Academic literature on the topic 'Vaccine candidate protein'

AbstractUnavailability of vaccines and effective drugs are primarily responsible for the growing menace of cryptosporidiosis. This study has incorporated a bioinformatics-based screening approach to explore potential vaccine candidates and novel drug targets inCryptosporidium parvumproteome. A systematic strategy was defined for comparative genomics, orthology with relatedCryptosporidiumspecies, prioritization parameters and MHC class I and II binding promiscuity. The approach reported cytoplasmic protein cgd7_1830, a signal peptide protein, as a novel drug target. SWISS-MODEL online server was used to generate the 3D model of the protein and was validated by PROCHECK. The model has been subjected toin silicodocking study with screened potent lead compounds from the ZINC database, PubChem and ChEMBL database using Flare software package of Cresset®. Furthermore, the approach reported protein cgd3_1400, as a vaccine candidate. The predicted B- and T-cell epitopes on the proposed vaccine candidate with highest scores were also subjected to docking study with MHC class I and II alleles using ClusPro web server. Results from this study could facilitate selection of proteins which could serve as drug targets and vaccine candidates to efficiently tackle the growing threat of cryptosporidiosis.

Background and Objective: Vibrio cholerae continues to emerge as a dangerous pathogen because of increasing resistance to a number of antibiotics. This paper provides a solution to emerging antibiotic resistance by introducing novel proteins as vaccine candidates against cholera. Materials and Methods: Vibrio cholerae genome versatility is a hurdle for developing a vaccine to combat diarrhoeal infection, so its core gene information was used to determine a potential vaccine candidate. Whole genome sequence data of more than 100 Vibrio cholerae strains were used simultaneously to get core genome information. The VacSol pipeline based on reverse vaccinology was selected to address the problem of safe, cheap, temperature-stable, and effective vaccine candidates which can be used for vaccine development against Vibrio cholerae. VacSol screens vaccine candidates using integrated, well-known, and robust algorithms/tools for proteome analysis. The proteomes of the pathogens were initially screened to predict homology using BLASTp. Proteomes that are non-homologous to humans are then subjected to a predictor for localization. Helicer predicts transmembrane helices for the protein. Proteins failing to comply with the set parameters were filtered at each step, and finally, 11 proteins were filtered as vaccine candidates. Results: This selected group of vaccine candidates consists of proteins from almost all structural parts of Vibrio cholerae. Their blast results show that this filtered group includes flagellin A protein, a protein from the Zn transporter system, a lipocarrier outer membrane protein, a peptidoglycan-associated protein, a DNA-binding protein, a chemotaxis protein, a tRNA Pseuriudine synthase A, and two selected proteins, which were beta lactamases. The last two uncharacterized proteins possess 100% similarity to V. albensis and Enterobacter, respectively. Tertiary structure and active site determination show a large number of pockets on each protein. Conclusions: The most interesting finding of this study is that 10 proteins out of 11 filtered proteins are introduced as novel potential vaccine candidates. These novel vaccine candidates can result in the development of cost-effective and broad-spectrum vaccines which can be used in countries where cholera is a major contributor to diarrheal disease.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is transmitted primarily through respiratory droplets/aerosols and it causes COVID-19. The virus infects epithelial cells by using the spike protein on its surface to bind to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor on the cells. Thus, candidate vaccines targeting the spike protein are currently being developed to prevent against infections. Approximately 44 SARS-CoV-2 candidate vaccines are in clinical trials (phase I–III) and an additional 164 candidates are in preclinical stages. The efficacy data from phase I/II trials of lead candidate vaccines look very promising with virus-neutralizing geometric mean antibody titers in the range of 16.6–3906. Most recently, two SARS-CoV-2 candidate vaccines, BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273, have been granted the first emergency use authorization (EUA) in the U.S.; BNT162b2 has also been granted an EUA in the United Kingdom, Canada, and in the European Union. This review assesses whether SARS-CoV-2 candidate vaccines (with approved EUA or in phase III trials) meet the criteria for an ideal SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. The review concludes with expectations from phase III trials and recommendations for phase IV studies (post-vaccine approval).

Many vaccines have been developed from live attenuated forms of bacterial pathogens or from killed bacterial cells. However, an increased awareness of the potential for transient side-effects following vaccination has prompted an increased emphasis on the use of sub-unit vaccines, rather than those based on whole bacterial cells. The identification of vaccine sub-units is often a lengthy process and bioinformatics approaches have recently been used to identify candidate protein vaccine antigens. Such methods ultimately offer the promise of a more rapid advance towards preclinical studies with vaccines. We have compared the properties of known bacterial vaccine antigens against randomly selected proteins and identified differences in the make-up of these two groups. A computer algorithm that exploits these differences allows the identification of potential vaccine antigen candidates from pathogenic bacteria on the basis of their amino acid composition, a property inherently associated with sub-cellular location.

