for å utvikle sykdom,</p><p align="left">eller utflytting av friskere individer til andre regioner og land; og 4) ulike levekår på grunn av boforhold,</p><p align="left">miljø og arbeidssituasjon.</p><p align="left">For å kunne forklare mekanismene bak de store forskjellene i dødelighet, må vi ha data om enkeltindivider</p><p align="left">med hensyn til levevaner, livsstilsfaktorer, opplevelse av egenverd, bo- og nærmiljøforhold samt</p><p align="left">bruk av helsetjenester.</p><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><p align="left">Stensvold I, Rognerud M, Thelle DS.</p></span></span></span><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><p align="left"> </p></span></span><p align="left"><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">Mortality from all causes in several areas within the city of Oslo.<strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><p align="left">Comparison with 12 European countries.</p></span></span></strong></span><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><p align="left"> </p></span></strong></span></strong><em><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-ItalicMT;">Nor J Epidemiol </span></span></em><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">1998; </span></span><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">8 </span></span></strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">(1): 21-28.</span></span></p><p align="left"><strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">ENGLISH SUMMARY</span></span></strong><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="font-size: x-small; font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><p align="left">The «Oslo Health Report» showed that there are striking differences in mortality rates in the four</p><p align="left">geographic regions and 25 local authorities within the City of Oslo. Previous analyses have shown that the</p><p align="left">excess mortality for men in Oslo compared to the whole country of Norway has been reduced during the</p><p align="left">time period 1975 to 1994. In this paper annual changes in total mortality rates for men in the 25 local</p><p align="left">authorities in Oslo are presented for the time period 1990 to 1996. We have also compared mortality data</p><p align="left">for the age-group 45-74 years for the three-year period 1990 to 1992 with corresponding European figures.</p><p align="left">Total mortality rates in the Outer West region are lowest within Oslo, but slightly higher than the</p><p align="left">average rates for men in Iceland, and women in France who both have low rates. Mortality rates in the</p><p align="left">Inner East region are approximately at the same level as in Poland for both sexes, 2.1 and 1.9 times higher</p><p align="left">than in the Outer West region for men and women respectively. During 1990 to 1996 the annual decrease</p><p align="left">in total mortality rates in Oslo were 3.2% for men and 0.3% for women. Inner East and Inner West showed</p><p align="left">an increase in mortality rates for women in this period.</p><p align="left">We see some possible explanations for the observed differences within Oslo and between the countries:</p><p align="left">1) different incidence rates of cardiovascular diseases and cancer, 2) different case-fatality ratios for some</p><p align="left">of the major chronic diseases, 3) selective movement of sicker and healthier individuals between regions</p><p align="left">and countries and 4) bad living conditions, pollution, problems in relation to work.</p><p align="left">In order to explain the mechanisms behind these large observed differences in mortality rates, we need</p><p align="left">data at the individual level on lifestyle, self-perceived health, living and social conditions as well as the</p><p>availability and use of health care services.</p></span></span></p>

La Educación Superior y la Universidad se enfrentan hoy a múltiples presiones y exigencias –muchas de ellas contradictorias– que aspiran a lograr cada vez mayores niveles de adecuación de sus funciones mi- sionales a las lógicas empresariales de la productivi- dad, la competitividad y la rentabilidad, no importa si con ello se descaracteriza, se abandona o se tergiversa su sentido público y su visión crítica de la sociedad. En esta dirección, se nos muestra como ineludible la necesidad de insertarnos y beneficiarnos de una economía globalizada que, supuestamente, nos ha de ofrecer el bienestar anhelado y que conlleva la pro- mesa de mayores niveles de equidad, modernización y desarrollo sostenible. Bajo estas directrices, la economía del conocimiento, la sociedad de la información, la