Academic literature on the topic 'Virtual manikins'

In this work a numerical model is applied in the development of the design of virtual binaural manikins and auditorium acoustic system. The binaural acoustic manikins is based in human body methodology and is developed using empirical and geometrical equation numerical model also coupled with the CAD system. The auditorium geometry is based in a conic methodology and is developed using a geometric numerical model coupled with a CAD system. The binaural manikin geometry, using the Human Thermal Response and the Sound Propagation numerical models, is used in the human acoustic evaluation. The virtual binaural manikin evaluates the direct and indirect sound and calculates the reverberation time. In this preliminary study an auditorium with a group of rows and columns, occupied with 140 virtual manikins, is developed. Three virtual binaural manikins was selected to be evaluate the reverberation time. The acoustic level, in the left and right ears, that the virtual manikins are subjected are evaluated. In accordance the obtained results, the manikins acoustic level evolution, with the reverberation time in accordance with the international standards, presents slight differences between left and right ear and differences between the different binaural manikins.

The aim of the research described in this paper, is to make a virtual thermal manikin that would be simple, but also robust and reliable. The virtual thermal manikin was made in order to investigate thermal conditions inside vehicle cabins. The main parameters of the presented numerical model that were investigated in this paper are mesh characteristics and turbulence models. Heat fluxes on the manikin's body segments obtained from the simulations were compared with published results, from three different experiments done on physical thermal manikins. The presented virtual thermal manikin, meshed with surface elements of 0.035 m in nominal size (around 13,600 surface elements) and in conjunction with the two-layer RANS Realizable k-? turbulence model, had generally good agreement with experimental data in both forced and natural flow conditions.

Background. Simulation has revolutionized teaching and learning. However, traditional manikins are limited in their ability to exhibit emotions, movements, and interactive eye gaze. As a result, students struggle with immersion and may be unable to authentically relate to the patient. Intervention. We developed a new type of patient simulator called the Physical-Virtual Patients (PVP) which combines the physicality of manikins with the richness of dynamic visuals. The PVP uses spatial Augmented Reality to rear project dynamic imagery (e.g., facial expressions, ptosis, pupil reactions) on a semi-transparent physical shell. The shell occupies space and matches the dimensions of a human head. Methods. We compared two groups of third semester nursing students (N=59) from a baccalaureate program using a between-participant design, one group interacting with a traditional high-fidelity manikin versus a more realistic PVP head. The learners had to perform a neurological assessment. We measured authenticity, urgency, and learning. Results. Learners had a more realistic encounter with the PVP patient (p=0.046), they were more engaged with the PVP condition compared to the manikin in terms of authenticity of encounter and cognitive strategies. The PVP provoked a higher sense of urgency (p=0.002). There was increased learning for the PVP group compared to the manikin group on the pre and post-simulation scores (p=0.027). Conclusion. The realism of the visuals in the PVP increases authenticity and engagement which results in a greater sense of urgency and overall learning.

The distribution of PM2.5 around a thermal manikin with realistic female body shape in a naturally ventilated room has been modelled. The health risk (HR) due to inhalation of the PM2.5 has been quantified by integrating the pollutants mass flux over the boundaries of a virtual box around the mannequin’s head (the breathing zone). By the same approach HR is evaluated over the boundaries of another virtual box that surrounds the manikins body and defines the occupied zone. The paper focuses on the peculiarities of creating and meshing a virtual geometry, as well as on the application of user-defined functions (UDF) for defining a pollutant source within the room using Ansys Fluent modelling package.

BACKGROUND: In the 90s, digital human manikins (DHMs) were introduced in planning of workstations, by static or semi-static simulations. Modern DHMs can simulate dynamic work and offer a rapid way for a virtual pre-production ergonomic evaluation. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders may affect surgical performance and patient safety. A prototype of an open console, which is contrary to the conventional closed consoles and may be seen as a representative for a new generation, has been designed to reduce workload for robotic surgery surgeons. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this project was to test a new DHM tool with improved usability to evaluate the ergonomics of a console of a robotic surgical system in a pre-production stage. METHODS: The DHM tool IMMA was used together with a 3D model of the prototype console. Twelve manikins who represented females and males from two national populations were introduced. Manikin-console distances, after console adjustments per manikin, were compared with a US checklist and Swedish standard for VDU work. RESULTS: The DHM tool was useful for this case, but the distances of the checklist and the standard were needed to be obtained “manually”. The automatic functions of the DHM worked smoothly but were not optimized for VDU work. The prototype fulfilled most, but not all, of the ergonomic criteria of the checklist and the standard. CONCLUSIONS: There is room for improvements of the adjustable ranges of the console prototype. DHMs may facilitate rapid pre-production evaluation of workstations for static work; if ergonomic assessment models for VDU work are built-in, there may be a revival of DHMs in static work situations.