Eliciting an effective malaria vaccine has been the goal of the scientific community for many years. A malaria vaccine, added to existing tools and strategies, would further prevent and decrease the unacceptable malaria morbidity and mortality burden. Great progress has been made over the last decade, with some vaccine candidates in the clinical phases of development. The RTS,S malaria vaccine candidate, based on a recombinant P. falciparum protein, is the most advanced of such candidates, currently undergoing a large phase III trial. RTS,S has consistently shown an efficacy of around 50% against the first clinical episode of malaria, with protection in some cases extending up to 4 years of duration. Thus, it is hoped that this candidate vaccine will eventually become the first licensed malaria vaccine. This first vaccine against a human parasite is a groundbreaking achievement, but improved malaria vaccines conferring higher protection will be needed if the aspiration of malaria eradication is to be achieved

Many different vaccine candidates against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiological agent of COVID-19, are currently approved and under development. Vaccine platforms vary from mRNA vaccines to viral-vectored vaccines, and several candidates have been shown to produce humoral and cellular responses in small animal models, non-human primates, and human volunteers. In this study, six non-human primates received a prime-boost intramuscular vaccination with 4 µg of mRNA vaccine candidate CV07050101, which encodes a pre-fusion stabilized spike (S) protein of SARS-CoV-2. Boost vaccination was performed 28 days post prime vaccination. As a control, six animals were similarly injected with PBS. Humoral and cellular immune responses were investigated at time of vaccination, and two weeks afterwards. No antibodies could be detected at two and four weeks after prime vaccination. Two weeks after boost vaccination, binding but no neutralizing antibodies were detected in four out of six non-human primates. SARS-CoV-2 S protein-specific T cell responses were detected in these four animals. In conclusion, prime-boost vaccination with 4 µg of vaccine candidate CV07050101 resulted in limited immune responses in four out of six non-human primates.

People around the world ushered in the new year 2021 with a fear of COVID-19, as family members have lost their loved ones to the disease. Millions of people have been infected, and the livelihood of many has been jeopardized due to the pandemic. Pharmaceutical companies are racing against time to develop an effective vaccine to protect against COVID-19. Researchers have developed various types of candidate vaccines with the release of the genetic sequence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in January. These include inactivated viral vaccines, protein subunit vaccines, mRNA vaccines, and recombinant viral vector vaccines. To date, several vaccines have been authorized for emergency use and they have been administered in countries across the globe. Meanwhile, there are also vaccine candidates in Phase III clinical trials awaiting results and approval from authorities. These candidates have shown positive results in the previous stages of the trials, whereby they could induce an immune response with minimal side effects in the participants. This review aims to discuss the different vaccine platforms and the clinical trials of the candidate vaccines.

Trichuris trichiura and T. suis are gastrointestinal dwelling roundworms that infect humans and pigs, respectively. Heavy infections cause gastrointestinal symptoms and impaired growth and development. Vaccination has the potential to reduce the disease burden of whipworm infection; however, there are currently no commercially available vaccines against these parasites and very few against other gastrointestinal-dwelling nematodes of medical and agricultural importance. The naturally occurring mouse whipworm, T. muris, has been used for decades to model human trichuriasis, and the immunogenic potential of the excretory/secretory material (E/S, which can be collected following ex vivo culture of worms) has been studied in the context of vaccine candidate identification. Despite this, researchers are yet to progress an effective vaccine candidate to clinical trials. The T. muris, T. trichiura, and T. suis genomes each encode between 10 and 27 whey acidic protein (WAP) domain-containing proteins and 15 to 34 cysteine-rich secretory protein/antigen 5/pathogenesis related-1 (CAP) family members. WAP and CAP proteins have been postulated to play key roles in host–parasite interactions and may possess immunomodulatory functions. In addition, both protein families have been explored in the context of helminth vaccines. Here, we use phylogenetic and functional analysis to investigate the evolutionary relationship between WAP and CAP proteins encoded by T. muris, T. trichiura, and T. suis. We highlight several WAP and CAP proteins that warrant further study to understand their biological function and as possible vaccine candidates against T. trichiura and/or T. suis, based on the close evolutionary relationship with WAP or CAP proteins identified within T. muris E/S products.