globalización, la flexibilidad, las competencias o la formación a lo largo de la vida constituyen, entre otras, expresiones de un ‘nuevo’ lenguaje que, desde hace algunas décadas, configura una pretensión cada vez más naturalizada sobre la indisoluble relación entre educación y sistema productivo. En esta desigual relación, la primera se asume como subordinada al segundo, en tanto las orientaciones y demandas del capitalismo global, liderado por el mercado y las empresas multinacionales y trasnacionales, son las que comandan la lógica de las transformaciones, ya no sólo económicas sino también sociales, políticas, culturales y educativas. Incluso desde innumerables posturas se naturaliza el acontecer de la educación y sus instituciones; naturalización que produce el efecto de fatalidad y parálisis que nos advierte Bourdieu y que nos produce la sensación de impotencia frente a este devenir. Por supuesto, desde la política oficial también se agencia un discurso, ya no fatal, sino voluntarista, aparentemente neutral, que aboga por otra constata- ción: ingresar a la sociedad del conocimiento y a las ventajas de la globalización es un asunto ineludible e incontrovertible y para ello es imprescindible desarrollar las competencias que este nuevo orden social nos demanda. El papel que se le atribuye a la Universidad desde este «sentido poseído en común» -al decir de Gramsci- es participar de la labor de hacer productivo el capital intelectual, procurando que todos los implicados dediquemos nuestra energía intelectual, emocional, social, afectiva y física al éxito de la multiplicación de la Universidad en su forma empresa. Esa es la clave del progreso, la modernización y el llamado bienestar de la sociedad. Si bien es difícil situarnos en otro régimen de visi- bilidad, es necesario retarnos ?desde la producción de análisis, investigaciones y problematizaciones? a configurar una lectura compleja de estas construcciones históricas y sociales, procurando comprender de qué manera ciertos problemas se configuran como objetos de pensamiento y llegan a plasmarse en programas o formas específicas de gobierno. En este sentido, resulta necesario develar las ideologías que se hegemonizan, esto es, que conquistan consenso, así como los usos retóricos y las falacias que se mani- fiestan en este nuevo lenguaje y en las prácticas que se constituyen en el referente ideal, particularmente en el contexto de la educación superior. En esta ardua tarea han de ayudarnos diversas perspectivas, inves- tigaciones, autores contemporáneos y elaboraciones que provienen de las Ciencias Sociales y de perspectivas que reconocemos como transdisciplinares, para intentar comprender y tematizar este nuevo sentido común de la sociedad. Pese a esta tendencia hegemónica, en diversos contextos, incluido nuestro país, también se confi- guran espacios que dan lugar a luchas, resistencias, antagonismos, a través de los cuales se producen nuevos lenguajes y otras expresiones de cooperación intelectual productiva que se escapan de la lógica mercantil, y que se orientan a generar innovaciones de carácter social que buscan potenciar la construcción de lo común. El actual debate sobre la reforma a la Ley 30 que rige la educación superior en nuestro país es un buen ejemplo de esta tendencia, en la cual nuestros estudiantes –no exclusivamente, pero sí con mayor contundencia– han liderado debates significativos sobre la necesidad de configurar un proyecto de país distinto, desde las orientaciones que definan el devenir de la Educación Superior y de la Universidad. En tal sentido, ya podemos aludir a un movimiento universi- tario que en Colombia está abogando por responder a las exigencias de autonomía, excelencia, financiación y bienestar, que efectivamente logren potenciar una relación entre Universidad y Sociedad a favor de los procesos de igualdad y de democratización. Con este número temático de la Revista Pedagogía y Saberes, queremos favorecer y promover los análisis y debates que nos aporten reflexiones críticas y nos permitan vislumbrar caminos de construcción colectiva a favor, tanto de la defensa de los comunes en riesgo, como de la potenciación de diversas for- mas de compartir el conocimiento en tanto riqueza producida socialmente. Por ello, en nuestra sección de Reflexiones presentamos seis trabajos que abordan estos asuntos decisivos para el campo de la Educación Superior y para la Universidad. Así, el investigador Mario Díaz Villa, avanza en su artículo en el desvelamiento de las nuevas gramáticas del poder y el control subyacentes en los discursos de la flexibilidad y las competencias, las cuales actúan, además, como principios regulativos de la vida, el trabajo