A radical new approach was realized to integrate load evaluation into digital man models. The idea is to envelop articular strength-vectors by spacial bodies suggesting potatoes. A total of 244 articular “Moment-Potatoes” was recorded at 34 body joints. “M-Potatoes” allow not only efficient “virtual load evaluation” but possibly provide also a base for autonomously moving manikins.

Cette thèse aborde la problématique de la récupération d’équilibre humanoïde. La littérature traite le plus souvent la récupération d’équilibre pour des bipèdes qui ont des contacts coplanaires. Dans cette thèse, nous proposons une nouvelle approche de récupération d’équilibre dans le cas généralisé d’humanoïdes ayant des contacts multiples et non coplanaires. Notre approche est basée sur un modèle simple d’humanoïde. Un indice de changement d’appui détermine la plage de perturbation à laquelle peut résister le modèle, de telle sorte qu’il réussit à s'arrêter sans tomber tout en maintenant une configuration fixe de contacts. Nous avons développé une méthode de récupération d’équilibre qui contrôle le modèle perturbé pour le stabiliser et qui calcule la nouvelle configuration d’appui (position d'un contact modifié ou ajouté) qui stabilise le modèle pendant un temps de stabilisation prédéterminée, lorsqu’un changement d’appui est nécessaire. Les résultats de la méthode sont validés en les comparant à des expériences de récupération d’équilibre que nous avons menées sur des sujets humains. Nous avons appliqué notre approche sur un humain virtuel que l'on contrôle avec un contrôleur d’énergie, afin de réaliser sa stabilisation. Notre humain virtuel récupère sa stabilité quand il est perturbé dans des environnements non coplanaires
This thesis addresses the humanoid push recovery problem. Literature most often deals with the push recovery of bipeds that have coplanar contacts. In this thesis, we propose a new computational approach for push recovery in the generalized case of humanoids having multiple non-coplanar contacts. Our approach is based on a simple humanoid model. A fall indicator determines the range of perturbation to which can resist the model by keeping a fixed contact configuration, such that the model stops without falling. We developed a push recovery method that controls the perturbed model to achieve its stabilization and that calculates the new support change (position of a changed or added contact) that stabilizes the model during a predetermined stabilization time, when a support change is necessary. The results of the method are confronted to real push recovery and they are validated through push recovery experiments that we conducted on human subjects. We mapped our approach to a virtual human that we control with an energy based controller, in order to achieve its stabilization. Our virtual human recovers stability when it is perturbed in non coplanar environments

The use of proactive ergonomics has become a priority for the study of the operator’s functionality in the working context, as well as in the optimization of work tasks and in the workplace design. The application of proactive ergonomics is adept to foresee and deal with changes and potential problems derived from the evolution of the industrial world. For these reasons, there is the necessity to use Digital Human Modeling (DHM) tools; they are capable to analyze postures and to perform ergonomic assessments according to international technical standards. In the first part of the thesis, a general overview of the different DHM tools is presented and some applications are shown. In particular, the study investigates the strengths and limitations of a multibody model developed in collaboration between industry and university. The postural angles of trunk bending and arm elevation of the model are defined in accordance with international regulations: ISO 11226:2000 and UNI EN 1005/4:2009. Since, the model is characterized by a limited number of degrees of freedom, it has been compared with the reference literature in order to validate it. Subsequently, the model was used for the verification of three case studies of real workstations, highlighting its usefulness in the design for different anthropometries of the operator. The postural angles, calculated in the validation study, were used to generate continuous postural maps with different interpolation methods. The postural maps were normalized with respect to main anthropometric measurements, in order to achieve results that can be generalized to different anthropometries of the operator. In the second part of the thesis, the project: “La Fabbrica si Misura”, developed in collaboration with Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) and with Istituto Nazionale Assicurazione Infortuni sul Lavoro (INAIL) is described. This project includes the measurement of a sample of 3000 male and female workers each, within the Italian production plants of FCA. This survey led to the generation of an updated anthropometric database of the Italian working population. The data were statistically analyzed in order to estimate the anthropometric models of the main percentiles that are referred to during design and to highlight significant anthropometric differences due to age and the geographical area of the sample. Among the utilities of the database, the generation of anthropometric models to update the virtual manikins of DHM tools is of particular interest. In the third and last part of the thesis, models of virtual manikins were obtained with various approaches; the different models were compared to highlight the differences and guide their choice in the assessment and design of workstations. A reliable estimate of the anthropometric measurements of the working population is particularly important in "human-centered design" and can support the design of "adaptable" workstations. Furthermore, it can correctly address the design of protective or auxiliary wearable devices such as the exoskeletons.

Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering
Steven J. Eckels
The research presents the investigation of personal cooling systems (PCS) and their effects on humans from a thermodynamic perspective. The original focus of this study was to determine the most appropriate PCS for dismounted U.S. Army soldiers in a desert environment. Soldiers were experiencing heat stress due to a combination of interrelated factors including: environmental variables, activity levels, and clothing/personal protective equipment (PPE), which contributed to the buildup of thermal energy in the body, resulting in heat stress. This is also a common problem in industry, recreation, and sports. A PCS can serve as a technological solution to mitigate the effects of heat stress when other solutions are not possible. Viable PCS were selected from the KSU PCS database, expanded to over 300 PCS in the course of this study. A cooling effectiveness score was developed incorporating the logistical burdens of a PCS. Fourteen different PCS configurations were tested according to ASTM F2370 on a sweating thermal manikin. Four top systems were chosen for ASTM F2300 human subject testing on 22 male and 2 female soldiers in simulated desert conditions: dry air temperature = 42.2 ºC, mean radiant temperature = 54.4 ºC, air velocity = 2.0 m/s, relative humidity = 20%. Subjects wore military body armor, helmets and battle dress uniforms walking on treadmills at a metabolic rate of approximately 375-400W. All the PCS conditions showed significant reductions in core temperature rise, heart rate, and total sweat produced compared to the baseline (p<0.05). The expected mean body temperature was higher in the human subjects than expected based on the cooling obtained from the sweating manikin test. Lowered sweat production was determined to be the likely cause, reducing the body’s natural heat dissipation. The ASHRAE two-node model and TAITherm commercial human thermal models were used to investigate this theory. A method to account for fabric saturation from dripping sweat was developed and is presented as part of a new model. This study highlights that the response of the human body is highly complex in high-activity, high-temperature environments. The modeling efforts show the PCS moved the body from uncompensable to compensable heat stress and the body also reduced sweating rates when the PCS was used. Most models assume constant sweating (or natural heat loss) thus the PCS sweat reduction is the likely cause of the higher than expected core temperatures, and is an important aspect when determining the purpose of a PCS.

