Journal articles on the topic 'Veste de costume'

As African designers with vested interest in pushing the African fashion agenda on the world fashion stage, the design team undertook this project to purposively create a multi-ethnic-inspired costume for a Tanzanian member of the Diplomatic Corps. The occasion was to commemorate the celebration (the election and swearing into office) of the first ever Black woman of Asian descent, Kamala Harris as Vice President of the United States of America (USA), a historic period characterised by COVID 19 pandemic. Inspiration was from local resources including those from the celebrant’s varied background. The research design is a studio-based modelled on design-led concepts. The dress created reflects the Afro-Asian nuances of clothing traditions which speak of modesty, brightness, re-birthed and ancient costumes brewed in the African ‘pot.’

Due to the richness and variety of costumes, one leather element from the leather coat (kožuh) has been singled out, which has been developed in a new way and applied in a contemporary clothing collection.A lot of attention has been paid to handmade workmanship and quality, so this collection also has high fashion features. In the art part, through sketches, the selected theme or element is elaborated.Models have been developed and places where and in what way leather elements and mirrors will be applied.The collection transforms the costume element into simple, refined garments, creating a contrast between the old and the new, tradition and modernity.It depicts the present, a contemporary collection created on the foundations of a rich past and tradition.The result is presented in the form of a realized fashion collection of women's clothing with leather ethno applications.

Bondița is an integral part of the popular port of the Republic of Moldova, throughout the Carpathian region and beyond. This item of clothing has a rich terminology and typology, depending on the area, region, season, social status of the owner, materials, finishes, technologies and techniques. Information on the art of leather craftsmen from Moldova and other European countries is presented. The scheme of cutting and embroidery of the bead varies, the materials used, the stages and the technologies of making. We can observe the forms, materials and art of embroidery on leather and fabric vests from the collections of museums in the Republic of Moldova and other European countries. Patterns specific to traditional art are used in embroidery and other decorative elements, which are made in different techniques. Stylized floral and geometric ornaments are represented decor elements. The leather processing is done according to ancient methods by using specific traditional tools combined with modern technologies. In recent decades, traditional vests have attracted the attention fashion designers of world class, but local designers have also found inspiration in the folk costume. Some pieces are inspired from the fashion designers’ collections by the bonditsa, indicating a rising level of interest in traditional art presented through folk costume

The effectiveness of using automatic embroidery methods in the clothes of the tourist guide of the city of Neom and its impact on raising culture. The research problem is summarized in the effectiveness of the use of automatic embroidery methods in the clothes of the tourist guide of the city of Neom and its impact on raising culture, and the importance of the research lies in the development of the general form of the tour guide uniform by integrating the skills of automatic embroidery and achieving new creative entrances to employ automatic embroidery in the form of the logo of the city of Neom on the vests of tourist guides and is represented in cutting his clothes, and the researcher followed the study of the applied descriptive approach where the descriptive approach was In the use of automatic embroidery stitches padding stitch and the applied approach in the implementation of stitches on the vest of the tour guide in the city of Neom was also distributed questionnaire to extract results and information, and the research hypotheses lie in the relationship between the development of the general form of the tourist guide uniform and the integration of automatic embroidery skills and the achievement of new creative entrances and there is a relationship between the employment of automatic embroidery in the form of the logo of the city of Neom on the vests of tourist guides in the city of Neom and is represented in the pieces of clothing As the researcher summarizes the results of the research, there is a statistically significant relationship between the development of the general shape of the tour guide uniform and the integration of automatic embroidery skills and the achievement of new creative entrances and appears in the ninth phrase by 70% strongly agree "innovation of automatic embroidery techniques in the clarity of the role of the tour guide", and there is a statistical relationship between the employment of automatic embroidery in the form of the logo of the city of Neom on the vests of tourist guides in the city of Neom and is represented in the pieces of clothing and appear in the twentieth phrase by 73% strongly agree "with a significance level of 0.000.The association of the art of machine embroidery with the NEOM logo led to the renaissance of manual skills", and the researcher recommends paying attention to machine embroidery, which leads to the renaissance of manual skills for the logo of Neom city and the establishment of training courses to educate the tourist guide in the field of tourism development in NEOM.

Nel quindicesimo canto del Paradiso Dante affida a Cacciaguida il peana della Firenze 'del buon tempo antico'. La gran parte di questo panegirico è dedicata alle donne fiorentine. Dopo aver lodato i costumi muliebri dell'antica Firenze, l'avo di Dante rivolge alle contemporanee del poeta un'aspra invettiva che, pur basandosi su di un'antica e provata tradizione classica di tipo satirico-morale, sembra però aprirsi con forza a modelli biblici che non sono stati fin qui sufficientemente investigati. Questo articolo intende mostrare quanto l'antica filigrana vete-rotestamentaria del discorso di Cacciaguida possa paradossalmente ed efficacemente prestarsi proprio alla critica sociale provocata in Dante dalla particolare temperie storica della Firenze in cui era immerso e come questo sostrato biblico corrisponda anche a certe ideologie dell'austerità di costumi di ambiente augusteo penetrate nell'Eneide virgiliana.

Neste artigo interdisciplinar, fundindo História das Mentalidades e Artes Plásticas, abordamos a tela O casal Arnolfini (1434), do pintor flamengo Jan van Eyck (c. 1390-1441), como uma ilustração sugestiva do nascimento da Europa Moderna e da família burguesa, no Renascimento Quatrocentista. Por meio da análise dos gestos, vestes, mobiliário e objetos de decoração, fixados por van Eyck, é possível verificar como a burguesia tornou-se dona do poder, assumindo os lugares ocupados pela nobreza, da qual herdaria costumes e etiquetas. A união do brasão à bolsa, como símbolos distintivos de poder, implicou a busca por códigos de civilidade e etiqueta que pusessem em equilíbrio os valores da vida pública e as exigências da vida privada.

O ensaio reflete a relação corpo-saia, a partir do estudo da performance das Saias de Axé, para considerar a saia que compõe o traje de mulheres do candomblé como portal de uma relação sagrada que tem o corpo como altar. Os processos de confecção e costura, considerando seus formatos e adornamentos articulados à expressão espiral do movimento que pressupõem, desenham no espaço a imagem desses corpos como espirais em movimento. O rodar das rodas dessas saias de axé torna a saia um prolongamento do corpo e expande seu movimento, expressando, assim, uma cosmopercepção espiralar em que o feminino é sublinhado como continuidade da tradição.

À primeira vista, o que parece razoavelmente defensável na posição kantiana, com base na Fundamentação da Metafísica dos Costumes, é que as ações imorais são insondáveis, mas não o são como as ações morais. Estas são sempre insondáveis, aquelas quando vestem a conformidade ao dever, pois quando são contrárias ao dever são sondáveis. Mas na Crítica da Razão Pura (1980b, p.279, n.; B 579, n.80) Kant afirma que "a moralidade própria das ações (mérito e culpa), mesmo a de nosso próprio comportamento, permanece-nos totalmente oculta", pois não sabemos o quanto devemos imputar ao efeito puro da liberdade ou à simples natureza. Assim, ao que parece Kant defende duas posições. Uma, apregoando a insondabilidade parcial das ações imorais, outra uma opacidade total da qualidade moral das ações. Julgo, contudo, que, no fundo, Kant pode sustentar, sem cair em contradição, tanto a posição de que (a) as ações contrárias ao dever sinalizam a maldade de uma máxima como a tese de que (b) o mérito ou demérito moral jamais pode ser observado. A primeira alternativa é a que verificamos, por exemplo, na Fundamentação da Metafísica dos Costumes e que também na Religião desempenha um importante papel, uma vez que Kant tem de assumir, de algum modo, a experiência de ações más. Já a segunda tese parece ter um fundo eminentemente especulativo. Ela visa a mostrar a indecidibilidade metafísica acerca da qualidade moral de uma máxima.

The article deals with two issues widely discussed in ethnological studies: gifts and clothing. Landmark theories on gift exchange were first propounded by Marcel Mauss and Claude Lévi-Strauss, who introduced a multi-perspective approach. The question was further explored by Russian scholars Aaron Gurevich, Elena Ilnitskaya and others. The function and symbolism of clothing were studied by Flugel, Hofmann, Bogatyrov and other researchers, who pointed out primary and secondary characteristics of garments. Likewise significant are works by Georgian scholars who focused on the utilitarian and aesthetic features of Georgian national costumes and their regional, age and gender specifics. This article discusses khalat as a gift in Medieval East Georgia according to the 17th-18th century Georgian historical sources. Gift is understood as having a symbolic value of reciprocity and reflecting the ongoing political situation in the country. Royal practices for accepting khalat as a gift can be classed into three types: a. when a king removed his national clothes and publicly vested himself in Iranian garments, thus recognizing full obedience, b. when a king put on Iranian clothes over his Georgian national costumes, thus expressing his partial obedience and c. when a king entered the borders of his country dressed in Iranian clothes, which indicated that he was granted the insignia of royalty. The comparative study of written sources reveals that the presentation of khalats was practiced in Georgia in the Middle Ages (the 9th-12th centuries) as well as in Antiquity (the 1st-2nd and 5th-6th centuries).

Abstract Nowadays, the virtual technology is being widely applied in the area of clothing design and try-on. However, the possibilities of these technologies cover only the contemporary marketable clothes, while the insight in the aspect of historical costume is very limited. In this research, we developed the method that allows to reconstruct and do the virtual try-on of historical men’s suit consisting from four different garments—trousers, shirts, vest, and coat. The method includes, on one hand, the analysis of pattern drafting systems, patterns construction, special means of bespoke tailoring that were popular in the history and, on the other hand, the way of its adapting and preparing to contemporary technologies of 2D and 3D design. The exploration was done with men’s suit and the patterns from the nineteenth century. We studied how the tailors took all measurements, the content of size charts including divisional, direct measurements, and its combination. To parameterize the historical patterns of men’s clothes, we created the schedule of special indexes. We developed the method how to identify the means of garment shaping by steam pressing, which are hiding in the patterns, and how to perform ones by darts. The preparation of historical patterns to virtual try-on was done by CAD. As example, the reconstruction of full-dress suite painted on the Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha’ portrait (1840) was done, and high adequacy between the historical prototype and the virtual suit has been proved.