y la educación. Desde su punto de vista, estos discursos no ha sido objeto de crítica y análisis suficiente en las Instituciones de Educación Supe- rior ?IES? del país, por el contrario, se ha asumido la flexibilización de manera instrumental, sin mayores resistencias y se ha puesto al servicio de una economía de la formación profesional o laboral flexible. Por su parte, la investigadora Olga Cecilia Díaz Flórez; mediante un análisis crítico de los presupuestos del capitalismo cognitivo aplicado a las funciones centrales de la Universidad ?especialmente, la función de Investigación?, propone una perspectiva pedagógica de la formación investigativa a partir de la cons- trucción de redes de cooperación intelectual, que resulten no sólo productivas en los ámbitos social y educativo, sino también, antagónicas y resistentes al reduccionismo que opera desde la lógica de la universidad-empresa. Tal perspectiva se encuentra, entre otros, vinculada a su vez, a la reflexión propuesta por el investigador Santiago Castro Gómez, en la vía de avanzar hacia un modelo de universidad en el cual el conocimiento funcione como un tejido interdependiente más que como un conjunto de compartimientos, o, espacios académicos y disciplinares sin relación alguna. En su reflexión, Castro-Gómez, observa que la estructura ‘arborescente’ que detenta en la actualidad la universidad colombiana, derivada de un ‘uso’ del modelo cartesiano, es quizá uno de los obstáculos más problemáticos en 5 la idea de lograr un trabajo académico e investigativo de carácter transdisciplinario. Este es, entre otros, unos de los retos que tiene la universidad hoy, de acuerdo con el autor. Siguiendo esta línea de reflexión epistémica, se encuentra el trabajo del investigador José Eustáquio Romão, quien propone, con base en un análisis de la internacionalización de la educación en Brasil, la posibilidad de combinar la razón internalista o estructural con la razón externalista, temporal o contextual, en la perspectiva de pensar una episte- mologia que no obedezca solo a las imposiciones del Capitalismo, sino también, y, fundamentalmente a las exigencias internas del conocimiento y de las IES que producen y transmiten tal conocimiento. Ahora bien, la historia de la universidad pública y sus efectos en el presente es el tema que aborda la investigadora Alcira Aguilera Morales, quien en su trabajo reconstruye algunas memorias, discursos e hitos fundacionales que han incidido en la defensa y construcción del sentido de lo “público”, en el ám- bito de dos experiencias universitarias nacionales de México y Colombia. Tema de absoluta vigencia hoy, cuando la educación superior en nuestro país se encuentra adportas de la reforma ya mencionada, la cual no está exenta de debates, contradicciones y oposiciones. Quizás, la más firme es la del movimiento estudiantil durante todo el 2011. Para Aguilera Morales, la exigencia de “gratuidad” de la Mesa amplia nacional estudiantil ?MANE? es de relevancia histórica, pues constituye un hito fundacional en el presente, en tanto no existe en nuestra nación esa “memoria larga”, es decir, ese marco juridico o cultural suficiente, que permita reinvidicar tal principio. En esa línea, cierra este conjunto de reflexiones, los investigadores Carlos Gustavo Rincón Quiñones, Luis Álvaro Gallardo Eraso, Roberto Vergara Portela y José Joaquín Puerto Martínez, quiénes presentan un análisis, a propósito del mismo proyecto de reforma a la Ley 30, que demuestra la desigualdad existente entre los presupuestos asignados a las diferentes universidades estatales por parte del Estado. En su estudio, la reforma y el discurso oficial que la agencia, profundiza las políticas universitarias a favor de su mercantilización, pues el proyecto desconoce esa 6 desigualdad de base y exige a todas las IES cumplir con los mismos estándares de cobertura, investigación, extensión y acreditación de calidad, entre otros, sin tener en cuenta su punto de partida. Así, los objetivos exigidos se tornan no sólo insostenibles sino también contradictorios, en contraste con las condiciones de posibilidad para alcanzarlos. La sección de Revisión presenta un trabajo acerca de la “gestión del conocimiento”. Un análisis crítico que hacen los investigadores Napoleón Murcia Peña, Dolly Vargas García y Diego Armando Jaramillo Ocampo sobre las tendencias del concepto y su aplicación en el campo educativo. Si bien el énfasis de este trabajo no es la educación superior, su valor reside en situar y analizar este discurso –que trasciende a ésta? desde diferentes ópticas, en la perspectiva de reconocer y promover el conocimiento que circula y se produce en las instituciones y en revalorizar el papel de