Ο αξιόπιστος και αποτελεσματικός ανθρωποκεντρικός σχεδιασμός προϊόντων και διαδικασιών παραγωγής αποτελεί μείζον ζήτημα της κατασκευαστική βιομηχανίας. Για το λόγο αυτό, πλήθος ελέγχων που αφορούν στη λειτουργικότητα, την ασφάλεια και την άνεση, τόσο των προϊόντων που χρησιμοποιούνται από τον άνθρωπο, όσο και των διαδικασιών παραγωγής που συμμετέχει ο ανθρώπινος παράγοντας, πραγματοποιούνται και αξιολογούνται σε περιβάλλον Η/Υ με τη χρήση λογισμικών προσομοίωσης και εικονικής πραγματικότητας. Η ρεαλιστική και αξιόπιστη αναπαράσταση της ανθρώπινης κίνησης μέσα σε εικονικό περιβάλλον, αποτελεί στις μέρες μας επιτακτική ανάγκη. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, η παρούσα διατριβή επικεντρώνεται στο σχεδιασμό και την ανάπτυξη μιας νέας μεθοδολογίας μοντελοποίησης της ανθρώπινης κίνησης, που βασίζεται στην προσαρμογή μιας υπάρχουσας κίνησης σε νέα ανθρωπομετρικά δεδομένα και περιορισμούς του περιβάλλοντος εργασίας (εικονικού πρωτοτύπου ή σταθμού εργασίας). Η προτεινόμενη προσέγγιση αποσκοπεί στη δημιουργία ρεαλιστικών και αξιόπιστων κινήσεων ψηφιακών ανθρωποειδών με στόχο την προσομοίωσή τους σε εικονικό περιβάλλον, ώστε να εξαχθούν αξιόπιστα αποτελέσματα κατά την εργονομική αξιολόγηση του σχεδιασμού προϊόντων και σταθμών εργασίας σε γραμμή παραγωγής. Αρχικά, γίνεται εισαγωγή τόσο στη σπουδαιότητα, όσο και στα προβλήματα του εργονομικού σχεδιασμού με χρήση ψηφιακών ανθρωποειδών, που αποτέλεσαν και το κύριο έναυσμα της παρούσας έρευνας. Παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα της βιβλιογραφικής ανασκόπησης, που αφορούν σε μεθόδους μοντελοποίησης της ανθρώπινης κίνησης με χρήση τεχνολογίας ψηφιακών ανθρωποειδών, καθώς και σε λογισμικά προσομοίωσης ανθρώπινης συμπεριφοράς και εργονομικού σχεδιασμού. Στη συνέχεια, παρατίθεται μια εκτεταμένη ανάλυση που έχει ως στόχο τη βαθύτερη κατανόηση της ανθρώπινης κίνησης. Η ανάλυση αυτή βασίζεται στη θεωρία του Στατιστικού Σχεδιασμού Πειραμάτων και χρησιμοποιεί πειραματικά δεδομένα καταγραφής ανθρώπινων κινήσεων. Η Ανάλυση της Διακύμανσης χρησιμοποιήθηκε για τον καθορισμό των ανθρωπομετρικών χαρακτηριστικών που επηρεάζουν περισσότερο την ανθρώπινη κίνηση, καθώς και για την ποσοτικοποίηση της επιρροής τους στη διαφοροποίηση της κίνησης. Βάσει των αποτελεσμάτων της Ανάλυσης της Διακύμανσης, γίνεται ανάπτυξη ημι-εμπειρικών, προσθετικών μοντέλων κίνησης, τα οποία συσχετίζουν την επίδραση των ανθρωπομετρικών χαρακτηριστικών με τις τροχιές των αισθητήρων που τοποθετούνται πάνω στο ανθρώπινο σώμα για την καταγραφή της κίνησης. Ακολουθεί η στοιχειοθέτηση της προτεινόμενης μεθοδολογίας μοντελοποίησης. Δεδομένου ότι η ανθρώπινη κίνηση αναλύεται σε ένα σύνολο διαδοχικών στιγμιοτύπων, η μεθοδολογία μοντελοποίησης αποσκοπεί στη δημιουργία στάσεων σώματος ψηφιακού ανθρωποειδούς για κάθε στιγμιότυπο του επιθυμητού σεναρίου κίνησης. Ως σενάριο κίνησης ορίζεται κάθε δυνατός συνδυασμός “εργασίας – ψηφιακού ανθρωποειδούς – περιβάλλοντος εργασίας”. Για τη δημιουργία ενός στιγμιότυπου της νέας κίνησης, ο αλγόριθμος της μεθοδολογίας παράγει τυχαίες εναλλακτικές στάσεις σώματος, διασφαλίζοντας ταυτόχρονα την αποφυγή τόσο των μη-ρεαλιστικών στάσεων, όσο και των στάσεων που δεν ικανοποιούν τους περιορισμούς του νέου σεναρίου κίνησης. Η βασική ιδέα της μεθοδολογίας μοντελοποίησης στηρίζεται στη θεωρία λήψης αποφάσεων πολλαπλών κριτηρίων, η οποία χρησιμοποιείται για την αξιολόγηση των εναλλακτικών και την τελική επιλογή των βέλτιστων στάσεων σώματος, για τη σύνθεση της νέας κίνησης. Τα κριτήρια αφορούν αφενός στην εξασφάλιση της ρεαλιστικότητας της κίνησης και αφετέρου στην ικανοποίηση των νέων χωρικών περιορισμών, που προκύπτουν από τις γεωμετρικές τροποποιήσεις του περιβάλλοντος εργασίας. Έπεται η περιγραφή των βοηθητικών και δομικών στοιχείων του συστήματος υλοποίησης, καθώς και ο αναλυτικός σχεδιασμός του. Το σύστημα που αναπτύχθηκε αποτελείται από τα ακόλουθα δομικά στοιχεία: i)τη βάση δεδομένων, στην οποία αποθηκεύονται οι κινήσεις αναφοράς, τα ψηφιακά ανθρωποειδή, τα περιβάλλοντα εργασίας και τα αρχεία περιγραφής εργασιών, ii)το μηχανισμό που παράγει τις εναλλακτικές στάσεις σώματος λαμβάνοντας υπ’ όψη τους νέους περιορισμούς, iii)τα κριτήρια αξιολόγησης των εναλλακτικών κινήσεων, που αφορούν στην ομοιότητα των γωνιών των αρθρώσεων του σώματος και στην ομοιότητα της θέσης του άκρου εργασίας, iv)τον πίνακα αποφάσεων, ο οποίος υπολογίζει το δείκτη αξιολόγησης για κάθε εναλλακτική, βάσει των κριτηρίων αξιολόγησης, v)το μηχανισμό συνολικής αξιολόγησης των εναλλακτικών, ο οποίος υπολογίζει τον τελικό δείκτη αξιολόγησης, βάσει των δεικτών αξιολόγησης του πίνακα αποφάσεων και των βαρών των κριτηρίων, vi)το μηχανισμό κατάταξης των εναλλακτικών στάσεων, ο οποίος κατατάσσει τις εναλλακτικές, βάσει του τελικού δείκτη αξιολόγησης, και επιλέγει τη βέλτιστη στάση σώματος για κάθε στιγμιότυπο κίνησης. Το σύστημα που αναπτύχθηκε παρέχει τη δυνατότητα δημιουργίας προσαρμοσμένων κινήσεων ψηφιακών ανθρωποειδών που ικανοποιούν τις νέες συνθήκες και περιορισμούς. Οι νέες συνθήκες και περιορισμοί προέρχονται από την τροποποίηση των ανθρωπομετρικών διαστάσεων του ψηφιακού ανθρωποειδούς που εκτελεί την κίνηση, ή/και από την τροποποίηση της γεωμετρίας του περιβάλλοντος εργασίας, όπου εκτελείται η κίνηση. Η αξιολόγηση της αξιοπιστίας της προτεινόμενης μεθοδολογίας μοντελοποίησης παρουσιάζεται μέσα από μια σειρά πειραμάτων εκτέλεσης της πιλοτικής εφαρμογής από το χώρο της αυτοκινητοβιομηχανίας. Η πιλοτική εφαρμογή αποσκοπεί στην εργονομική αξιολόγηση του σχεδιασμού του εσωτερικού ενός επιβατηγού αυτοκινήτου, επικεντρώνοντας στην επιλογή της βέλτιστης θέσης του καθίσματος του οδηγού και της εσωτερικής λαβής της πόρτας. Τα αποτελέσματα της αξιολόγησης καταδεικνύει τις δυνατότητες πρόβλεψης του αλγορίθμου όταν τροποποιούνται, τόσο τα ανθρωπομετρικά, όσο και οι διαστάσεις του περιβάλλοντος εργασίας. Ο αλγόριθμος δημιουργεί ρεαλιστικές και αξιόπιστες ανθρώπινες κινήσεις οι οποίες μπορούν να συντελέσουν στη βελτίωση του εργονομικού σχεδιασμού προϊόντων και διαδικασιών παραγωγής.