Chlamydia trachomatis is a Gram-negative obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen that is the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted disease in humans in developing countries. A vaccination programme is considered to be the best approach to reduce the prevalence of C. trachomatis infections. However, there are still no commercial C. trachomatis vaccines. In order to develop effective C. trachomatis vaccines, it is important to identify those antigens that elicit a protective immune response, and to develop new and adequate methods and adjuvants for effective vaccine delivery, as conventional methods have failed to induce protective immunity. In order to test different vaccine candidates, animal models are needed. Former studies have used non-primate monkeys, mice or guinea pig infection models. The present study used a pig model for testing recombinant protein vaccines. Two recombinant proteins, polymorphic membrane protein G (PmpG), and secretion and cellular translocation protein C (SctC), were tested for their ability to create protection in a pig C. trachomatis challenge model. The vaccines were administered subcutaneously with GNE adjuvant. Six weeks later, animals were challenged intravaginally with C. trachomatis serovar E. After a further 4 weeks, the pigs were euthanized. PmpG-immunized pigs were better protected than pigs immunized with the less promising SctC candidate vaccine antigen. Interestingly, significant protection was apparently not correlated with a strong humoral immune response upon subcutaneous immunization. In conclusion, the pig model is useful for studying the efficacy of vaccine candidates against genital human C. trachomatis infection.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic by SARS-CoV-2 has caused many losses. One way to prevent the spread of this virus is to get vaccinated. However, the latest SARS-CoV-2 variants, including variant B.1.617.2 (Delta) are doubtful to be inhibited by existing vaccines because of mutations. Therefore, we need a new vaccine candidate that is effective against this SARS-CoV-2 variant. Through an immunoinformatics approach with various software and analysis websites, vaccine candidates can be predicted in a short time.Objective: Identity, analyze, obtain, and confirm the selected B-cell epitope sequence that can be used as a vaccine candidate for the SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant.Methods: This research was conducted by isolating the amino acid peptide sequence in the SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant protein spike from the Protein Data Bank which is suspected to be an immunogenic epitope and can be used as a vaccine candidate. A Series of tests were carried out such as antigenicity, toxicity, allergenicity, and BLAST® protein to ensure that this vaccine candidate is safe for later application into the human body. The next stage is a conservation analysis to see its potential by comparing it with the SARS-CoV-2 Delta (B.1.617.2) variant spike protein sequence in Indonesia. The study ended by mapping amino acid peptides to the SARS-CoV-2 Delta (B.1.617.2) variant spike protein using the Biovia Discovery Studio Visualizer v21.1.0.20298 2020 software to ensure that the selected sequences were epitope.Results: From the five amino acid peptides that have been isolated, the FTNVYADSFVIRGDEVRQIAPGQTGKIADYNYKLPDDFT epitope sequence has good results than the others. It is probable an antigen, non-toxic, non-allergen, and non-homolog to the human body protein.Conclusion: Based on this in silico study, it was found that the FTNVYADSFVIRGDEVRQIAPGQTGKIADYNYKLPDDFT epitope sequence was the best to be used as a vaccine candidate of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant.Keywords: SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant, B-cell epitope, vaccine, in silico, immunoinformatics.

Francisella tularensis is one of a small group of bacteria recognized for their virulence and potential for use as biological weapons. In this study we utilize a novel approach to identify an immunologically prominent component of F. tularensis that appears to be a promising vaccine candidate. Francisella is an intracellular pathogen that infects cells of the reticuloendothelial system. Other bacteria, such as Brucella spp. have this part of their life cylce in common. However, while mice injected with Brucella spp. survive and produce antibodies to the bacteria which are immunologically reactive not only with Brucella spp. but, also with Francisella. When we vaccinated mice with a B. abortis O-linked polysaccharide (OPS) and then challenged them with 10 LD50F.tularensis LVS, 60% survived. Sera from Brucella OPS-primed/F.tularensis-challenged mice was used to identify immune reactive proteins from F. tularensis. A novel 52 kDa fraction was identified. While vaccination of mice with this partially purified fraction only provided 20% protection to F.tularensis challenged mice, both whole cell extracts and a partially purified soluble fraction (>30kDa) given to Brucella-vaccinated mice were 100% protective. The 52 kDa enriched fraction elicited a rudimentary cytokine burst of nitric oxide in a cell culture of J774.1 macrophages. The 52 kDa fraction was degraded by proteinase K and appeared to decrease in size to 36 kDa in the presence of DNAase, suggesting a possible protein and nucleic acid composition. The host response to F. tularensiss infection is complex, but given the ability of the 52 kDa component to protect against live vaccine challenge, and its apparent ability to elicit a cytokine burst, this component may have potential use in future vaccine production.
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The bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis is the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted infection worldwide. When left untreated, chlamydial infections can lead to severe complications, such as infertility. Lack in current prevention and management due to its asymptomatic course of infection highlight the need for an effective vaccine against chlamydia. There is no vaccine at present to protect against chlamydia, but research is ongoing. A research group at Örebro University has developed a protein antigen candidate. This project focused on the production of the candidate, here called Protein X, for preclinical trials. This included optimising production in Escherichia coli to maximise formation of soluble protein, optimising purification, buffer exchange and removal of His-tag. It was found that formation of soluble protein was favoured in lower expression temperatures. Furthermore, purification was performed on soluble and insoluble protein fractions using immobilised metal affinity chromatography. However, issues with inefficient binding to the resin and purity could not be solved and further optimisation is needed. Buffers were tested to find a suitable buffer for preclinical experiments, but the protein precipitated in all buffers. It was however found that protein from the insoluble fraction dissolved in pure water. Lastly, removal of the His-tag was performed with a non-enzymatic method that utilises nickel ions instead of expensive proteases. Efficient removal was however not achieved and enzymatic methods may be considered instead. In conclusion, this project highlighted issues in the production of Protein X and may guide the research group towards improving this process for efficient preclinical preparations.