las personas, en especial de los maestros, a la hora de asumir un enfoque u otro de esta naturaleza. Se ha de señalar al respecto que la gestión del conocimiento es una tendencia resultante a la vez, de los discursos provenientes del campo económico y empresarial, ya descritos en reflexiones anteriores. Finalmente, la sección de Investigaciones pre- senta dos artículos. El primero, que corresponde a una investigación de carácter interuniversitaria, realizada entre los años 2009 y 2011, por parte de un grupo de investigadores del campo del Lenguaje, pertenecientes a diecisiete universidades públicas y privadas del país, y, denominado: Para qué se lee y se escribe en la universidad colombiana. Un aporte a la consolidación de la cultura académica del país. El artículo de la investigadora Nylza Offir García Vera es un reporte de tal investigación, que da cuenta de los hallazgos, específicamente, en la Universidad Pe- dagógica Nacional. El segundo, de los investigadores Diana Margarita Abello Camacho, Carolina Hernández Valbuena y Christian Hederich Martínez, corresponde a los resultados de una propuesta de construcción de un modelo teórico para la identificación de estilos de enseñanza en docentes universitarios y validación del instrumento para su determinación, financiado por el Centro de Investigaciones ?CIUP?. Con estos trabajos cerramos nuestra edición, se- guros de lograr los propósitos de partida que guiaron su convocatoria y elaboración, y de seguir contribu- yendo a la tradición académica e investigativa que ha forjado Pedagogía y Saberes en la educación superior durante los últimos veinte años en nuestro país, en especial, en el campo educativo y pedagógico que nos atañe.

IntroductionClowns can be seen as enacting catastrophe with a small “c.” They are experts in “failing better” who perhaps live on the cusp of turning catastrophe into a metaphorical whirlwind while ameliorating the devastation that lies therein. They also have the propensity to succumb to the devastation, masking their own sense of the void with the gestures of play. In this paper, knowledge about clowns emerges from my experience, working with circus clowns in Circus Knie (Switzerland) and Circo Tihany (South America), observing performances and films about clowns, and reading, primarily in European fiction, of clowns in multiple guises. The exposure to a diverse range of texts, visual media and performance, has led me to the possibility that clowning is not only a conceptual discipline but also a state of being that is yet to be fully recognised.Diminutive CatastropheI have an idea (probably a long held obsession) of the clown as a diminutive figure of catastrophe, of catastrophe with a very small “c.” In the context of this incisive academic dialogue on relationships between catastrophe and creativity where writers are challenged with the horrendous tragedies that nature and humans unleash on the planet, this inept character appears to be utterly insignificant and, moreover, unworthy of any claim to creativity. A clown does not solve problems in the grand scheme of society: if anything he/she simply highlights problems, arguably in a fatalistic manner where innovation may be an alien concept. Invariably, as Eric Weitz observes, when clowns depart from their moment on the stage, laughter evaporates and the world settles back into the relentless shades of oppression and injustice. In response to the natural forces of destruction—earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones, and volcanic eruptions—as much as to the forces of rage in war and ethnic cleansing that humans inflict on one another, a clown makes but a tiny gesture. Curiously, though, those fingers brushing dust off a threadbare jacket may speak volumes.Paradox is the crux of this exploration. Clowns, the best of them, project the fragility of human value on a screen beyond measure and across many layers and scales of metaphorical understanding (Big Apple Circus; Stradda). Why do odd tramps and ordinary inept people seem to pivot against the immense flows of loss and outrage which tend to pervade our understanding of the global condition today? Can Samuel Beckett’s call to arms of "failing better” in the vein of Charles Chaplin, Oleg Popov, or James Thiérrée offer a creative avenue to pursue (Bala; Coover; Salisbury)? Do they reflect other ways of knowing in the face of big “C” Catastrophes? Creation and CatastropheTo wrestle with these questions, I wish to begin by proposing a big picture view of earth-life wherein, across inconceivable aeons, huge physical catastrophes have wrought unimaginable damage on the ecological “completeness” of the time. I am not a palaeontologist