The efficient and reliable human-centred design of products and processes is a major goal of the manufacturing industry. Thus, numerous aspects related to performance, safety and ergonomics, need to be verified using Simulation and Virtual Reality techniques, in the context of the product development procedure. The realistic and accurate representation of human motion in Virtual Environment is crucial for the reliability of the simulation results. In this context, this dissertation focuses on the design and development of a novel methodology for human motion modelling, based on the adaptation of a given motion of a digital human model to new anthropometrics and environment’s constraints (related to virtual prototype or workspace). The proposed approach aims at the generation of realistic and reliable digital human motions in order to drive computer manikins into a Virtual Environment, so as to obtain reliable evaluation results during ergonomic design of a product or a production line’s workspace. The introductory chapter presents both the importance and the limitations of the ergonomic design using computer manikins, which consisted the major motivation of this research work. State-of-the-art is presented next, concerning other approaches related to human motion modeling using computer manikins, as well as software tools for digital human modeling and ergonomic design. Next chapter presents an extensive analysis, which focuses on the better understanding of the human motion. This analysis is based on a Statistical Design Of Experiments (SDoE) and makes use of experimental motion captured data. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed for the determination of the impact factor of the anthropometric parameters influencing the human motion path. Semi-empirical additive models was developed next, based on the results of this analysis, which connects the effect of anthropometrics with the trajectories of the markers that are attached on the human body during the motion capture procedure. The composing of the proposed motion modelling methodology is following. Given that human motion is analysed by a set of sequential motion frames, the modelling methodology aims at the generation of digital human’s postures for each frame of the desirable motion scenario. Motion scenario is each possible combination of “task – computer manikin – environment”. For the creation of a new motion’s frame, the algorithm of the methodology generates alternative postures, ensuring the rejection of non-realistic and constraint-violating postures. The basic concept of the modelling methodology is based on the multi-criteria decision making, which is used for the alternatives’ evaluation and the selection of the best-ranked human postures that constitute the new human motion. The criteria concern both the extensionality of the new motion and the satisfaction of the new constraints, related to the geometric modifications of the working environment. The description of the primary and secondary components of the implemented system, as well as their detailed design are presented next. The developed system consists of the following primary components: i)the data base, which includes reference motions, computer manikins, virtual environments and tasks , ii)the alternative generation mechanism, which takes into account the new constraints, iii)the evaluation criteria of alternatives, which are related to joint angles’ and end-effector’s similarity, iv)the decision matrix, which calculates the evaluation score of each alternative posture, based on the criteria, v)the aggregation mechanism, which calculates the utility score of each alternative, based on the evaluation scores and the weights of the criteria, vi)the ranking mechanism, which sorts the alternatives based on the utility score and selects the best-ranked alternative for each motion frame. The developed system enables the creation of adapted motions for digital humans that satisfies the new conditions and constraints. The new conditions and constraints come from the modification of the anthropometrics of the digital human model that realize the motion and/or the modification of the shape/geometry of the working environment. The evaluation of the proposed methodology’s efficiency is illustrated through a set of experiments through the pilot application coming from the automotive industry. The pilot application aims at the ergonomic evaluation of the interior design of a passenger car, focusing mainly on the position optimization for the driver’s seat and the door’s handle. The evaluation demonstrates the prediction capabilities of the algorithm, when both anthropometrics and environment parameters are modified. The algorithm generates accurate and realistic human motions that can be efficiently used in order to improve the computer-aided ergonomic design of manufacturing products and processes.