A Caçada da Rainha é uma manifestação cultural que ocorre, de maneira mais tradicional, no município de Colinas do Sul no Estado de Goiás e faz referência à época do Império Brasileiro. Os participantes se vestem de acordo com suas funções, cujas principais são: rei, rainha, imperador, soldado da guarda real entre outros. No presente artigo defende-se que essa festa, por meio dos laços dos moradores com seus símbolos, signos e representações, que passam a demarcar uma cultura singular da festividade no Estado, caracteriza a presença do lugar e por isso necessita ser identificada e espacializada. Por meio da Geografia Cultural, as manifestações culturais ganham força devido à nova abordagem sobre os sujeitos (festivos) e seus costumes, discutindo o diferente, as particularidades e os modos de representação. A importância da Caçada da Rainha está centrada na análise dos significados e o objetivo é compreendê-la nessa perspectiva. É também investigar como essa festa atua na transformação do espaço em lugar e na criação de identidades de lugar e dos sujeitos partícipes. Para a realização de tais finalidades a metodologia centrou-se no embasamento teórico e na pesquisa de campo, o que possibilitou a identificação de símbolos, sentimentos, emoções e sensações dos sujeitos. Nesse sentido refletiu-se, também, sobre a dimensão humana e sua ligação com o meio, essencial para identificar a Caçada da Rainha enquanto fator de interação entre sujeito e espaço configurado como lugar.

Este estudo decorre de uma pesquisa mais ampla sobre roupas com capacidade de mutação. Aqui o foco é nas roupas usadas tanto nos cultos de religiões afro-brasileiras, como a umbanda e o candomblé, e africanas, como o ifá, geledé, etc, quanto no cotidiano. Para isto, foi necessário recuar a investigação sobre os usos destes panos para o período colonial e imperial do Brasil. E, desta forma, constatou-se que o pano da costa e o torço transcendem a religião. Fora dela, estas vestes, como trajes completos, adquirem outras funções, e seus usos são ressignificados quando amarradas, torcidas ou fechadas com nós, em substituição à costura. O método utilizado foi o da pesquisa bibliográfica e iconográfica, com resultados que apresentam uma retórica discursiva e argumentativa relacionando o objeto de estudo à cultura material.

São Francisco de Paula (RS) tem começado a se destacar como um destino importante para o ecoturismo. No entanto, ainda é pouco divulgado para quem busca o turismo de observação de aves. Este estudo teve por objetivo avaliar as espécies de aves já registradas no município e propor uma metodologia mais refinada para reconhecer os melhores destinos para a prática de observação de aves. Foram consideradas características de interesse para a observação e a adição de um índice de possibilidade de observação das espécies no município, sendo utilizado dados disponibilizados na plataforma de fotos e registros Wikiaves. Foram registradas 329 espécies de aves para o município, e após a aplicação do limiar de seleção proposto, foram classificadas e ranqueadas 62 espécies atrativas. As espécies Heteroxolmis dominicanus (noivinha-de-rabo-preto) e Xanthopsar flavus (veste-amarela) foram identificadas como as espécies com os maiores potenciais para observação, unificando o interesse/apelo para observação e a possibilidade de observá-las. Investimentos no desenvolvimento deste tipo de turismo podem resultar em ações conservacionistas, considerando que boa parte dos observadores de aves costumam dar preferência por visitar áreas onde existem remanescentes de vegetação nativa. A gestão pública, em todas as esferas, pode contribuir para este ramo do turismo, buscando investir em infraestruturas, bem como na formação de profissionais capacitados para fomentar esta atividade na região.