or an evolutionary scientist but I suspect that, if human life is taken out of the equation, the planet since time immemorial has been battered by “disaster” which changed but ultimately did not destroy the earth. Evolution is replete with narratives of species wiped out by ice-ages, volcanoes, earthquakes, and meteors and yet the organism of this planet has survived and even regenerated. In metaphorical territory, the Sanskrit philosophers have a wise take on this process. Indian concepts are always multiple, crowded with possibilities, but I find there is something intriguing in the premise (even if it is impossible to tie down) of Shiva’s dance:Shiva Nataraja destroys creation by his Tandava Dance, or the Dance of Eternity. As he dances, everything disintegrates, apparently into nothingness. Then, out of the thin vapours, matter and life are recreated again. Shiva also dances in the hearts of his devotees as the Great Soul. As he dances, one’s egotism is consumed and one is rendered pure in soul and without any spiritual blemish. (Ghosh 109–10)For a dancer, the central location of dance in life’s creation forces is a powerful idea but I am also interested in how this metaphysical perspective aligns with current scientific views. How could these ancient thinkers predict evolutionary processes? Somehow, in the mix of experiential observation and speculation, they foresaw the complexity of time and, moreover, appreciated the necessary interdependence of creation and destruction (creativity and catastrophe). In comparison to western thought which privileges progression—and here evolution is a prime example—Hindu conceptualisation appears to prefer fatalism or a cyclical system of understanding that negates the potential of change to make things better. However, delving more closely into scientific narratives on evolution, the progression of life forms to the human species has involved the decimation of an uncountable number of other living possibilities. Contrariwise, Shiva’s Dance of Eternity is premised on endless diachronic change crossed vertically by reincarnation, through which progression and regression are equally expressed. I offer this simplistic view of both accounts of creation merely to point out that the interdependency of destruction and creation is deeply embodied in human knowledge.To introduce the clown figure into this idea, I have to turn to the minutiae of destruction and creation; to examples in the everyday nature of regeneration through catastrophe. I have memories of touring in the Northern Territory of Australia amidst strident green shoots bursting out of a fire-tortured landscape or, earlier in Paris, of the snow-crusted earth being torn asunder by spring’s awakening. We all have countless memories of such small-scale transformations of pain and destruction into startling glimpses of beauty. It is at this scale of creative wrestling that I see the clown playing his/her role.In the tension between fatalism and, from a human point of view, projections of the right to progression, a clown occupying the stage vacated by Shiva might stamp out a slight rhythm of his/her own with little or no meaning in the action. The brush on the sleeve might be hard to detect in an evolutionary or Hindu time scale but zoom down to the here and now of performance exchange and the scene may be quite different?Turning the Lens onto the Small-ScaleSmall-scale, clowns tend to be tiny bundles or, sometimes, gangly unbundles of ineptitude, careering through the simplest tasks with preposterous incompetence or, alternatively, imbibing complexity with the virtuosic delicacy—take Charles Chaplin’s shoe-lace spaghetti twirling and nibbling on nail-bones as an example. Clowns disrupt normalcy in small eddies of activity which often wreak paths of destruction within the tightly ordered rage of social formations. The momentum is chaotic and, not dissimilar to storms, clownish enactment bears down not so much to threaten human life but to disrupt what we humans desire and formulate as the natural order of decorum and success. Instead of the terror driven to consciousness by cyclones and hurricanes, the clown’s chaos is superficially benign. When Chaplin’s generous but unrealistic gesture to save the tightrope-act is thwarted by an escaped monkey, or when Thiérrée conducts a spirited debate with the wall of his abode in the midst of an identity crisis (Raoul), life is not threatened. Such incongruous and chaotic trajectories generate laughter and, sometimes, sadness. Moreover, as Weitz observes, “the clown-like imagination, unfettered by earthly logic, urges us to entertain unlikely avenues of thought and action” (87). While it