Introduction Yearly, 90 million people are infected with C. trachomatis. Even though it is easily treated with antibiotics the often-asymptomatic infection often spreads prior to detection. A vaccine is therefore of great interest. A chimeric major outer membrane protein (MOMP) of C. trachomatis has in earlier studies proved to contain the epitopes necessary for immunization. In this thesis the chimeric MOMP gene was cloned and expressed in E. coli. Furthermore, the expression of the protein was analyzed in previously transformed A. thaliana. Materials and Methods The chimeric MOMP gene was cloned into E.coli. Following vector amplification, the gene was expressed and the protein purified by affinity chromatography.  Seeds from different lines of previously transformed A. thaliana were screened by PCR. Hits were then analyzed by western blot.  Results The results show successful cloning and expression of the chimeric MOMP gene in E. coli. The following protein purification did result in purified protein, however in low concentration. For the A.thaliana lines, the presence and correct orientation of the gene was verified in some of the lines screened. The B7 line was verified to express the protein. Discussion The low concentration of purified protein in E.coli was probably due to un-optimized imunnoprecipitation conditions. In expression analysis of A. thaliana, purification of plant samples by immunoprecipitation prior to running western blot gave results, whereas running un-purified samples in urea buffer did not, probably due to interfering proteins in wild type plants.