What we wear signals our membership within groups, be theyorganised by gender, class, ethnicity or religion. Simultaneously our clothing signifies hierarchies and power relations that sustain dominant power structures. How we dress is an expression of our identity. For Veblen, how we dress expresses wealth and social stratification. In imitating the fashion of the wealthy, claims Simmel, we seek social equality. For Barthes, clothing is embedded with systems of meaning. For Hebdige, clothing has modalities of meaning depending on the wearer, as do clothes for gender (Davis) and for the body (Entwistle). For Maynard, “dress is a significant material practice we use to signal our cultural boundaries, social separations, continuities and, for the present purposes, political dissidences” (103). Clothing has played a central role in historical and contemporary forms of political dissent. During the French Revolution dress signified political allegiance. The “mandated costumes, the gold-braided coat, white silk stockings, lace stock, plumed hat and sword of the nobility and the sober black suit and stockings” were rejected as part of the revolutionary struggle (Fairchilds 423). After the storming of the Bastille the government of Paris introduced the wearing of the tricolour cockade, a round emblem made of red, blue and white ribbons, which was a potent icon of the revolution, and a central motif in building France’s “revolutionary community”. But in the aftermath of the revolution divided loyalties sparked power struggles in the new Republic (Heuer 29). In 1793 for example anyone not wearing the cockade was arrested. Specific laws were introduced for women not wearing the cockade or for wearing it in a profane manner, resulting in six years in jail. This triggered a major struggle over women’s abilities to exercise their political rights (Heuer 31).Clothing was also central to women’s political struggles in America. In the mid-nineteenth century, women began wearing the “reform dress”—pants with shortened, lightweight skirts in place of burdensome and restrictive dresses (Mas 35). The wearing of pants, or bloomers, challenged gender norms and demonstrated women’s agency. Women’s clothes of the period were an "identity kit" (Ladd Nelson 22), which reinforced “society's distinctions between men and women by symbolizing their natures, roles, and responsibilities” (Ladd Nelson 22, Roberts 555). Men were positioned in society as “serious, active, strong and aggressive”. They wore dark clothing that “allowed movement, emphasized broad chests and shoulders and presented sharp, definite lines” (Ladd Nelson 22). Conversely, women, regarded as “frivolous, inactive, delicate and submissive, dressed in decorative, light pastel coloured clothing which inhibited movement, accentuated tiny waists and sloping shoulders and presented an indefinite silhouette” (Ladd Nelson 22, Roberts 555). Women who challenged these dress codes by wearing pants were “unnatural, and a perversion of the “true” woman” (Ladd Nelson 22). For Crane, the adoption of men’s clothing by women challenged dominant values and norms, changing how women were seen in public and how they saw themselves. The wearing of pants came to “symbolize the movement for women's rights” (Ladd Nelson 24) and as with women in France, Victorian society was forced to consider “women's rights, including their right to choose their own style of dress” (Ladd Nelson 23). As Yangzom (623) puts it, clothing allows groups to negotiate boundaries. How the “embodiment of dress itself alters political space and civic discourse is imperative to understanding how resistance is performed in creating social change” (Yangzom 623). Fig. 1: 1850s fashion bloomersIn a different turn is presented in Mahatma Gandhi’s Khadi movement. Khadi is a term used for fabrics made on a spinning wheel (or charkha) or hand-spun and handwoven, usually from cotton fibre. Khadi is considered the “fabric of Indian independence” (Jain). Gandhi recognised the potential of the fabric to a self-reliant, independent India. Gandhi made the struggle for independence synonymous with khadi. He promoted the materials “simplicity as a social equalizer and made it the nation’s fabric” (Sinha). As Jain notes, clothing and in this case fabric, is a “potent sign of resistance and change”. The material also reflects consciousness and agency. Khadi was Gandhi’s “own sartorial choices of transformation from that of an Englishman to that of one representing India” (Jain). For Jain the “key to Khadi becoming a successful tool for the freedom struggle” was that it was a “material embodiment of an ideal” that “represented freedom from colonialism on the one hand and a feeling of self-reliance and economic self-sufficiency on the other”. Fig. 2: Gandhi on charkha The reappropriating of Khadi as a fabric of political dissent echoes the wearing of blue denim by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) at the 1963 National Mall Washington march where 250,000 people gather to hear Martin Luther King speak. The SNCC formed in 1960 and from then until the 1963 March on Washington they developed a “style aesthetic that celebrated the clothing of African American sharecroppers” (Ford 626). A critical aspect civil rights activism by African America women who were members of the SNCC was the “performance of respectability”. With the moral character of African American women under attack (as a way of delegitimising their political activities), the female activists “emphasized the outward display of their respectability in order to withstand attacks against their characters”. Their modest, neat “as if you were going to church” (Chappell 96) clothing choices helped them perform respectability and this “played an important performative role in the black freedom struggle” (Ford 626). By 1963 however African American female civil rights activists “abandoned their respectable clothes and processed hairstyles in order to adopt jeans, denim skirts, bib-and-brace overalls”. The adoption of bib-and-brace overalls reflected the sharecropper's blue denim overalls of America’s slave past.For Komar the blue denim overalls “dramatize[d] how little had been accomplished since Reconstruction” and the overalls were practical to fix from attack dog tears and high-pressure police hoses. The blue denim overalls, according to Komar, were also considered to be ‘Negro clothes’ purchased by “slave owners bought denim for their enslaved workers, partly because the material was sturdy, and partly because it helped contrast them against the linen suits and lace parasols of plantation families”. The clothing choice was both practical and symbolic. While the ‘sharecropper’ narrative is problematic as ‘traditional’ clothing (something not evident in the case of Ghandi’s Khandi Movement, there is an emotion associated with the clothing. As Barthes (6-7) has shown, what makes ‘traditional clothing,’ traditional is that it is part of a normative system where not only does clothing have its historical place, but it is governed by its rules and regimentation. Therefore, there is a dialectical exchange between the normative system and the act of dressing where as a link between the two, clothing becomes the conveyer of its meanings (7). Barthes calls this system, langue and the act of dressing parole (8). As Ford does, a reading of African American women wearing what she calls a “SNCC Skin” “the uniform [acts] consciously to transgress a black middle-class worldview that marginalised certain types of women and particular displays of blackness and black culture”. Hence, the SNCC women’s clothing represented an “ideological metamorphosis articulated through the embrace and projection of real and imagined southern, working-class, and African American cultures. Central to this was the wearing of the blue denim overalls. The clothing did more than protect, cover or adorn the body it was a conscious “cultural and political tool” deployed to maintain a movement and build solidarity with the aim of “inversing the hegemonic norms” via “collective representations of sartorial embodiment” (Yangzom 622).Fig. 3: Mississippi SNCC March Coordinator Joyce Ladner during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom political rally in Washington, DC, on 28 Aug. 1963Clothing in each of these historical examples performs an ideological function that can bridge, that is bring diverse members of society together for a cause, or community cohesion or clothing can act as a fence to keep identities separate (Barnard). This use of clothing is evident in two indigenous examples. For Maynard (110) the clothes worn at the 1988 Aboriginal ‘Long March of Freedom, Justice and Hope’ held in Australia signalled a “visible strength denoted by coherence in dress” (Maynard 112). Most noted was the wearing of colours – black, red and yellow, first thought to be adopted during protest marches organised by the Black Protest Committee during the 1982 Commonwealth Games in Brisbane (Watson 40). Maynard (110) describes the colour and clothing as follows:the daytime protest march was dominated by the colours of the Aboriginal people—red, yellow and black on flags, huge banners and clothing. There were logo-inscribed T-shirts, red, yellow and black hatband around black Akubra’s, as well as red headbands. Some T-shirts were yellow, with images of the Australian continent in red, others had inscriptions like 'White Australia has a Black History' and 'Our Land Our Life'. Still others were inscribed 'Mourn 88'. Participants were also in customary dress with body paint. Older Indigenous people wore head bands inscribed with the words 'Our Land', and tribal elders from the Northern Territory, in loin cloths, carried spears and clapping sticks, their bodies marked with feathers, white clay and red ochres. Without question, at this most significant event for Aboriginal peoples, their dress was a highly visible and cohesive aspect.Similar is the Tibetan Freedom Movement, a nonviolent grassroots movement in Tibet and among Tibet diaspora that emerged in 2008 to protest colonisation of Tibet. It is also known as the ‘White Wednesday Movement’. Every Wednesday, Tibetans wear traditional clothes. They pledge: “I am Tibetan, from today I will wear only Tibetan traditional dress, chuba, every Wednesday”. A chuba is a colourful warm ankle-length robe that is bound around the waist by a long sash. For the Tibetan Freedom Movement clothing “symbolically functions as a nonverbal mechanism of communication” to “materialise consciousness of the movement” and functions to shape its political aims (Yangzom 622). Yet, in both cases – Aboriginal and Tibet protests – the dress may “not speak to single cultural audience”. This is because the clothing