may seem insensitive, I suggest that similar responses of laughter, sadness and unlikely avenues of thought and action emerge in the aftermath of cataclysmic events.Fear, unquestionably, saturates big states of catastrophe. Slide down the scale and intriguing parallels between fear and laughter emerge, one being a clown’s encapsulation of vulnerability and his/her stoic determination to continue, to persevere no matter what. There are many ways to express this continuity: Beckett’s characters are forever waiting, fearful that nothing will arrive, yet occupy themselves with variations of cruelty and amusement through the interminable passage of time. A reverse action occurs in Grock’s insistence that he can play his tiny violin, in spite of his ever-collapsing chair. It never occurs to him to find another chair or play standing up: that, in an incongruous way, would admit defeat because this chair and his playing constitute Grock’s compulsion to succeed. Fear of failure generates multiple innovations in his relationship with the chair and in his playing skills. Storm-like, the pursuit of a singular idea in both instances triggers chaotic consequences. Physical destruction may be slight in such ephemeral storms but the act, the being in the world, does leave its mark on those who witness its passage.I would like to offer a mark left in me by a slight gesture on the part of a clown. I choose this one among many because the singular idea played out in Circus Knie (Switzerland) back in the early 1970s does not conform to the usual parameters. This Knie season featured Dimitri, an Italian-Swiss clown, as the principal attraction. Following clown conventions, Dimitri appeared across the production as active glue between the various circus acts, his persona operating as an odd-jobs man to fix and clean. For instance, he intervened in the elephant act as a cleaner, scrubbing and polishing the elephant’s skin with little effect and tuned, with much difficulty, a tiny fiddle for the grand orchestration to come. But Dimitri was also given moments of his own and this is the one that has lodged in my memory.Dimitri enters the brightly lit and empty circus ring with a broom in hand. The audience at this point have accepted the signal that Dimitri’s interludes prepare the ring for the next attraction—to sweep, as it were, the sawdust back to neutrality. He surveys the circle for a moment and then takes a position on the periphery to begin what appears to be a regular clean-up. The initial brushes over the sawdust, however, produce an unexpected result—the light rather than the sawdust responds to his broom stokes. Bafflement swiftly passes as an idea takes hold: the diminutive figure trots off to the other side of the ring and, after a deep breath and a quick glance to see if anyone is looking (we all are), nudges the next edge of light. Triumphantly, the pattern is pursued with increasing nimbleness, until the figure with the broom stands before a pin-spot of light at the ring’s centre. He hesitates, checks again about unwanted surveillance, and then, in a single strike (poof), sweeps light and the world into darkness.This particular clown gesture contradicts usual commentaries of ineptitude and failure associated with clown figures but the incongruity of sweeping light and the narrative of the little man who scores a win lie thoroughly in the characteristic grounds of clownish behaviour. Moreover, the enactment of this simple idea illustrates for me today, as much as it did on its initial viewing, how powerful a slight clown gesture can be. This catastrophe with a very small “c:” the little man with nothing but a broom and an idea destroyed, like the great god Shiva, the world of light.Jesse McKnight’s discussion of the peculiar attraction of two little men of the 20th century, James Joyce’s Bloom and Charles Chaplin, could also apply to Dimitri:They are at sixes and sevens here on earth but in tune with the stars, buffoons of time, and heroes of eternity. In the petty cogs of the causal, they appear foolish; in the grand swirl of the universe, they are wise, outmaneuvering their assailants and winning the race or the girl against all odds or merely retaining their skins and their dignity by nightfall. (496) Clowning as a State of Mind/ConsciousnessAnother perspective on a clown’s relationship to ideas of catastrophe which I would like to examine is embedded in the discussion above but, at the same time, deviates by way of a harsh tangent from the beatitude and almost sacred qualities attributed by McKnight’s and my own visions of the rhythmic gestures of these diminutive figures. Beckett’s advice in Worstward Ho (1983) is a fruitful