Los virus de influenza A (IAVs) son los responsables de brotes pandémicos y de la mayoría de las epidemias anuales en los seres humanos, aves y cerdos. Los virus de influenza A se dividen en subtipos, basado en la naturaleza de sus glicoproteínas de superficie, hemaglutinina (HA) y neuraminidasa (NA). La HA es una glicoproteína de superficie homotrimérica que media la entrada del virus de influenza a través de la unión celular y eventos de fusión de membranas. El bolsillo de unión al receptor de HA está rodeado por los sitios de unión de anticuerpos antigénicamente variables. Por lo tanto, los anticuerpos limitados a estos sitios debería, en principio, bloquear la unión a las proteínas del receptor, inhibiendo la entrada del virus, lo que demuestra actividad de inhibición de la hemaglutinina y la actividad de neutralización viral. Sin embargo, la subunidad 1 de HA (HA1) es altamente variable a través de los virus de influenza y tiende a cambiar bajo presión inmune; por lo tanto, fácilmente evade los anticuerpos neutralizantes inducidos por la vacunación o infecciones anteriores. Las consecuencias negativas de las infecciones por virus de influenza incentivan al mundo de la ciencia para promover el desarrollo de vacunas multivalentes contra la gripe, que tengan eficaz protección frente a todas las cepas de influenza. Por consiguiente, el campo de la bioinformática se ha convertido en una parte importante de la identificación y validación temprana de nuevas dianas terapéuticas que podrían ser un primer paso esencial en el desarrollo de una vacuna eficaz para el virus de influenza, que representa la alta variabilidad de sus determinantes antigénicos. En esta tesis se postuló que la HA1 podría representar una diana potencial para una vacuna multivalente frente a la infección por influenza virus. Por ende; el objetivo general de esta tesis fue seleccionar péptidos conservados de la subunidad 1 de la proteína hemaglutinina del virus de la gripe, para evaluar la eficacia de los candidatos seleccionados, para inducir la inmunidad que pueda proteger a los animales contra la infección. Para desarrollar este objetivo, se llevaron a cabo tres estudios experimentales: en ratones (Capítulo 1), cerdos (capítulo 2) y pollos (Capítulo 3). En el primer estudio, se evaluó el efecto protector de la mejora de péptidos HA1 contra la pandemia del virus H1N1 2009 (pH1N1) y el virus de la influenza de alta patogenicidad H7N1 en un modelo de ratón (Capítulo 1). En este estudio, los ratones fueron vacunados por vía intraperitoneal con la mezcla de péptido sintético (NG34 + DC89) y desafiados ya sea con el pH1N1 ó H7N1 del virus de influenza. Una mortalidad del 85% fue observada en los ratones de control, independientemente del virus utilizado para el desafío, 80% y 66% de los ratones vacunados con péptido sobrevivieron al desafío con pH1N1 y H7N1, respectivamente, sin la detección de virus de la influenza (IV). Los ratones vacunados supervivientes se correlacionaron con la presencia de anticuerpos neutralizantes de reactividad cruzada en sueros antes de la exposición. La inmunización con NG34+DC89 también indujo respuesta inmune en mucosas; demostrándose con la presencia de IgA en lavado broncoalveolar en el 50% de los animales. Nuestros resultados también muestran que la vacunación de NG34+DC89 es capaz de inducir anticuerpos y la protección cruzada neutralizante frente a dos cepas heterólogas, pH1N1 y H7N1. Por lo tanto, péptidos NG34+DC89 representan un inmunógeno atractivo, lo que podría ser aún más optimizado para futuras formulaciones de vacunas multivalentes frente el virus de influenza. En el segundo estudio, hemos probado la inmunogenicidad de un cóctel HA1-péptido en un modelo porcino para evaluar si esta nueva formulación puede conferir inmunidad a una amplia gama de virus de influenza in vitro (Capítulo 2). En este estudio, hemos utilizado cuatro péptidos de la HA1 del subtipo H1 del virus de influenza (NG34, DC55, RA22 y SS35), evaluamos su inmunogenicidad en cerdos convencionales de granja frente a virus de influenza homólogos y heterólogos. Las vacunas de péptidos sintéticos indujeron anticuerpos con capacidad neutralizante y de inhibición frente a virus homólogos. Aquellos también cros-reaccionaron frente a los virus heterólogos de origen aviar como el virus H7N1 y virus de influenza de baja patogenicidad H5N2 y además el virus circulante H3N2 de origen porcino. Por otra parte, se detectaron anticuerpos específicos de IgA-secretora en hisopos nasales. Los resultados muestran que los péptidos evaluados fueron inmunogénicos en cerdos. La respuesta humoral con la actividad neutralizante y de inhibición de hemaglutinina generada después de la inmunización podría ser utilizada en otros estudios de inmunidad protectora heterosubtípica. En el tercer estudio se evaluó el efecto protector de la mejora de péptidos de HA1 contra el virus altamente patógeno virus de la influenza H7N1 en pollos, un modelo huésped natural (capítulo 3). En este estudio, se utilizaron dos péptidos sintéticos NG34 y SS35 para vacunar pollos de granja. La vacunación tanto con péptidos NG34 ó SS35 indujeron anticuerpos específicos que reconocen virus heterólogos, como H7N1 y H5N2 in vitro. La vacunación con péptido NG34 provocó una respuesta de anticuerpos protectores que confirió una protección parcial frente un desafío letal con H7N1. Además, el péptido NG34 indujo una respuesta inmune de la mucosa, que correlacionaba con la diseminación viral reducida en hisopos orofaríngeos/ cloacales y la pulpa de la pluma. Por el contrario, animales vacunados con el péptido SS35 no pudieron producir una eficiente respuesta inmune protectora frente el desafío letal H7N1. Es necesario recalcar, que todos los péptidos HA1 del subtipo H1 del virus de influenza, fueron seleccionados mediante el Método de espectros informativo (ISM). Cuatro principales conclusiones generales pueden extraerse de estos estudios: (i) Péptidos HA1 son inmunogénicos en todos los modelos animales estudiados (ratones, cerdos y pollos) e inducen una respuesta immune humoral y de mucosa. (ii) Péptidos inmunogénicos de la subunidad 1 de la proteína hemaglutinina del virus de la influenza confieren una protección parcial contra diferentes subtipos virales en ratones; (iii) Los cerdos vacunados con péptidos HA1 provocan una respuesta de anticuerpos neutralizantes con actividad de inhibición de la hemaglutinina frente a diferentes subtipos de Influenza A virus y (iv) Péptidos HA1 confieren una protección parcial contra un virus altamente patógeno/ H7N1 en modelo de pollo. En general, nuestros resultados proporcionan ideas sobre nuevos enfoques para la vacunación de la gripe y la comprensión de la respuesta inmune frente al virus de influenza en ratones, cerdos y pollos.
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are responsible for pandemic outbreaks of influenza, and for most of the well-known annual flu epidemics, in humans, poultry and pigs. IAVs are divided into subtypes, based on the nature of their surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). The HA is a homotrimeric surface glycoprotein that mediates influenza viral entry via cellular attachment and membrane fusion events. The receptor-binding pocket of HA is surrounded by antigenically variable antibody binding sites. Therefore, antibodies bounded to these sites should, in principle, block the binding to receptor proteins, inhibiting viral entry, demonstrating hemagglutinin inhibition activity and viral neutralization activity. However, the subunit 1 of HA (HA1) is highly variable across viruses and tends to change under immune pressure and, hence, easily evades the neutralizing antibodies induced by previous vaccinations or infections. The negative implications of influenza virus infections push the world to promote the development of multivalent flu vaccines that protect against all human influenza strains. Therefore, the field of bioinformatics has become a major part of the identification and early validation of new therapeutic targets and could be an essential first step in the development of an effective vaccine for influenza virus that represents the high variability of its antigenic determinants. Therefore, in this thesis it was postulated that the HA1 could represent a potential target for a multivalent vaccine of influenza infection. Consequently, the general objective of this thesis was to select conserved peptides from the HA1 of influenza viruses and to evaluate the efficacy of the selected candidates to induce immunity that can protect animal against infection. To achieve this objective, three studies were undertaken in mice (Chapter 1), pigs (chapter 2) and chickens (Chapter 3). In the first study, we evaluated the protective effect of improved HA1-peptides against the pandemic H1N1 2009 virus and a H7N1 highly pathogenic influenza virus (HPAIV) in a mouse model (Chapter 1). In this study, mice were intraperitoneally vaccinated with the peptide mix (NG34+DC89), and next challenged with either the pH1N1 or the H7N1 strain of Influenza virus. Conversely to the 85% mortality observed in control mice, independently of the virus used for challenge, 80% and 66% of the peptide-vaccinated mice survived the challenge with pH1N1 and H7N1, respectively, without detection of influenza viruses (IV). Vaccinated mice surviving correlated with the presence of cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies in sera prior to challenge. The immunization with NG34+DC89 also induced mucosal immune responses demonstrated with the presence of IgA in bronchoalveolar lavage in 50% of the animals. Our results also show that NG34+DC89 is capable to induce cross-neutralizing antibodies and protection against two heterologous IV, pH1N1 and H7N1. Thus, NG34+DC89 represent an attractive immunogen, which could be further optimized for future multivalent vaccine formulations against influenza virus. In the second study, we tested the immunogenicity of a HA1-peptide cocktail in a pig model to assess whether this new formulation can confer immunity to a wide range of IAVs in vitro (Chapter 2). Four peptides (NG34, DC55, RA22 and SS35) within the HA1 from H1 viruses were selected, and evaluated their immunogenicity in conventional farm pigs against homologous and heterologous viruses of influenza. Peptides immunizations induced HA neutralizing and inhibiting antibodies against homologous viruses. Those also cross-reacted against heterologous viruses like H7N1 and H5N2 and, most importantly, the circulating H3N2. Moreover, secretory IgA-specific HA antibodies in nasal swabs were detected. Altogether, the results show that the peptides tested were immunogenic in pigs. The humoral response with hemagglutinin-inhibiting and cross-neutralizing activity generated after immunization could be used in further studies of protective heterosubtypic immunity. In the third study we evaluated the protective effect of improved HA1-peptides against H7N1 highly pathogenic influenza virus (HPAIV) in chickens, a natural host model (Chapter 3). In this study, based on ISM, we selected two highly conserved peptides (NG34 and SS35) of a H1 influenza virus strain and used them to vaccinate free-range chickens. The vaccination with both NG34 and SS35 peptides induced specific antibodies that recognized heterologous viruses, as H7N1 HPAIV and H5N2 Low pathogenic avian virus (LPAIV) in vitro. Vaccination with NG34 peptide elicited a protective antibody response that conferred partial protection against a lethal challenge with H7N1 HPAIV. Furthermore, NG34 peptide induced a mucosal immune response, which correlated with reduced viral shedding in oropharyngeal/cloacal swabs and feather pulp. On the contrary, SS35 peptide vaccinated animals failed to produce an efficient protective immune response as no survival against lethal H7N1 challenge was achieved. Finally, it remains to point out that all HA1-peptides from H1 subtype of influenza virus were selected by the method of informative spectra (ISM). Four main general conclusions can be drawn from these studies: (i) HA1-peptides are immunogenic in all the animals models tested (mice, pigs and chickens) and induce humoral and mucosal immune response. (ii) Novel conserved immunogenic peptides from the hemagglutinin subunit 1 protein of influenza viruses confer partial protection against different viral subtypes in mice; (iii) Pigs vaccinated with HA1 peptides elicit neutralizing and hemagglutination-inhibiting antibody responses against different subtypes of Influenza A virus and (iv) Synthetic peptides from the hemagglutinin of influenza viruses confer partial protection against highly pathogenic A/H7N1 virus in a free-range chicken model. Overall, these data provide insights on new approaches for vaccination in influenza and understanding of the immune response against influenza viruses in mice, pigs and chickens.