is “decoded by those of different political persuasions, and [is] certainly further reinterpreted or reframed by the media” (Maynard 103). Nevertheless, there is “cultural work in creating a coherent narrative” (Yangzom 623). The narratives and discourse embedded in the wearing of a red, blue and white cockade, dark reform dress pants, cotton coloured Khadi fabric or blue denim overalls is likely a key feature of significant periods of political upheaval and dissent with the clothing “indispensable” even if the meaning of the clothing is “implied rather than something to be explicated” (Yangzom 623). On 21 January 2017, 250,000 women marched in Washington and more than two million protesters around the world wearing pink knitted pussy hats in response to the remarks made by President Donald Trump who bragged of grabbing women ‘by the pussy’. The knitted pink hats became the “embodiment of solidarity” (Wrenn 1). For Wrenn (2), protests such as this one in 2017 complete with “protest visuals” which build solidarity while “masking or excluding difference in the process” indicates “a tactical sophistication in the social movement space with its strategic negotiation of politics of difference. In formulating a flexible solidarity, the movement has been able to accommodate a variety of races, classes, genders, sexualities, abilities, and cultural backgrounds” (Wrenn 4). In doing so they presented a “collective bodily presence made publicly visible” to protest racist, sexist, homophobic, Islamophobic, and xenophobic white masculine power (Gokariksel & Smith 631). The 2017 Washington Pussy Hat March was more than an “embodiment tactic” it was an “image event” with its “swarms of women donning adroit posters and pink pussy hats filling the public sphere and impacting visual culture”. It both constructs social issues and forms public opinion hence it is an “argumentative practice” (Wrenn 6). Drawing on wider cultural contexts, as other acts of dissent note here do, in this protest with its social media coverage, the “master frame” of the sea of pink hats and bodies posited to audiences the enormity of the anger felt in the community over attacks on the female body – real or verbal. This reflects Goffman’s theory of framing to describe the ways in which “protestors actively seek to shape meanings such that they spark the public’s support and encourage political openings” (Wrenn 6). The hats served as “visual tropes” (Goodnow 166) to raise social consciousness and demonstrate opposition. Protest “signage” – as the pussy hats can be considered – are a visual representation and validation of shared “invisible thoughts and emotions” (Buck-Coleman 66) affirming Georg Simmel’s ideas about conflict; “it helps individuals define their differences, establish to which group(s) they belong, and determine the degrees to which groups are different from each other” (Buck-Coleman 66). The pink pussy hat helped define and determine membership and solidarity. Further embedding this was the hand-made nature of the hat. The pattern for the hat was available free online at https://www.pussyhatproject.com/knit/. The idea began as one of practicality, as it did for the reform dress movement. This is from the Pussy Hat Project website:Krista was planning to attend the Women’s March in Washington DC that January of 2017 and needed a cap to keep her head warm in the chill winter air. Jayna, due to her injury, would not be able to attend any of the marches, but wanted to find a way to have her voice heard in absentia and somehow physically “be” there. Together, a marcher and a non-marcher, they conceived the idea of creating a sea of pink hats at Women’s Marches everywhere that would make both a bold and powerful visual statement of solidarity, and also allow people who could not participate themselves – whether for medical, financial, or scheduling reasons — a visible way to demonstrate their support for women’s rights. (Pussy Hat Project)In the tradition of “craftivism” – the use of traditional handcrafts such as knitting, assisted by technology (in this case a website with the pattern and how to knit instructions), as a means of community building, skill-sharing and action directed towards “political and social causes” (Buszek & Robertson 197) –, the hand-knitted pink pussy hats avoided the need to purchase clothing to show solidarity resisting the corporatisation of protest clothing as cautioned by Naomi Klein (428). More so by wearing something that could be re-used sustained solidarity. The pink pussy hats provided a counter to the “incoherent montage of mass-produced clothing” often seen at other protests (Maynard 107). Everyday clothing however does have a place in political dissent. In late 2018, French working class and middle-class protestors donned yellow jackets to protest against the government of French President Emmanuel Macron. It began with a Facebook appeal launched by two fed-up truck drivers calling for a “national blockade” of France’s road network in protest against rising fuel prices was followed two weeks later with a post urging motorist to display their hi-vis yellow vests behind their windscreens in solidarity. Four million viewed the post (Henley). Weekly protests continued into 2019. The yellow his-vis vests are compulsorily carried in all motor cars in France. They are “cheap, readily available, easily identifiable and above all representing an obligation imposed by the state”. The yellow high-vis vest has “proved an inspired choice of symbol and has plainly played a big part in the movement’s rapid spread” (Henley). More so, the wearers of the yellow vests in France, with the movement spreading globally, are winning in “the war of cultural representation. Working-class and lower middle-class people are visible again” (Henley). Subcultural clothing has always played a role as heroic resistance (Evans), but the coloured dissent dressing associated with the red, blue and white ribboned cockades, the dark bloomers of early American feminists, the cotton coloured natural fabrics of Ghandi’s embodiment of resistance and independence, the blue denim sharecropper overalls worn by African American women in their struggles for civil rights, the black, red and orange of Aboriginal protestors in Australia and the White Wednesday performances of resistance undertaken by Tibetans against Chinese colonisation, the Washington Pink Pussy Hat marches for gender respect and equality and the donning of every yellow hi-vis vests by French protestors all posit the important role of fabric and colour in protest meaning making and solidarity building. It is in our rage we consciously wear the colours and fabrics of dissent dress. ReferencesBarnard, Malcolm. Fashion as Communication. New York: Routledge, 1996. Barthes, Roland. “History and Sociology of Clothing: Some Methodological Observations.” The Language of Fashion. Eds. Michael Carter and Alan Stafford. UK: Berg, 2006. 3-19. Buck-Coleman, Audra. “Anger, Profanity, and Hatred.” Contexts 17.1 (2018): 66-73.Buszek, Maria Elena, and Kirsty Robertson. “Introduction.” Utopian Studies 22.1 (2011): 197-202. Chappell, Marisa, Jenny Hutchinson, and Brian Ward. “‘Dress Modestly, Neatly ... As If You Were Going to Church’: Respectability, Class and Gender in the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Early Civil Rights Movement.” Gender and the Civil Rights Movement. Eds. Peter J. Ling and Sharon Monteith. New Brunswick, N.J., 2004. 69-100.Crane, Diana. Fashion and Its Social Agendas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. Davis, Fred. Fashion, Culture, and Identity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.Entwistle, Joanne. The Fashioned Body: Fashion, Dress, and Modern Social Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000.Evans, Caroline. “Dreams That Only Money Can Buy ... Or the Shy Tribe in Flight from Discourse.” Fashion Theory 1.2 (1997): 169-88.Fairchilds, Cissie. “Fashion and Freedom in the French Revolution.” Continuity and Change 15.3 (2000): 419-33.Ford, Tanisha C. “SNCC Women, Denim, and the Politics of Dress.” The Journal of Southern History 79.3 (2013): 625-58.Gökarıksel, Banu, and Sara Smith. “Intersectional Feminism beyond U.S. Flag, Hijab and Pussy Hats in Trump’s America.” Gender, Place & Culture 24.5 (2017): 628-44.Goodnow, Trischa. “On Black Panthers, Blue Ribbons, & Peace Signs: The Function of Symbols in Social Campaigns.” Visual Communication Quarterly 13 (2006): 166-79.Hebdige, Dick. Subculture: The Meaning of Style. London: Routledge, 2002. Henley, Jon. “How Hi-Vis Yellow Vest Became Symbol of Protest beyond France: From Brussels to Basra, Gilets Jaunes Have Brought Visibility to People and Their Grievances.” The Guardian 21 Dec. 2018. <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/dec/21/how-hi-vis-yellow-vest-became-symbol-of-protest-beyond-france-gilets-jaunes>.Heuer, Jennifer. “Hats On for the Nation! Women, Servants, Soldiers and the ‘Sign of the French’.” French History 16.1 (2002): 28-52.Jain, Ektaa. “Khadi: A Cloth and Beyond.” Bombay Sarvodaya Mandal & Gandhi Research Foundation. ND. 19 Dec. 2018 <https://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/khadi-a-cloth-and-beyond.html>. Klein, Naomi. No Logo. London: Flamingo, London, 2000. Komar, Marlen. “What the Civil Rights Movement Has to Do with Denim: The History of Blue Jeans Has Been Whitewashed.” 30 Oct. 2017. 19 Dec. 2018 <https://www.racked.com/2017/10/30/16496866/denim-civil-rights-movement-blue-jeans-history>.Ladd Nelson, Jennifer. “Dress Reform and the Bloomer.” Journal of American and Comparative Cultures 23.1 (2002): 21-25.Maynard, Margaret. “Dress for Dissent: Reading the Almost Unreadable.” Journal of Australian Studies 30.89 (2006): 103-12. Pussy Hat Project. “Design Interventions for Social Change.” 20 Dec. 2018. <https://www.pussyhatproject.com/knit/>.Roberts, Helene E. “The Exquisite Slave: The Role of Clothes in the Making of the Victorian Woman.” Signs (1977): 554-69.Simmel, Georg. “Fashion.” American Journal of Sociology 62 (1957): 541–58.Sinha, Sangita. “The Story of Khadi, India's Signature Fabric.” Culture Trip 2018. 18 Jan. 2019 <https://theculturetrip.com/asia/india/articles/the-story-of-khadi-indias-fabric/>.Yangzom, Dicky. “Clothing and Social Movements: Tibet and the Politics of Dress.” Social Movement Studies 15.6 (2016): 622-33. Veblen, Thorstein. The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions. New York: Dover Thrift, 1899. Watson, Lilla. “The Commonwealth Games in Brisbane 1982: Analysis of Aboriginal Protests.” Social Alternatives 7.1 (1988): 1-19.Wrenn, Corey. “Pussy Grabs Back: Bestialized Sexual Politics and Intersectional Failure in Protest Posters for the 2017 Women’s March.” Feminist Media Studies (2018): 1-19.