Simulation can be used for formative and summative evaluation of learner performance. This chapter describes tools and approaches for evaluation of simulation performance through direct and indirect observation, video review, and other metrics of data capture for manikin-based and virtual simulation. Simulation instructors are guided through an approach to evaluating team performance using validated tools. Special considerations for evaluating individual and team performance are discussed, including the impact of stress on performance, minimizing bias, and evaluating large groups of learners.

For simulation to be effective and achieve long-term sustainability as an educational strategy, institutions must have adequate and ongoing availability of training resources, trained educators, and curricula. This chapter explores stakeholder considerations in adoption and implementation of simulation programs. The chapter then discusses the cost considerations of manikin-based and virtual simulations, revenue generation, and return on investment. Ultimately, the widespread use of simulation education at the pre-service and in-service training levels is driven by health professional schools, hospitals, accreditation bodies, and health professional associations. This chapter discusses the role of faculty development and outcomes-based research in the global dissemination of simulation education.

This chapter begins with a brief history of health professional simulation which had its origins in antiquity. The types of simulation and various approaches to simulation-based education including manikin-based and virtual simulation (also known as simulation games) are described. The chapter also introduces an approach to simulation education and basic concepts such as in situ simulation, simulation fidelity, and simulation technology. The relationships between simulation and patient safety and the influence of the military and aviation industry on modern day practice of simulation are explored. Finally, the chapter concludes with an overview of the global application of simulation to learning and evaluation in health professional education.

In 1964, Dr. Barrows first introduced the standardized patients, who are individuals trained to imitate the pathological symptoms of the real patients, and involved them in teaching and clinical skills assessment for healthcare education. In recent decades, the application of the virtual patient has been rapidly grown and has been widely used in clinical or educational practice among residents, surgeons, or other medical professionals because the virtual patient is cost-effective and time-efficient [1]. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collaborated with the Foundation of Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT’IS Foundation, Zürich, Switzerland) to produce a virtual family, which is a set of anatomical computer-aided design (CAD) models of adults and children [2, 3], and those CAD models are used in electromagnetic, thermal, and computer fluid dynamics simulations. However, the meaning of virtual patients or models has varied across the recent years and more and more researchers tried to categorize the terminology of virtual patients. In general, virtual patients can be classified into seven major types including: case presentation, interactive patient scenarios, virtual patient game, high fidelity software simulation, human standardized patients, high fidelity manikins, and virtual standardized patients [4]. The virtual patients discussed in this study can be classified as interactive patient scenarios, whose application includes clinical reasoning, surgical planning, and disease diagnosis.

In this work we apply an innovative participative design approach for the quality evaluation of virtual prototypes of new industrial products (i.e. concept designs), by adopting statistical procedures and carrying out tests in an immersive VR environment. This methodology has been fully exploited through a case study concerning the choice of the optimal design for the interiors of a new regional train. Following this approach, the optimal concept design is defined at the end of a process consisting of five phases: identification of the quality elements of the concept design, classification of the quality elements, generation and quality evaluation of product concepts and, finally, definition of the optimal concept. According to the applied methodology after the identification of the customer’s needs, a structured set of quality elements has been defined and, successively, classified according to Kano’s theory. Following the approach of conjoint analysis, the design factors have been combined according to an experimental plan to form product virtual concepts. During the concepts generation phase we have explored those product architectures that integrate design characteristics correlated to the set of quality elements. The concepts have been created according to comfort, ergonomic and safety criteria. In particular we have considered the ergonomics of places and furniture dimensions, through the use of virtual manikins. The evaluation of the quality of the different concepts has been carried out in the VR laboratory (named “VRTest”) of the Competence Centre for the Qualification of Transportation Systems founded by Regione Campania according to an original statistical procedure and has involved a group of experts in train’s interiors design and a group of common users of regional trains.