The StkF protein of Salmonella enterica serovar Paratyphi A, a putative adhesion-associated protein, was used to develop a candidate adhesin-based vaccine against Salmonella infections, particularly S. Paratyphi A-associated enteric fever. Subcutaneous immunisation of BALB/c mice with recombinant StkF (rStkF) showed that this protein was strongly immunogenic as revealed by the presence of high-titre (1:50,000) anti-StkF antibody in sera from immunized mice. Furthermore, as IgG1 was the major antibody isotype induced, it would appear that rStkF generates a strong Th2-type humoral immune response. The induction of a Th2-dominant immune response was further confirmed by splenocyte-associated cytokine profile analysis which demonstrated greater up-regulation of IL-4 than that of IFN-γ or IL-12-p70. In terms of the protective potential of this antigen, in vitro assays demonstrated that StkF-specific murine antiserum markedly enhanced opsonophagocytosis-mediated uptake of StkF-expressing Salmonella bacteria by human neutrophils. Augmented antibody-specific complement-mediated lysis targeting StkF-expressing Salmonella specifically was also shown. These data suggest a likely direct contribution of StkF-specific antibodies to in vivo killing and clearance of Salmonella and strongly support further investigation of StkF as a potential Salmonella vaccine candidate. BlastN-based interrogation of the NCBI bacterial genome database and PCR investigation of a larger set of strains has shown that the S. Paratyphi A stkF gene and/or the whole stk fimbrial gene cluster is carried by ~1/3 of examined Salmonella serovars. Additionally, bioinformatics and phenotypic characterisation has revealed that the stk fimbrial operon belongs to the chaperone/usher-γ4-fimbrial clade and that it encodes a mannose-sensitive haemagglutinating fimbrial structure. The latter trait is typical of type 1 fimbriae. ELISAs based on rStkF, rStaF and rSipA showed variable sensitivity and specificity for the serodiagnosis of invasive Salmonella infections depending on the particular UK or region-specific cut off applied for each antigen. Further refinement and/or merging of these assays may allow for development of simple and cost effective tests with higher sensitivity and/or specificity than the Widal test. Importantly, despite some minor reactivity with serum from patients with other Gram-negative bacterial infections, the rStkF-based ELISA exhibited no reactivity with serum from patients with dengue fever supporting its potential as a discriminatory diagnostic tool between fevers caused by S. Paratyphi A and dengue virus.