A politician’s political and personal selves have been in the spotlight of academic scholarship for hundreds of years, but only in recent years has a political ‘persona’ obtained new modes of mediation via networked media. New advancements in politics, technology, and media brought challenges to the traditional politics and personal self-representation of major leaders. Vladimir Putin’s divorce announcement in June 2013, posed a new challenge for his political self-mediation. A rather reserved leader (Loshak), he nonetheless broadcast his personal news to the large audience and made it in a very peculiar way, causing the media professionals and public to draw parallels with Soviet-era mediated politics and thereby evoke collective memories. This paper studies how Vladimir Putin’s divorce announcement was constructed and presented and also what response and opinion threads—satirical and humorous, ignorant and informed feedback—it achieved via media professionals and the general Twitter audience. Finally, this study aims to evaluate how Vladimir Putin’s political ‘persona’ was represented and perceived via these mixed channels of communication.According to classic studies of mediated political persona (Braudy; Meyrowitz; Corner), any public activity of a political persona is considered a part of their political performance. The history of political marketing can be traced back to ancient times, but it developed through the works of Renaissance and Medieval thinkers. Of particular prominence is Machiavelli’s The Prince with its famous “It is unnecessary for the prince to have all the good qualities I have enumerated, but it is very necessary to appear to have them” (cited in Corner 68). All those centuries-built developments and patterns of political self-representation have now taken on new forms as a result of the development of media industry and technology. Russian mediated politics has seen various examples of new ways of self-representation exercised by major politicians in the 2010s. For instance, former president Dmitry Medvedev was known as the “president with an iPad” (Pronina), as he was advocating technology and using social networks in order to seem more approachable and appear to be responsive to collecting feedback from the nation. Traditional media constantly highlighted Medvedev’s keen interest in Facebook and Twitter, which resulted in a growing public assumption that this new modern approach to self-representation may signify a new approach to governance (see Asmolov).Goffman’s classic study of the distinction between public and private life helps in linking political persona to celebrity persona. In his view the political presentation of self differs from the one in popular culture because politicians as opposed to entertainers have to conform to a set of ideals, projections, social stereotypes and cultural/national archetypes for their audience of voters (Goffman; Corner). A politician’s public persona has to be constantly reaffirming and proving the values he or she is promoting through their campaigns. Mediations of a political personhood can be projected in three main modes: visual, vocal, and kinetic (Ong; Mayhew; Corner). Visual representation follows the iconic paintings and photography in displaying the position, attitude, and associative contexts related to that. Vocal representation covers both content and format of a political speech, it is not only the articulated message, but also more important the persona speaking. Ong describes this close relation of the political and personal along with the interrelation of the message and the medium as “secondary orality”—voice, tone and volume make the difference. The third mode is kinetic representation and means the political persona in action and interaction. Overlapping of different strategies and structures of political self-representation fortifies the notion of performativity (Corner and Pels) in politics that becomes a core feature of the multidimensional representation of a mediated political self.The advancement of electronic media and interactive platforms has influenced political communication and set the new standard for the convergence of the political and personal life of a politician. On its own, the President Clinton/Monica Lewinsky affair raised the level of public awareness of the politician’s private life. It also allowed for widely distributed, contested, and mediated judgments of a politician’s personal actions. Lawrence and Bennett in their study of Lewinsky case’s academic and public response state that although the majority of American citizens did not expect the president to be the moral leader, they expressed ambivalence in their rendition of the importance of “moral leadership” by big politicians (438). The President Clinton/Lewinsky case adds a new dimension to Goffman and Corner’s respective discussions on the significance of values in the political persona self-representation. This case proves that values can not only be reinforced by one’s public persona, but those values can be (re)constructed by the press or public opinion. Values are becoming a contested trait in the contemporary mediated political persona. This view can be supported by Dmitry Medvedev’s case: although modern technology was known as his personal passion, it was publicised only with reference to his role as a public politician and specifically when Medvedev appeared with an iPad talking about modernisation at major meetings (Pronina). However, one can argue that one’s charisma can affect the impact of values in public self-representation of the politician. In addition, social networks add a new dimension to personified publicity. From Barack Obama’s ‘Yes We Can’ networked campaign in 2008 and through many more recent examples, we are witnessing the continuing process of the personalisation of politics (Corner and Pels). From one point of view, audiences tend to have more interest and sympathy in political individuals and their lifestyles rather than political parties and their programmes (Lawrence and Bennett; Corner and Pels). It should be noted that the interest towards political individuals does not fall apart from the historical logics of politics; it is only mediated in a new way. Max Weber’s notion of “leadership democracy” proves that political strategy is best distributed through the charismatic leadership imposing his will on the audience. This view can be strengthened by Le Bon’s concept of emotive connection of the leader and his crowd, and Adorno’s writings on the authoritarian personality also highlight the significance of the leader’s own natural and mediated persona in politics. What is new is the channels of mediation—modern audiences’ access to a politician’s private life is facilitated by new forms of media interactivity (Corner and Pels). This recent development calls for the new understanding of “persona” in politics. On one hand, the borderline between private and public becomes blurred and we are more exposed to the private self of a leader, but on the other hand, those politicians aware of new media literacy can create new structures of proximity and distance and construct a separate “persona” online, using digital media for their benefit (Corner and Pels). Russian official politics has developed a cautious attitude towards social networks in the post-Medvedev era - currently, President Vladimir Putin is not known for using social networks personally and transmits his views via his spokesperson. However, his personal charisma makes him overly present in digital media - through the images and texts shared both by his supporters and rivals. As opposed to Medvedev’s widely publicised “modernisation president” representation, Putin’s persona breaks the boundaries of limited traditional publicity and makes him recognised not only for his political activity, but looks, controversial expression, attitude to employees, and even personal life. That brings us back to Goffman, Corner and Lawrence and Bennett’s discussions on the interrelation of political values and personal traits in one’s political self-representation, making it evident that one’s strong personality can dominate over his political image and programme. Moreover, an assumption can be made that a politician’s persona may be more powerful than the narrative suggested by the constructed self-representation and new connotations may arise on the crossroads of this interaction.Russian President Divorce Announcement and Collective MemoryVladimir Putin’s divorce announcement was broadcast via traditional media on 6 June 2013 as a simple news story. The state broadcasting company Vesti-24 sent a journalist Polina Yermolayeva from their news bulletin to cover Vladimir Putin and Lyudmila Putin’s visit to a ballet production, Esmeralda, at the state Kremlin theatre. The news anchor’s introduction to the interview was ordinarily written and had no hints of the upcoming sensation. After the first couple and the journalist had discussed their opinion of the ballet (“beautiful music,” “flawless and light moves”), the reporter Yermolayeva suddenly asked: “You and Lyudmila are rarely seen together in public. Rumour has it that you do not live together. It is true?” Vladimir Putin and his wife exchanged a number of rather pre-scripted speeches stating that the first couple was getting a divorce as the children had grown old enough, and they would still stay friends and wished each other the best of luck. The whole interview lasted 3:25 minutes and became a big surprise for the country (Loshak; Sobchak).When applying the classification of three modes of political personhood (Corner; Ong) to Vladimir Putin’s divorce announcement, it becomes evident that all three modes—visual, vocal, and kinetic—were used. Television audiences watched their president speak freely to the unknown reporter, explain details of his life in his own words so that body language also was visible and conveyed additional information. The visual self-representation harkens back to classic, Soviet-style announcements: Vladimir Putin and Lyudmila Putina are dressed in classic monochrome suit and costume with a skirt respectively. They pose in front of the rather dull yet somewhat golden decorations of the Kremlin Theatre Hall, the walls themselves reflecting the glory and fanfare of the Soviet leadership and architecture. Vladimir Putin and his wife both talk calmly while Lyudmila appears even more relaxed than her husband (Sobchak). Although the speech looks prepared in advance (Loshak), it uses colloquial expressions and is delivered with emotional pauses and voice changes.However, close examination of not only the message but the medium of the divorce announcement reveals a vast number of intriguing symbols and parallels. First, although living in the era of digital media, Vladimir Putin chose to broadcast his personal news through a traditional television channel. Second, it was broadcast in a news programme making the breaking news of the president’s divorce, paradoxically, quite a mundane news event. Third, the semiotic construction of the divorce announcement bore a lot of connotations and synergies to the conservative, Soviet-style information distribution patterns. There are a few key symbols here that evoke collective memories: ballet, conservative political report on the government, and the stereotype of a patriarchal couple with a submissive wife (see Loshak; Rostovskiy). For example, since the perestroika of the 1990s, ballet has been widely perceived as a symbol of big political change and cause of public anxiety (Kachkaeva): this connotation was born in the 1990s when all channels were broadcasting Swan Lake round the clock while the White House was under attack. Holden reminds us that this practice was applied many times during major crises in Soviet history, thus creating a short link in the public subconscious of a ballet broadcast being symbolic of a political crisis or turmoil.Vladimir Putin Divorce: Traditional and Social Media ReceptionIn the first day after the divorce announcement Russian Twitter generated 180,000 tweets about Vladimir Putin’s divorce, and the hashtag #развод (“divorce”) became very popular. For the analysis that follows, Putin divorce tweets were collected by two methods: retrieved from traditional media coverage of Twitter talk on Putin’s