Nowadays, economical, technical and ergonomic factors have a great importance on the design of the agricultural tractors. The paper illustrates the use and the management of heterogeneous product information (manual measurements and drafts, 2D drawings, technical documentation, photos), advanced CAD modeling tools and digital human models, for the redesign and the ergonomic optimization of an agricultural tractor’s driver cab. The project development has been organized using a top–down approach in a collaborative environment. At first, a manual measurement with gauges allowed to realize a technical draft of the whole agricultural tractor and of each component part of the driver cab. Then a main skeleton has been created in Catia V5 environment in order to specify all the datum elements necessary to model each sub-assembly of the tractor. Cabin, platform, engine, tires, seat, dashboard and controls have been organized separately and modeled considering the details related to the manual measurements and to the technical standards. Once obtained the 3D CAD model of the tractor, an opportune questionnaire was prepared and a test campaign was carried out with real operators in order to define the more critical control devices within the driver cab, as regards to usability and ergonomic issues. An “Ergonomics’ Evaluation Index” (EEI) was defined taking into account the posture angles of the operator and the Rapid Upper Limb Assessment analysis tool available in the “Ergonomics Design & Analysis” module of Catia V5 based on the use of a digital human model. The index was validated comparing the results of tests carried out using virtual manikins of different percentiles performing a specific driving task, with the results of tests carried out by real operators, of the same percentiles, performing the same driving task. Critical values of the EEI obtained during some driving tasks in virtual environment, suggested to modify the shape and the position of some control devices in order to optimize the ergonomics of the driver cab. The adoption of the top-down modeling based approach allowed each change on a singular component part to be automatically propagated on the whole assembly, making easy the changes on the virtual prototype.

The overall project objectives included the development of accessibility specifications for the single and bi-level cars that can be used by the rail manufacturing industry to produce vehicles for HSR passenger rail. The specific objective included developing “virtual” models of space to accommodate wheeled mobility devices without sacrificing revenue seating. The “virtual” models developed permit both calibration and validation of the recommendations that were submitted to the PRIIA accessibility working group. The working group requested that prior to acceptance of the recommendations that they be validated and calibrated. The use of “virtual” validation tools and models permitted the development, validation and calibration of different spatial configurations and different types of wheeled mobility devices prior to full scale testing. The design wheeled mobility device was a power base. Unoccupied larger scooters were also evaluated for stowage with the assumption that scooter users would transfer to regular train seats. This project extends the work undertaken in the development of the draft specifications for the Accessibility Working Group. The draft specifications incorporate the increase in the size of both the wheeled mobility devices and occupants as a reflection of the changes in population demographics. The validation work has used the Acela cars to serve as base models for the 2-D and 3-D renderings. These designs are optimized, validated, and calibrated with manikins that represent the 5th and 95th percentile populations on large wheeled mobility devices including; sport manual wheelchairs, power wheelchairs and four wheeled scooters that meet the 30 inch wide by 54 inch long footprint. The large scooter that meets the 30 inch by 54 inch long footprint does not fit inside the accessible restrooms and also compromises seating space in the coach. The powerbase and manual wheelchairs work the current Acela trainsets.

Most occupant accommodation assessments of a new vehicle design currently still utilize human appraisal. That is, human subjects experience the new design physically and provide feedback including a numerical rating or verbatim description. There are two drawbacks with this type of assessment: 1) the outcome is subjective. They are likely affected by other factors such as the vehicle’s appearance or brand and the individual’s own bias; 2) the outcome may not be able to reveal where the issues are nor how to resolve them. The digital manikin technology has been widely used in different areas: starting from movie and video gaming industries, and getting more and more involved in the product life circle of manufacture industries. Human motions are captured, and the digital manikin is utilized to present these motions virtually. This paper introduces a method that uses digital manikins to assist the process of vehicle design. Subjects’ motions interacting with a vehicle, which are related to a new design change, are captured. These motions are used to drive digital manikins that represent their respective subjects in size and body shape. A software system that animates the digital manikin according to the motions and creates swept volumes of selected body segments was created. The collection of the swept volumes of all subjects represents the space that is occupied by the human body during the motion. This space can be used to assess the design changes by indicating the minimum clearance between the swept volume and vehicle components or the interference between the human body with the components. In addition, the space described by the swept volumes provides a guideline or space limit for any future design changes. This method is objective. It not only pin-points the locations that cause discomfort or inconvenience by the new design, but also provides quantitative suggestions on how much improvement is needed for a better design.