The major merozoite surface protein of Plasmodium falciparum (PtMSP1) is a malaria vaccine candidate antigen. Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) which bind to disulphide-constrained epitopes of PfMSP1₁₉ inhibit parasite growth in vitro and immunisation of animals with recombinant proteins representing this region of the molecule protects animals against challenge infection. In addition, epidemiological data demonstrates that antibody responses to the C-terminus of PfMSP1 are associated with protection against clinical symptoms of malaria. To further evaluate the potential of this antigen as a vaccine candidate, I have measured human immune responses to recombinant proteins representing the C-terminus of PfMSP1. I have found that PfMSP1₁₉ is naturally antigenic in individuals living in a malaria endemic area and that antibody is cross-reactive between the two major allelic sequences of PfMSP1₁₉. However, some individuals consistently remain nonresponsive to PfMSP1₁₉ despite life long exposure. To determine whether this is due to a lack of T cell help, I evaluated T cell responses to PfMSP1₁₉ in malaria-exposed adults. T cell responsiveness to PfMSP1₁₉ is low and appears to be, in part, due to the disulphide-bonded structure to PfMSP1₁₉ which may hinder antigen processing. I have found that antibody responses to PfMSP1₁₉ are associated with resistance to clinical malaria in two populations of children actively acquiring immunity to malaria. However, not all antibody-positive children were protected from malaria, suggesting that the fine-specificity of the antibody response may be important in determining its ability to provide protection against clinical malaria. I was able to demonstrate that malaria immune IgG, affinity purified to PfMSP1₁₉, inhibits parasite growth in vitro and is equally effective against parasites from either PfMSP1 family. This suggests that if protective antibodies could be induced by vaccination, with either allelic form of the protein, infection by all strains of P. falciparum could be controlled.

Abstract The small (S) envelope protein of the Hepatitis B Virus (HBV), HBV-S, has the unique ability to self-assemble into highly immunogenic subviral particles (SVPs), in the absence of other viral factors, in eukaryotic cells, including those of nonhepatic origin. This feature is currently exploited for generation of SVPs exposing heterologous epitopes on their surface that can be used as vaccine candidates to target various diseases. Here, we describe a simple and robust method for production of such chimeric HBV-S protein-based SVPs in transiently transfected HEK293T cells and purification from cell supernatants by ultracentrifugation on sucrose cushion and sucrose step gradients. The SVPs obtained by this methodology have been successfully used in immunogenicity studies in animal models.

Introdução: A malária é uma parasitose que, apesar de antiga, continua sendo um grande risco para saúde pública com cerca de 445 mil mortes por ano ao redor do mundo(2). Apesar de possuir cinco agentes etiológicos, o Plasmodium falciparum é o principal, sendo responsável pelo maior número de mortes por malária(1,2). Uma vez que há diversos empecilhos quando se trata da erradicação da malária como resistência a inseticidas e a drogas antimaláricas, foi observada a necessidade de uma vacina contra o agravamento dessa parasitose(1). O fato de que a fase sanguínea do Plasmodium é atualmente apontada como um dos possíveis alvos para a ação de uma vacina, fez os pesquisadores enxergarem a proteína rica em ácido glutâmico do P. falciparum (PfGARP) que é encontrada na superfície das células vermelhas infectadas pelo parasita(2,3). Assim, fez-se necessária uma pesquisa com os anticorpos contra essa proteína para melhor elucidação. Objetivos: O objetivo deste resumo é observar os efeitos dos anticorpos anti-PfGARP contra trofozoítos do Plasmodium falciparum e como esses anticorpos oferecem proteção contra o agravamento da malária. Métodos: Foi realizada a procura nas plataformas científicas PubMed e Google Acadêmico e os artigos utilizados foram encontrados por meio do descritor “malaria vaccine”. Resultados: Os anticorpos anti-PfGARP presentes nos indivíduos estudados foram apontados como responsáveis pela diminuição da integridade morfológica dos parasitas, onde os mesmos apresentaram-se picnóticos, característicos de morte(3). Além disso, esses anticorpos causaram uma diminuição da integridade do vacúolo digestivo, apresentando-se com um tamanho menor ou até mesmo ausente(3). Outrossim, os parasitas sofreram alterações no potencial de membrana mitocondrial, tendo a mitocôndria perdido função após 24h(3). Por fim, os anticorpos anti-PfGARP ativaram a morte celular programada desses parasitas por meio da ativação de caspases(3). Conclusões: Com base no que foi exposto, é possível concluir que a PfGARP é uma excelente candidata para o desenvolvimento de uma vacina contra o Plasmodium falciparum por meio da morte dos parasitas. Sendo assim, é necessário que sejam realizados mais estudos com a PfGARP com o objetivo de obter mais informações acerca dos benefícios de uma vacina com essa proteína e, ainda, conhecer possíveis malefícios para que possa ser inclusa no mercado de forma eficaz e segura, diminuindo a ocorrência de malária grave e assim evitando o sofrimento de milhares de pessoas infectadas com esta parasitose ao redor do mundo.