divorce and from Twitter directly, using Topsy engine. Tweets were collected for one week, from the divorce announcement on 6 June to 13 June when the discussion declined and became repetitive. Data was collected using Snob.ru, Kommersant.ru, Forbes.ru, other media outlets and Topsy. The results were then combined and evaluated.Some of those tweets provided a satirical commentary to the divorce news and can be classified as “memes.” An “Internet meme” is a contagious message, a symbolic pattern of information spread online (Lankshear and Knobel; Shifman). Memes are viral texts that are shared online after being adjusted/altered or developed on the way. Starting from 1976 when Richard Dawkins coined the term, memes have been under media scholarship scrutiny and the term has been widely contested in various sciences. In Internet research studies, memes are defined as “condensed images that stimulate visual, verbal, musical, or behavioral associations that people can easily imitate and transmit to others” (Pickerel, Jorgensen, and Bennett). The open character of memes makes them valuable tools for political discourse in a modern highly mediated environment.Qualitative analysis of the most popular and widely shared tweets reveals several strong threads and themes round Putin’s divorce discussion. According to Burzhskaya, many users created memes with jokes about the relationship between Vladimir Putin and Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev. For instance, “He should have tied up his relationship with Dmitry Anatolyevich long ago” or “So actually Medvedev is the case?” were among popular memes generated. Another collection of memework contained a comment that, according to the Russian legislation, Putin’s ex-wife should get half of their wealth, in this case—half of the country. This thread was followed by the discussion whether the separation/border of her share of Russia should use the Ural Mountains as the borderline. Another group of Twitter users applied the Russian president’s divorce announcement to other countries’ politics. Thus one user wrote “Take Yanukovich to the ballet” implying that Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovich (who was still a legitimate president in June 2013) should also be taken to the ballet to trigger changes in the political life in Ukraine. Twitter celebrity and well-known Russian actress and comedian Tatiana Lazareva wrote “In my opinion, it is a scam”, punning on the slang meaning of the word “razvod” (“divorce”) in Russian that can also mean “fraud” or “con”. Famous Russian journalist Dmitry Olshansky used his Twitter account to draw a historical parallel between Putin and other Russian and Soviet political leaders’ marital life. He noted that such Russian leaders as Tsar Nikolay the Second and Mikhail Gorbachev who loved their wives and were known to be good husbands were not successful managers of the state. In contrast, lone rulers of Russia such as Joseph Stalin proved to be leaders who loved their country first and gained a lot of support from their electorate because of that lonely love. Popular print and online journalist Oleg Kashin picked up on that specific idea: he quoted Vladimir Putin’s press secretary who explained that the president had declared that he would now spend more time working for the prosperity of the country.Twitter users were exchanging not only 140 symbol texts but also satirical images and other visual memes based on the divorce announcement. Those who suggested that Vladimir Putin should have divorced the country instead portrayed Lyudmila Putina and Vladimir holding candles and wearing funereal black with various taglines discussing how the country would now be split. Other users contributed visual memes jamming the television show Bachelor imagery and font with Vladimir Putin’s face and an announcement that the most desirable bachelor in the country is now its president. A similar idea was put into jammed images of the Let’s Get Married television show using Vladimir Putin’s face or name linked with a humorous comment that he could try those shows to find a new wife. One more thread of Twitter memes on Putin’s divorce used the name of Alina Kabaeva, Olympic gymnast who is rumoured by the press to be in relationship with the leader (Daily Mail Reporter). She was mentioned in plenty of visual and textual memes. Probably, the most popular visual meme (Burzhskaya; Topsy) used the one-liner from a famous Soviet comedy Ivan Vasylievich Menyaet Professiyu: it uses a joyful exclamation of an actress who learns that her love interest, a movie director, is leaving his wife so that the lovers can now fly to a resort together. Alina Kabaeva, the purported love interest of Putin, was jammed to be that actress as she announced the “triumphal” resort vacation plan to a girlfriend over the phone.Vladimir Putin’s 2013 divorce announcement presented new challenges for his personal and political self-representation and revealed new traits of the Russian president’s interaction with the nation. As the news of Vladimir and Lyudmila Putin’s divorce was broadcast via traditional media in a non-interactive television format, commentary on the event advanced only through the following week’s media coverage and the massive activity on social networks. It has still to be examined whether Vladimir Putin’s political advisors intentionally included many symbols of collective memory in the original and staid broadcast announcement. However, the response from traditional and social media shows that both Russian journalists and regular Twitter users were inclined to use humour and satire when discussing the personal life of a major political leader. Despite this appearance of an active counter-political sphere via social networks, the majority of tweets retrieved also revealed a certain level of respect towards Vladimir Putin’s privacy as few popular jokes or memes were aggressive, offensive or humiliating. Most popular memes on Vladimir Putin’s divorce linked this announcement to the political life of Russia, the political situation in other countries, and television shows and popular culture. Some of the memes, though, advanced the idea that Vladimir Putin should have divorced the country instead. The analysis also shows how a charismatic leader can affect or reconstruct the “values” he represents. In Vladimir Putin’s divorce event, his personality is the main focus of discussion both by traditional and new media. However, he is not judged for his personal choices as the online social media users provide rather mild commentary and jokes about them. The event and the subsequent online discourse, images and texts not only identify how Putin’s politics have become personified, the research also uncovers how the audience/citizenry online often see the country as a “persona” as well. Some Internet users suggested Putin’s marriage to the country; this mystified, if not mythologised view reinforces Vladimir Putin’s personal and political charisma.Conclusively, Vladimir Putin’s divorce case study shows how political and private persona are being mediated and merged via mixed channels of communication. The ever-changing nature of the political leader portrayal in the mediated environment of the 2010s opens new challenges for further research on the modes and ways for political persona representation in modern Russia.References Adorno, Theodor W. The Authoritarian Personality. New York, 1969 (1950).Ankersmit, Franklin R. Aesthetic Politics: Political Philosophy beyond Fact and Value. Stanford University Press, 1996.Asmolov, Gregory. “The Kremlin’s Cameras and Virtual Potemkin Villages: ICT and the Construction of Statehood.” Bits and Atoms: Information and Communication Technology in Areas of Limited Statehood (2014): 30.Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhailovich. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. University of Texas Press, 1981.Braudy, Leo. The Frenzy of Renown: Fame & Its History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.Burzhskaya, Kseniya. “Galochka, Ti Seichas Umryosh!” [“Galochka, You Are Going to Die!”]. Snob.ru 7 June 2013. April 2014 ‹http://www.snob.ru/profile/9947/blog/61372›.Corner, John, and Dick Pels. “Introduction: The Re-Styling of Politics.” Media and the Restyling of Politics. Ed. John Corner and Dick Pels. London: Sage, 2003: 1-19.Corner, John. “Mediated Persona and Political Culture.” Media and the Restyling of Politics. Ed. John Corner and Dick Pels. London: Sage, 2003: 67-85.Daily Mail Reporter. “Has President Putin Married Former Olympic Gymnast? Alina Kabayeva Flashes ‘Wedding Ring’ at TV Cameras.” DailyMail.co.uk 15 Feb. 2014. April 2014 ‹http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2560278/Has-President-Putin-married-former-Olympic-gymnast-Alina-Kabayeva-flashes-wedding-ring-TV-cameras.html›.Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, 2006.Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Anchor Books, 1995.Holden, Stephen. “Through the Looking Glass of History.” New York Times 22 Mar. 2011. April 2014 ‹http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/23/movies/my-perestroika-about-growing-up-in-russia-review.html?_r=0›. Kavanagh, Dennis. Election Campaigning: The New Marketing of Politics. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.Kotova, Yulia. “‘Otstoyala Vakhtu’: Vladimir I Lyudmila Putiny Ob’yavili o Razvode” [“‘Fulfilled the Duty’: Vladimir and Lyudmila Putin Announced a Divorce”]. Forbes.ru. April 2014 ‹http://www.forbes.ru/news/240295-vladimir-putin-razvelsya-s-zhenoi-lyudmiloi›.Lankshear, Colin, and Michele Knobel. “Sampling ‘the New’ in New Literacies.” A New Literacies Sampler. New York: Peter Lang, 2007. 1-24.Lawrence, Regina G., and W. Lance Bennett. “Rethinking Media Politics and Public Opinion: Reactions to the Clinton-Lewinsky Scandal.” Political Science Quarterly 116.3 (2001): 425-446.Le Bon, Gustave. The Crowd. New York: Viking, 1960 (1895).Loshak, Viktor. “Vyvody Nuzhno Delat’ Iz Togo, Kak Zhivet Strana, a Ne Semya, Pust’ Dazhe Samaya Pervaya” [“You need to make conclusions on the life of the country, not of the family even though of the highest range”]. Kommersant.ru 7 June 2013. April 2014 ‹http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2206093›.Mayhew, Leon H. The New Public: Professional Communication and the Means of Social Influence. Cambridge University Press, 1997.Medvedev, Dmitry. “Interview to The Times [Russian transcript].” Government of the Russian Federation 30 July 2012. May 2014 ‹http://government.ru/docs/19842›.Meywrowitz, Joshua. No Sense of Place. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy. London: Methuen, 1982.Pickerel, Wendi, Helena Jorgensen, and Lance Bennett. "Culture Jams and Meme Warfare: Kalle Lasn, Adbusters, and Media Activism." Center for Communication and Civic Engagement, 2002.Pronina, Lyubov. “Dreams of an iPad Economy for Russia.” BloombergBusinessWeek 3 Feb. 2011. May 2014 ‹http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/11_07/b4215011283273.htm›.Rostovskiy, Mikhail. “Razvod Po-Prezidentski” [“Divorce President-Style”]. Mk.ru 7 June 2013. April 2014 ‹http://www.mk.ru/politics/russia/article/2013/06/07/865979-razvod-poprezidentski.html›.Shifman, Limor. “Memes in a Digital World: Reconciling with a Conceptual Troublemaker.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 18.3 (2013): 362-77.Sobchak, Kseniya. “Razvod Pod Lupoj” [“Divorce under Magnifyin Glass”]. Snob.ru 7 June 2013. April 2013 http://www.snob.ru/profile/24691/blog/61395›.Sokolov, Mikhail. “Russkiy Facebook o Razvode Chety Putinykh” [“Russian Facebook on Putin Divorce”]. Radio Svoboda 7 June 2013. May 2014 ‹http://www.svoboda.org/content/article/25009616.html›.Swanson, David L., and Paolo Mancini, eds. Politics, Media, and Modern Democracy: An International Study of Innovations in Electoral Campaigning and Their Consequences. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996.Thompson, John B. Political Scandal. Cambridge: Polity, 2000.Vesti.ru. “Vladimir I Lyudmila Putiny: Razvod Byl Nashim Obschim Resheniem” [“Vladimir and Lyudmila Putin: Divorce Was Our Joint Decision”]. 6 June 2013. April 2014 ‹http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=1092091›. Weber, Max. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. Routledge, 2009.