Mixed (MR) and Virtual Reality (VR) simulations are hampered by requirements for hand controllers or attempts to perseverate in use of two-dimensional computer interface paradigms from the 1980s. From our efforts to produce more naturalistic interactions for combat medic training for the military, we have developed an open-source toolkit that enables direct hand controlled responsive interactions that is sensor independent and can function with depth sensing cameras, webcams or sensory gloves. From this research and review of current literature, we have discerned several best approaches for hand-based human computer interactions which provide intuitive, responsive, useful, and low frustration experiences for VR users. The center of an effective gesture system is a universal hand model that can map to inputs from several different kinds of sensors rather than depending on a specific commercial product. Parts of the hand are effectors in simulation space with a physics-based model. Therefore, translational and rotational forces from the hands will impact physical objects in VR which varies based on the mass of the virtual objects. We incorporate computer code w/ objects, calling them “Smart Objects”, which allows such objects to have movement properties and collision detection for expected manipulation. Examples of smart objects include scissors, a ball, a turning knob, a moving lever, or a human figure with moving limbs. Articulation points contain collision detectors and code to assist in expected hand actions. We include a library of more than 40 Smart Objects in the toolkit. Thus, is it possible to throw a ball, hit that ball with a bat, cut a bandage, turn on a ventilator or to lift and inspect a human arm.We mediate the interaction of the hands with virtual objects. Hands often violate the rules of a virtual world simply by passing through objects. One must interpret user intent. This can be achieved by introducing stickiness of the hands to objects. If the human’s hands overshoot an object, we place the hand onto that object’s surface unless the hand passes the object by a significant distance. We also make hands and fingers contact an object according to the object’s contours and do not allow fingers to sink into the interior of an object. Haptics, or a sense of physical resistance and tactile sensation from contacting physical objects is a supremely difficult technical challenge and is an expensive pursuit. Our approach ignores true haptics, but we have experimented with an alternative approach, called audio tactile synesthesia where we substitute the sensation of touch for that of sound. The idea is to associate parts of each hand with a tone of a specific frequency upon contacting objects. The attack rate of the sound envelope varies with the velocity of contact and hardness of the object being ‘touched’. Such sounds can feel softer or harder depending on the nature of ‘touch’ being experienced. This substitution technique can provide tactile feedback through indirect, yet still naturalistic means. The artificial intelligence (AI) technique to determine discrete hand gestures and motions within the physical space is a special form of AI called Long Short Term Memory (LSTM). LSTM allows much faster and flexible recognition than other machine learning approaches. LSTM is particularly effective with points in motion. Latency of recognition is very low. In addition to LSTM, we employ other synthetic vision & object recognition AI to the discrimination of real-world objects. This allows for methods to conduct virtual simulations. For example, it is possible to pick up a virtual syringe and inject a medication into a virtual patient through hand motions. We track the hand points to contact with the virtual syringe. We also detect when the hand is compressing the syringe plunger. We could also use virtual medications & instruments on human actors or manikins, not just on virtual objects. With object recognition AI, we can place a syringe on a tray in the physical world. The human user can pick up the syringe and use it on a virtual patient. Thus, we are able to blend physical and virtual simulation together seamlessly in a highly intuitive and naturalistic manner.The techniques and technologies explained here represent a baseline capability whereby interacting in mixed and virtual reality can now be much more natural and intuitive than it has ever been. We have now passed a threshold where we can do away with game controllers and magnetic trackers for VR. This advancement will contribute to greater adoption of VR solutions. To foster this, our team has committed to freely sharing these technologies for all purposes and at no cost as an open-source tool. We encourage the scientific, research, educational and medical communities to adopt these resources and determine their effectiveness and utilize these tools and practices to grow the body of useful VR applications.

Abstract The validation of the accessibility, maintainability, mounting/dismantle simulation in a cluttered environment is a key problem during the design process of a mechanical system. On the one hand research in path planning lead to automatic trajectory definition. These systems are really efficient for simple problems. On the other hand direct manipulation is possible thanks to robotic CAD systems. Another direct manipulation is possible with common virtual reality tools that allow the designer immersion in a whole mechanical environment. In such an environment the designer can handle an object in order to check its accessibility. Thanks to the use of a multi-agent architecture we greatly improve the effectiveness of virtual reality tools while coupling algorithmic approaches and direct manipulation. This original method is a solution of a multi-criteria constrained optimisation problem. Theoretical and practical aspects are presented.