starting place wherein the directive is “to keep on trying even if the hope of success is dashed again and again by failure: ‘Ever tried. Ever failed. No matter. Try Again. Fail again. Fail better’” (Le Feuvre 13). True to the masterful wordsmith, these apparently simple words are not transparent; rather, they deflect a range of contradictory interpretations. Yes, failure can facilitate open, flexible and alternative thought which guards against fanatical and ultra-orthodox certitude: “Failure […] is free to honour other ways of knowing, other construals of power” (Werry & O’Gorman 107). On the other hand, failure can mask a horrifying realisation of the utter meaninglessness of human existence. It is as if catastrophe is etched lightly in external clown behaviour and scarred pitilessly deep in the psyches that drive the comic behaviour. Pupils of the pre-eminent clown teacher Jacques Lecoq suggest that theatrical clowning pivots on “finding that basic state of vulnerability and allowing the audience to exist in that state with you” (Butler 64). Butler argues that this “state of clowning” is “a state of anti-intellectualism, a kind of pure emotion” (ibid). From my perspective, there is also an emotional stratum in which the state or condition involves an adult anxiety desiring to protect the child’s view of the world with a fierceness equal to that of a mother hen protecting her brood. A clown knows the catastrophe of him/herself but refuses to let that knowledge (of failure) become an end. An obstinate resilience, even a frank acknowledgement of hopelessness, makes a clown not so much pure emotion or childlike but a kind of knowledgeable avenger of states of loss. Here I need to admit that I attribute the clowning state or consciousness to an intricate lineage inclusive of the named clowns, Grock, Chaplin, Popov, Dimitri, and Thiérrée, which extends to a whole host of others who never entered a circus or performance ring: Mikhail Dostoyevsky’s Mushkin (the holy Russian fool), Henry Miller’s Auguste, Salman Rushdie’s Saleem, Jacques Tati, Joan Miro, Marc Chagall, Jean Cocteau, Eric Satie’s sonic whimsy, and Pina Bausch’s choreography. In the following observation, the overlay of catastrophe and play is a crucial indication of this intricate lineage:Heiner Müller compared Pina Bausch's universe to the world of fairy tales. “History invades it like trouble, like summer flies [...] The territory is an unknown planet, an emerging island product of an ignored (forgotten or future) catastrophe [...] The whole is nothing but children's play”. (Biro 68)Bausch clearly recognises and is interested in the catastrophic moments or psychological wiring of life and her works are not exempt from comic (clownish) modulations in the play of violence and despair that often takes centre stage. In fact, Bausch probably plays on ambivalence between despair and play more explicitly than most artists. From one angle, this ambivalence is generational, as her adult performers bear the weight of oppression within the structures (and remembering of) childhood games. An artistic masterstroke in this regard is the tripling reproduction over many years of her work exploring gender negotiations at a social dance gathering: Kontakhof. Initially, the work was performed by Bausch’s regular company of mature, if diverse, dancers (Bausch 1977), then by an elderly ensemble, some of whom had appeared in the original production (Kontakhof), and, finally, by a group of adolescents in 2010. The latter version became the subject of a documentary film, Dancing Dreams (2010), which revealed the fidelity of the re-enactment, subtly transformed by the brashness and uncertainty of the teenage protagonists playing predetermined roles and moves. Viewing the three productions side-by-side reveals socialised relations of power and desire, resonant of Michel Foucault’s seminal observations (1997), and the catastrophe of gender relations subtly caught in generational change. The debility of each age group becomes apparent. None are able to engage in communication and free-play (dream) without negotiating an unyielding sexual terrain and, more often than not, the misinterpretation of one human to another within social conventions. Bausch’s affinity to the juxtaposition of childhood aspiration and adult despair places her in clown territory.Becoming “Inhuman” or SacrificialA variation on this condition of a relentless pursuit of failure is raised by Joshua Delpech-Ramey in an argument for the “inhuman” rights of clowns. His premise matches a “grotesque attachment to the world of things” to a clown’s existence that is “victimized by an excessive drive to exist in spite of all