Esta investigación tiene como objeto de estudio la indumentaria como elemento simbólico de la construcción de imágenes de poder político de la mujer en Argentina. La relación entre imagen y poder no es algo nuevo. Ya en 1513, Maquiavelo describe en ‘El Príncipe’ la importancia de la imagen para la legitimación del poder por el soberano. El uso de la indumentaria en la construcción de la imagen como elemento legitimador de poder puede ser observado también en innumerables personajes históricos y mucho se escribió al respecto. El rey francés Luis XIV1 , el famoso “Rey Sol”, se hizo conocido por su extremada atención al construir su imagen política. Haciendo uso de instrumentos como la vestimenta, el maquillaje y de accesorios como pelucas y tacones, Luis XIV disfrazó su pequeña estatura y logró formar una imagen altiva, coherente a su ambición de soberanía. (Burke, 2009). Otro ejemplo célebre históricamente del uso político de la indumentaria es el de la reina francesa María Antonieta2 . Conocida actualmente como la reina de la moda, María Antonieta, de origen austríaco, era pariente distante de Luis XIV y así como su ancestro, tuvo en sus vestes y sus excéntricos peinados la herramienta para legitimar su posición como monárquica francesa. Aunque la reina creó un estilo particular e hizo de su personal gusto estético una tendencia para el vestir de la época, irónicamente la indumentaria también le sirvió como objeto de persecución política. Según la escritora Caroline Weber (2008), su placard de ropa fue uno de los estopines que la llevó a tal fin trágico. Acusada de gastar fortunas de los fondos públicos para mantener su imagen, en 1793 como consecuencia de la violenta Revolución Francesa, fue llevada a la guillotina juntamente con su marido e hijos. Aún en la actualidad, su peculiar gusto indumentario sirve de objeto para estudios e investigaciones académicas. (Weber, 2008). En la sociedad argentina, los personajes Eva Duarte de Perón y Cristina Fernández de Kirchner son fuertes ejemplos de cómo está presente la indumentaria como elemento constructor de imágenes de poder político. Ambas, además de compartir una posición excepcional de poder político en la historia del país, son frecuentemente citadas por sus peculiares gustos por la moda. Sus elecciones estéticas son comúnmente usadas como delatoras de la legitimidad (o ilegitimidad) de esta posición de poder. Esta investigación analiza cómo esas imágenes de poder político se construyen a partir de la indumentaria, es decir, cómo los elementos estéticos de la apariencia, como las vestimentas, los peinados, el maquillaje, los calzados y los accesorios, constituyen el “cuerpo representación”3 del poder político de los personajes estudiados. Al considerar ese cuerpo representación no como algo natural, ofrecido biológicamente o como un don divino, sino como consecuencia de un “cuerpo” que se construye a partir de las relaciones sociales, del contexto histórico y cultural, articulado con los capitales simbólicos aprendidos durante la trayectoria de vida, es necesario entender el contexto histórico y cultural tanto de Eva Perón como de Cristina Kirchner y la posición de poder político de ambas. Eva Duarte de Perón y Cristina Fernández de Kirchner El 10 de diciembre del 2007, con más del 45% de los votos, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner fue la primera mujer que fue elegida presidenta del país mediante el voto popular4 . Los cargos femeninos en los organismos públicos del país se deben mucho a las luchas y conquistas de Eva Perón. Desde finales del siglo XIX, los movimientos feministas en Argentina lucharon por la conquista de los derechos políticos de las mujeres, pero el derecho al voto femenino sólo fue logrado en el primer período del peronismo, a fines de la década de 1940. El 9 de septiembre de 1947, Eva Perón, conocida como Evita, esposa del entonces presidente Juan Domingo Perón, con su empeñada campaña, logró el derecho civil para las mujeres argentinas; ahora podían votar y ser candidatas a cargos gubernamentales. La actuación de Eva en el poder fue un factor fundamental para el cambio de la sociedad argentina, no sólo político, sino también cultural, principalmente en lo relacionado con los derechos femeninos5. Hay que destacar que Eva Perón nunca fue feminista. Su actuación en el tema del sufragio tenía como meta el apoyo a Perón para llegar a las capas sociales hasta entonces olvidadas de la escena política. Así, la actuación de Evita en cuestiones políticas de Argentina, fue de gran importancia para asegurar no sólo los derechos civiles de las mujeres, sino también insertarlas en la escena social y política, esas capas sociales nunca antes habían tenido participación en acciones del Estado6. La participación activa de Eva Perón en cuestiones sociales, culturales y políticas la situó como uno de los personajes históricos más importantes del siglo XX. Su actuación era mucho más importante que la de “esposa del presidente”, de primera dama. Algo muy distinto del papel “usual” que la mujer asumía en la vida pública hasta ese momento; aunque algunas ya habían tenido una actuación en el mercado de trabajo, la imagen femenina ligada al poder que Eva construyó constituía un hecho inédito en la sociedad latinoamericana7. Sesenta años después de la muerte de Evita, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner es la presidenta de la Nación. De militante actuante en La Juventud Peronista en la década de 1970 a una carrera política notoria como diputada y senadora, Cristina Kirchner es elegida en 2007 presidenta del país con el más alto índice de votación desde la apertura democrática en 1983. Ambas, Cristina y Evita no sólo comparten una posición excepcional de la mujer en la historia política del país, sino que también las dos tuvieron un éxito extraordinario cuando construyeron su imagen política en una sociedad sin muchas referencias de iguales. En la actualidad, América Latina, con sus treinta y tres países, posee apenas tres mujeres al frente de gobiernos8 . Eva Perón, Cristina Kirchner y la indumentaria Los dos personajes estudiados, además de compartir un mismo movimiento político, el peronismo, son frecuentemente referidos con énfasis por sus gustos por la moda. Eva Perón, sesenta años después de su muerte, sigue presente en un sinfín de exposiciones acerca de su vida y de su “estilo”. Hay una cantidad innumerable de material periodístico tanto como de estudios académicos al respecto que buscan explicar cómo la primeradama argentina se comunicaba a través de su apariencia, de su peculiar y reconocido gusto por la moda, en el intento de (re)construir o (re)descubrir el mito a través del simbolismo de la indumentaria. Refiriéndose a Evita, no todo es elogio en lo relacionado con su imagen. Muchos de sus adversarios políticos resaltaban la discrepancia que existía entre sus discursos en defensa de los menos favorecidos sociales y su exagerado gusto por los artículos de lujo. (Sarlo, 2003). Medio siglo separa a Cristina Kirchner de Eva Perón. El contexto en el que Cristina Kirchner se convirtió en presidenta y construyó su imagen es muy distinto al de la primeradama del peronismo. Pero la atención dada por los medios sobre cómo ella articula su apariencia y su gusto por la moda no se diferencia de la dedicada en su tiempo, o incluso en la actualidad, a Eva Perón. Así, hay mucho material periodístico en el que el tema es la crítica a Cristina Fernández de Kirchner por la marca de sus vestidos, los excesivos y distintos modelos de zapatos con los que se presenta en público o el gasto que desprende en carteras o joyas. (Castañeda y Veiga ,2012; Vecino, 2011). Pero, lo que interesa a esta investigación es el peculiar interés de una gran parte de los medios y del ciudadano en general por su gusto, siendo muchas veces descrito como ostentoso y demasiado superfluo, por sus adversarios políticos, o de extremo “buen gusto” por aquellos que la admiran. Lo que se detecta en todas las críticas, elogiosas, exaltadoras o peyorativas sobre la apariencia de los personajes estudiados es el recurrente uso del “gusto” como instrumento denunciador de la legitimidad o ilegitimidad de la posición de poder. Así, como describe Lipovetsky (1989), es verdad que: “(…) desde la Antigüedad, existe una tradición de difamación de la futilidad, de los artificios y del maquillaje” (p. 37). La indumentaria como instrumento representativo de estéticas de una época, de contextos sociales e históricos pasa a recibir juicios de valor, puesto que los elementos estéticos de la apariencia se vuelven instrumentos de auto-expresión, de representación de individualidades9 . Ya en el final del siglo XIX Georg Simmel (2010) señala que “el adorno (…) es parte ‘artificial’ de la apariencia: se trata de una manipulación de las señales relativas a los vestuarios o a los cosméticos, que apuntan a causar una determinada impresión” (p. 35). Lo cierto es que esta “impresión” suscitada por los personajes estudiados a través de sus indumentarias está a merced de juicios que buscan aprobar o desaprobar la inserción de estas mujeres en su posición de poder. Así, los elementos estéticos de la apariencia, puestos en la “esfera de los gustos” son objetos simbólicos que pueden ser usados como artificios para la aprobación o reproche social, teniendo así un carácter de “juicio” que evidencia lo que verdaderamente está en juego, como las tensiones sociales relativas a los valores morales, religiosos, políticos, culturales y de posición de género. Para Frédéric Godart (2010) la indumentaria reafirma constantemente la inclusión o no de los individuos en los grupos sociales. En esa misma línea, Pierre Bourdieu (2010) clasifica las elecciones estéticas10, lo que él llama “gustos”, como un marcador privilegiado de “clase”11. Por lo tanto, se puede explicar el gusto peculiar de Eva Perón y Cristina Kirchner a través de su posición social, su capital cultural y simbólico que fueron construidos a partir de sus historias sociales y de sus trayectorias de vida. El gusto sirve como instrumento de lucha, usado para legitimar o deslegitimar sus posiciones de poder. Un claro ejemplo son las críticas, mucha veces ofensivas acerca de la apariencia de estas mujeres, frecuentemente acusatorias de “no pertenencia” (el consumo de ciertos productos de moda como piezas de alta costura o de grandes casas de diseño consideradas “legítimas” del “buen gusto”, por su exclusividad económica (no es para todos) o distintivas ( solamente para quién entiende y conoce), reservadas al consumo de ciertas clases sociales es usado como evidencia de “apropiación” ilegítima de mecanismos simbólicos de distinción). Así, sus indumentarias sirven, en la mayoría de los casos, como evidencia de expresión de lucha de clases, disputas políticas y acusaciones de no pertenencia12. La investigación sostiene que, además de la cuestión de clase (es decir, el capital cultural y simbólico que es el resultado de la trayectoria social), la indumentaria también evidencia las cuestiones de género. La posición social y de poder tanto de Eva Perón como de Cristina Kirchner son excepcionales, pues no se “encuadran” en los estereotipos sociales, históricos y culturales de posición de género. Ocupar una posición de poder político, que históricamente y culturalmente está asociado al universo masculino, hace que el excesivo gusto por los elementos estéticos de la apariencia, como la indumentaria, asociada a la moda que está socialmente y culturalmente encuadrada en el universo femenino, sea visto, en algunos contextos basados en juicios estereotipados de género, como una inadecuada representación de poder. “Ella era excepcional, tanto como lo era el escenario del peronismo”. Tomando el término de Beatriz Sarlo (2003, p. 70) acerca de la posición excepcional que Eva Perón ocupaba como primera dama. Como una mujer de pasado artístico poco expresivo, de raíces nada aristocráticas y en un contexto donde la posición de género era muy definida, la posición de poder político de Eva Perón, más allá de su ideología, fue, sin dudas, transgresora para la época. Así, la investigación define a Evita y a Cristina Kirchner de acuerdo con la posición de poder de ambas. Mujeres que, aparte de su condición social de género, supieron construir, de manera “excepcional”, sus peculiares trayectorias políticas. Por lo tanto, “el gusto” de los personajes estudiados debe ser tomado de acuerdo a su lugar excepcional, “el buen” o “el mal gusto” está clasificado y juzgado según la posición social de los individuos, y seguramente sus posiciones estén dentro de la excepción para la mujer en la historia política de América Latina. Beatriz Sarlo (2003) describe acerca de la posición excepcional de Eva Perón representada en su vestir: “Sus trajes de ceremonia pueden ser excesivos porque su lugar no tiene medida, ni se compara con ningún otro lugar institucional. El exceso queda adherido a un cuerpo donde se ha invertido el poder” (p. 100). Lo que se detecta es que “el cuerpo construido” de los personajes es objeto de representación material y estética donde “se ha invertido el poder” (Sarlo, 2003). El término “construir” está relacionado con el uso de la indumentaria como elemento simbólico material donde ese poder está representado. La investigación defiende que dicha representación no es algo ofrecido naturalmente como un don, sino como consecuencia de un “cuerpo” que se construye a partir de las relaciones sociales, de los contextos históricos y culturales articulados a los capitales simbólicos13 adquiridos en sus trayectorias de vida. A partir del cuestionamiento de estos “cuerpos” como representaciones de poder político, capital simbólico y cultural, sus trayectorias sociales y sus posiciones