limitation. The clown is, in some sense, condemned to immortality” (133). In Delpech-Ramey’s terms:Chaplin is human not because his are the anxieties and frustrations of a man unable to realize his destiny, but because Chaplin—nearly starving, nearly homeless, a ghost in the machine—cannot not resist “the temptation to exist,” the giddiness of making something out of nothing, pancakes out of sawdust. In some sense the clown can survive every accident because s/he is an undead immortal, demiurge of a world without history. (ibid.)The play on a clown’s “undead” propensity, on his/her capacity to survive at all costs, provides a counterpoint to a tragic lens which has not been able, in human rights terms, to transcend "man’s inhumanity to man.” It might also be argued that this capacity to survive resists nature’s blindness to the plight of humankind (and visa versa). While I admire the skilful argument to place clowns as centrepieces in the formulation of alternative and possibly more potent human rights legislations, I’m not absolutely convinced that the clown condition, as I see it, provides a less mysterious and tragic state from which justice can be administered. Lear and his fool almost become interchangeable at the end of Shakespeare’s tragedy: both grapple with but cannot resolve the problem of justice.There is a little book written by Henry Miller, The Smile at the Foot of the Ladder (1948), which bears upon this aspect of a clown’s condition. In a postscript, Miller, more notorious for his sexually explicit fiction, states his belief in the unique status of clowns:Joy is like a river: it flows ceaselessly. It seems to me this is the message which the clown is trying to convey to us, that we should participate through ceaseless flow and movement, that we should not stop to reflect, compare, analyse, possess, but flow on and through, endlessly, like music. This is the gift of surrender, and the clown makes it symbolically. It is for us to make it real. (47)Miller’s fictional Auguste’s “special privilege [was] to re-enact the errors, the foibles, the stupidities, all the misunderstandings which plague human kind. To be ineptitude itself” (29). With overtones of a Christian resurrection, Auguste surrenders himself and, thereby, flows on through death, his eyes “wide open, gazing with a candour unbelievable at the thin sliver of a moon which had just become visible in the heavens” (40). It may be difficult to reconcile ineptitude with a Christ figure but those clowns who have made some sort of mark on human imagination tend to wander across territories designated as sacred and profane with a certain insouciance and privilege. They are individuals who become question marks: puzzles not meant to be solved. Maybe similar glimpses of the ineffable occur in tiny, miniscule shifts of consciousness, like the mark given to me by Dimitri and Chaplin and...—the unending list of clowns and clown conditions that have gifted their diminutive catastrophes to the problem of creativity, of rebirth after and in the face of destruction.With McKnight, I dedicate the last word to Chaplin, who speaks with final authority on the subject: “Be brave enough to face the veil and lift it, and see and know the void it hides, and stand before that void and know that within yourself is your world” (505).Thus poised, the diminutive clown figure may not carry the ferment of Shiva’s message of destruction and rebirth, he/she may not bear the strength to creatively reconstruct or re-birth normality after catastrophic devastation. But a clown, and all the humanity given to the collisions of laughter and tears, may provide an inept response to the powerlessness which, as humans, we face in catastrophe and death. Does this mean that creativity is inimical with catastrophe or that existing with catastrophe implies creativity? As noted at the beginning, these ruminations concern small “c” catastrophes. They are known otherwise as clowns.ReferencesBala, Michael. “The Clown.” Jung Journal: Culture & Psyche 4.1 (2010): 50–71.Bausch, Pina. Kontakthof. Wuppertal Dance Theatre, 1977.Big Apple Circus. Circopedia. 27 Feb. 2013 ‹http://www.circopedia.org/index.php/Main_Page›.Biro, Yvette. “Heartbreaking Fragments, Magnificent Whole: Pina Bausch’s New Minimyths.” PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art 20.2 (1998): 68–72.Butler, Lauren. “Everything Seemed New: Clown as Embodied Critical Pedagogy.” Theatre Topics 22.1 (2012): 63–72.Coover, Robert. “Tears of a Clown.” Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction 42.1 (2000): 81–83.Dancing Dreams. Dirs. Anne Linsel and Rainer Hoffmann. 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