excepcionales, es que la investigación propone pensar la indumentaria como elemento simbólico de representación del poder político de Eva Perón y Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. Como ya fue dicho anteriormente, los elementos estéticos de la apariencia, como la indumentaria, cumplen un papel simbólico de representación de la disposición social, por eso la investigación cuestiona cuáles son los indicios materiales delatores de las trayectorias sociales y si esas trayectorias sociales condicionan sus “gustos” acerca del vestir, se indaga cuál sería el rol de la excepcionalidad de sus posiciones de poder en la construcción de sus imágenes políticas. Son muchas las preguntas acerca del papel de la indumentaria como tema simbólico de representación del poder político. Pero, a través del análisis no de su significado, sino de su construcción, el objetivo es iluminar las cuestiones que puedan esclarecer cómo esas mujeres articularon sus culturas, sus contextos y sus posiciones excepcionales para lograr una representación estética y concreta de sus trayectorias políticas. Hipótesis Como hipótesis se propone que Eva Perón y Cristina Fernández de Kirchner articularon su trayectoria social, su capital simbólico y cultural recurriendo a su posición excepcional como instrumento de transcendencia del lugar de los gustos para construir su imagen a través de la indumentaria, personificando, material y estéticamente, su poder político. Objetivo general La investigación tiene como objetivo, a través de la indumentaria tanto de Eva Perón como de Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, ampliar la comprensión de cómo ambos personajes articuló su cultura, su contexto social y su posición excepcional para una representación estética y concreta de su poder político. Objetivos específicos Como objetivos específicos se plantea investigar cómo la representación estética de poder político de la mujer es construida a través de la indumentaria de Eva Perón y Cristina Kirchner; analizar cómo los indicios materiales de la trayectoria social presente en las indumentarias de Eva Perón y Cristina Kirchner están relacionados con la posición excepcional de poder femenino en la construcción de la imagen de poder político; y ampliar la comprensión del papel de los elementos estéticos, es decir, de la indumentaria en la construcción de imágenes políticas de la mujer. Antecedentes y estado de la cuestión La indumentaria, como producto de la cultura, lleva inscripta a través de su materia prima, de su modo de producción, de sus colores, estilo, entre otros ítems, las formas de organización y jerarquización de la sociedad en la cual está inserta, funcionando como marcadora privilegiada de la posición social de quien la porta. (Nery, 2007; Saulquin, 2006; Godart, 2010, Bourdieu, 2010). Beatriz Sarlo en el libro La pasión y la excepción sigue justamente la trayectoria social de Eva Perón y la relación de ésta con la construcción de un “cuerpo excepcional”, en el aspecto simbólico de su apariencia, por lo tanto, también de su indumentaria, analiza histórica y filosóficamente cómo la actriz se convierte en la “incorporación” del régimen peronista. El mismo trayecto a través de la indumentaria se encuentra en El saco de Marx de Peter Stallybrass (2008). La vida de Karl Marx14 y su trayectoria social e intelectual a través de la historia de su saco es narrada a partir de los múltiples empeños de la pieza que no sólo ponían en evidencia los problemas financieros de Marx, sino también determinaban, limitando o posibilitando, su vida social; ya que era su único traje “elegante”, e incluso adecuado para el frío de Alemania. El autor también relaciona la formulación de la teoría marxista con “los dolores” y “las memorias” que resultaban de la relación de Marx con el saco. Como indica Stallybrass: “Pensar sobre la ropa, sobre ropas, significa pensar no sólo sobre la memoria, sino también sobre el poder y la posesión”. (p. 12). Muchos investigadores ya estudiaron la relación del poder con la imagen de grandes personajes históricos. Peter Burke (2009) en Fabricación del Rey enfoca, a partir de la historia, las elecciones estéticas del rey Luis XIV para la fabricación de su imagen pública, y Caroline Weber (2007) en Reina de la Moda analiza cómo la reina francesa María Antonieta hacía uso político de la indumentaria. Ambos estudios priorizan un análisis historiográfico del traje y su carácter de memoria. Volviendo a las mujeres estudiadas, Eva Perón por su distancia temporal posee diferentes enfoques de análisis que pone en primer plano su biografía, su relación con el peronismo y la cuestión de género. Esta última también en relación con la política, con el poder y las representaciones sobre los mitos de su imagen (Zanatta, 2011; Masson, 2004; Lagos, 2006; Carlson, 1988; Sarlo, 2010; Pron, 2007; Rosano, 2005). Debido a su figura “atemporal”, parafraseando a Sarlo (2010), su aspecto estético y su fuerte construcción de imagen ligada a la moda, existe un enfoque muy explorado de la indumentaria en materias del área de diseño, siendo la misma, en la mayoría de los casos, un objeto para un análisis semiológico (Sarlo, 2010) o histórico del vestir (Guedes y Teixeira, 2010; Saulquin, 2006). En el caso de Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, los materiales disponibles se focalizan en el estudio de sus estratégicas políticas (Levitsky y Murillo, 2008; Castañeda y Veiga, 2013; Araújo Ribeiro, 2010; Correa da Silva, 2012; Corigliano, 2013) y en libros biográficos (Russo, 2011). Cuando aparecen análisis dirigidos a su apariencia, están restringidos casi mayoritariamente a los registros periodísticos y a las llamadas “revistas femeninas” que priorizan los temas considerados amenos, por lo tanto, estereotipados por su condición de mujer, con lo cual sirven mucho más como instrumento de crítica o de apoyo a su gobierno que como material útil para pensar la materia. La investigación entiende la indumentaria no como un elemento que “expresa” los poderes políticos de las mujeres estudiadas, ni como un tratado que busca “develar” los mitos construidos en torno a sus imágenes, sino como elemento significante que conforma de manera material, esto es, concretamente, tales posiciones alcanzadas. Así, sus indumentarias cargan sus trayectorias sociales y sus contextos, funcionando como objetos materializados de sus posiciones sociales. Es en la materialidad de cada elección estética que sus “cuerpos” se conforman, de manera particular; en un mundo cultural, social y político específico. Orden del trabajo En el primer capítulo será tratada la cuestión del género, su construcción social y cultural, los estereotipos y su “corporificación” y la relación de la posición de la mujer en el contexto de la sociedad argentina con la política y la trayectoria de Eva Perón y Cristina Kirchner. El segundo capítulo trata de la indumentaria en el ámbito social, su aspecto cultural e histórico, delineando el contexto de las mujeres estudiadas y la importancia del elemento estético para la construcción de la imagen política. Como bien define Godart (2010) parafraseando al filósofo francés Jean Baudrillard: “La función de los objetos es apenas la de una “caución” para su dimensión principal, que es la de “valor de cambio de signo”, o sea, para simplificar, su significación sociocultural” (p. 31). Pierre Bourdieu (2010) pone al vestir, las elecciones, el gusto estético de la apariencia como definido por posiciones de clase. La educación institucionalizada, esto es, el grado de escolaridad, la herencia cultural, cuánto el sujeto está familiarizado con distintos tipos de cultura, obras de arte, estilos musicales y vivencias sociales, así como también su capital económico que son los responsables de su “formación”. La estilización de la vida, la elección de la comida, el estilo de decoración de la casa, cómo cuida el sujeto su cuerpo, sus preferencias deportivas, su elección estética de la apariencia, es decir, sus indumentarias, entre otros, reflejarían la posición social. El tercer capítulo trata, teóricamente, acerca del gusto como reflejo de la trayectoria social de las mujeres estudiadas, la cuestión del juicio como elemento “legitimador” de la posición de poder y la trascendencia del “buen y el mal gusto” a través de sus lugares excepcionales para la construcción de sus cuerpos representación. La materialidad de la indumentaria remite e interactúa con sus contextos sociales y culturales, con la posición de la mujer y su trayectoria, constituyendo de forma estética y concreta su cuerpo de poder político. Por lo tanto, la investigación discurre sobre la “personificación” estética de la posición de poder político de la mujer, esto es, cómo algunos aspectos de la construcción social y cultural del género en el contexto general latinoamericano, y en particular argentino, está presente en el cuerpo, en el accionar político, en las representaciones sociales y en las formas de constituir los gustos y cómo se corporifican estéticamente a través de la indumentaria. Notas 1. Louis XIV (1638 -1715), conocido como “Rey-Sol”, fue un monarca absolutista de Francia, reinó de 1643 a 1715. (Burke, 2009). 2. Marie Antoinette Josèphe Jeanne de Habsbourg-Lorraine (1755-1793) - fue una archiduquesa de Austria y reina consorte de Francia y Navarra. Murió decapitada en 16 de octubre de 1793 junto con su marido, el Rey Luís XVI e hijos, como resultado de la Revolución Francesa. (Weber, 2008). 3. A partir de la definición de Joanne Entwistle (2002) de que el cuerpo social es necesariamente un cuerpo vestido, constituido socialmente y siempre ubicado en la cultura, se desprende la idea de que la indumentaria de Eva Perón y Cristina Kirchner hace parte y es formado a partir de su contexto histórico y cultural, por lo tanto también de su posición social. Así, la investigación defiende que sus imágenes personifican, material y estéticamente sus posiciones de poder político 4. No obstante, es la segunda en ejercer ese cargo. La primera presidenta del país fue María Estela Martínez de Perón; como era vicepresidenta de su marido, Juan Domingo Perón, termina asumiendo la presidencia después de su muerte y gobierna el país entre 1974 y 1976. “Isabelita”, como le decían, fue la primera mujer que ocupó la presidencia en toda América Latina. 5. Cerca de dos años después, el 26 de julio de 1949, Evita fundó el Partido Peronista Femenino. En las elecciones de 1951, por primera vez, las mujeres pudieron votar y la sociedad eligió a seis senadoras y quince diputadas peronistas. (Zanatta, 2011). 6. Como lo explica Susana Rosano (2005): Por primera vez en la historia del país se otorgaba, y con estatuto legal, no sólo importantes reivindicaciones a los trabajadores, sino la “dignidad” como seres humanos de que habían sido privados por los anteriores gobiernos, para quienes no eran más que los “cabecitas negras” dejando en ellos la impronta de la conciliación de clases es posible. (p. 04). 7. Como expone Beatriz Sarlo (2003): “En 1946, Evita Duarte se convirtió en la primera dama Eva Duarte de Perón. A partir de ese momento, su cara, su cuerpo, sus ropas y sus poses no se compararon solo con las de las actrices fotografiadas en las revistas del espectáculo sino con las de las señoras, cuya imagen aparecía en otras revistas. El escándalo de Eva se medía respecto de esas mujeres de políticos y de militares, muchas de ellas pertenecientes a la buena sociedad, otras burguesas acomodadas. Esas mujeres ocuparon siempre un plano secundario a respecto del círculo de poder o de las prelaciones institucionales que rodeaban a sus maridos. Ninguna esposa de mandatario o representante se había convertido nunca en una pieza central en la construcción y la consolidación del poder” (p. 69). 8. Cristina Kirchner (Electa en el 2007 y 2010) en Argentina, Laura Chinchilla (2010) en Costa Rica y Dilma Rousseff (2011) en Brasil. (Observatório de Gênero - Secretaria Especial de Políticas para as Mulheres da Presidência da República do Brasil, octubre de 2011). 9. Según Lipovetsky (1989): “ (...) El vestuario permite al individuo desprenderse de las normas antiguas, apreciar más individualmente a las formas, afirmar un gusto más personal, sin embargo, se puede juzgar más libremente a los trajes de los otros, su buen o mal gusto, sus “faltas” o su desgracia.” (p. 38) 10. Que abarca no sólo la indumentaria, sino las elecciones cotidianas como por ejemplo un mobiliario o un menú. 11. María Claudia Bonadio (Almeida e Wajnman, 2012) resume algunas consideraciones de Bourdieu sobre el tema: “(...) O gosto como um consumo estético, pertencente a esfera do cotidiano e presente na escolha, pelo indivíduo, de uma música, uma decoração ou alimentação por exemplo. (...) Bourdieu vê uma ‘homologia’ entre hierarquia de bens e a hierarquia de consumidores, de tal modo que, a seu ver, as preferências estéticas refletem, em sua organização, a estrutura do espaço social”. (p. 72). 12. Para Mezzia y Pozzi (2004) “el gusto legítimo se concreta en el consumo de unos objetos simbólicos (de la no-vulgaridad, es decir, de la distinción), consumo que otorga a las personas eso que Erving Goffman llamó “el sentido del lugar que uno ocupa” en el mundo (“sense of one´s place”), (…)se construye por oposición o aproximación al “sentido del lugar que los otros ocupan” en el mundo (“sense of other´s place”). 13. Para profundizar los conceptos de gusto y capitales simbólicos ver Bourdieu (2006). 14. Karl Heinrich Marx fue un pensador político alemán. Nacido el 5 de mayo de 1818 en Berlín. Estudió filosofía, derecho e historia. Seguidor de Hegel, crítico del capitalismo, desarrolla una doctrina llamada marxista la cual sirve para la idealización del socialismo. (Wheen, 2001).