The global pandemic of COVID-19 disease caused by infection with the SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus, has produced an urgent requirement and search for improved treatments whilst effective vaccines are developed. A strategy for improved drug therapy is to increase levels of endogenous reactive metabolites for selective toxicity to SARS-CoV-2 by preferential damage to the viral proteome. Key reactive metabolites producing major quantitative damage to the proteome in physiological systems are: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the reactive glycating agent methylglyoxal (MG); cysteine residues and arginine residues are their most susceptible targets, respectively. From sequenced-based prediction of the SARS-CoV-2 proteome, we found 0.8-fold enrichment or depletion of cysteine residues in functional domains of the viral proteome; whereas there was a 4.6-fold enrichment of arginine residues, suggesting SARS-CoV-2 is resistant to oxidative agents and sensitive to MG. We examined activated arginine residues in functional domain with predicted low pKa by neighboring group interaction in the SARS-CoV-2. We found 25 such arginine residues, including 2 in the spike protein and 10 in the nucleoprotein. These sites were partially conserved in related coronaviridae: SARS-COV and MERS. We also screened and identified drugs, which increase cellular MG concentration to virucidal levels and found two antitumor drugs with historical antiviral activity, doxorubicin and paclitaxel were the best candidate for repurposing. Our findings provide evidence of potential vulnerability of SARS-CoV2 to inactivation by MG and a scientific rationale for repurposing of doxorubicin and paclitaxel for treatment of COVID-19 disease, providing efficacy and adequate therapeutic index may be established.

Our long-term goal is to develop an efficient acellular vaccine against paratuberculosis based on protein antigen(s). A prerequisite to achieve this goal is to analyze and characterize Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (Mpt) secreted and cellular proteins eliciting a protective immune response. In the context of this general objective, we proposed to identify, clone, produce, and characterize: the Mpt 85B antigen and other Mpt immunoreactive secreted proteins, the Mpt L7/L12 ribosomal protein and other immunoreactive cellular proteins, Mpt protein determinants involved in invasion of epithelial cells, and Mpt protein antigens specifically expressed in macrophages. Paratuberculosis is still a very serious problem in Israel and in the USA. In the USA, a recent survey evaluated that 21.6% of the dairy herd were infected with Mpt resulting in 200-250 million dollars in annual losses. Very little is known on the virulence factors and on protective antigens of Mpt. At present, the only means of controlling this disease are culling or vaccination. The current vaccines do not allow a clear differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals. Our long-term goal is to develop an efficient acellular paratuberculosis vaccine based on Mpt protein antigen(s) compatible with diagnostic tests. To achieve this goal it is necessary to analyze and characterize secreted and cellular proteins candidate for such a vaccine. Representative Mpt libraries (shuttle plasmid and phage) were constructed and used to study Mpt genes and gene products described below and will be made available to other research groups. In addition, two approaches were performed which did not yield the expected results. Mav or Mpt DNA genes that confer upon Msg or E. coli the ability to invade and/or survive within HEp-2 cells were not identified. Likewise, we were unable to characterize the 34-39 kDa induced secreted proteins induced by stress factors due to technical difficulties inherent to the complexity of the media needed to support substantial M. pt growth. We identified, isolated, sequenced five Mpt proteins and expressed four of them as recombinant proteins that allowed the study of their immunological properties in sensitized mice. The AphC protein, found to be up regulated by low iron environment, and the SOD protein are both involved in protecting mycobacteria against damage and killing by reactive oxygen (Sod) and nitrogen (AhpC) intermediates, the main bactericidal mechanisms of phagocytic cells. SOD and L7/L12 ribosomal proteins are structural proteins constitutively expressed. 85B and CFP20 are both secreted proteins. SOD, L7/L12, 85B and CFP20 were shown to induce a Th1 response in immunized mice whereas AphC was shown by others to have a similar activity. These proteins did not interfere with the DTH reaction of naturally infected cows. Cellular immunity provides protection in mycobacterial infections, therefore molecules inducing cellular immunity and preferentially a Th1 pathway will be the best candidate for the development of an acellular vaccine. The proteins characterized in this grant that induce a cell-mediated immunity and seem compatible with diagnostic tests, are good candidates for the construction of a future acellular vaccine.

Previous research and current efforts at control of babesiosis fall short of meeting the needs of countries where the disease is endemic, such as Israel, as well as the needs of exporting countries and countries bordering on endemic areas, such as the U.S. Our long-term goal is to develop improved methods of immunization against bovine babesiosis based on an understanding of the molecular mechanisms of immune protection and parasite targets of a protective immune response. In our previous BARD project, we established the basis for focusing on rhoptry antigens as components of a subunit vaccine against bovine babesiosis, and for additional research to better characterize rhoptry associated protein-1 (RAP-1) as a target of protective immunity. In this continuation BARD project, our objectives were to [1] optimize the immune response against RAP-1, and [2] identify additional rhoptry candidate vaccine antigens. The entire locus encoding B. bovis RAP-1 was sequenced, and the rap-1 open reading frame compared among several strains. Unlike B. bigemina, in which multiple gene copies with variant domains encode RAP-1, the B. bovis RAP-1 locus contains only two identical genes which are conserved among strains. Through testing of multiple truncated constructs of rRAP-1, one or more immunodominant T cell epitopes were mapped to the amino terminal half of RAP-1. At least one linear and one conformational B cell epitope have been demonstrated in the same amino terminal construct, which in B. bigemina RAP-1 also contains an epitope recognized by neutralizing antibody. The amine terminal half of the molecule represents the most highly conserved part of the gene family and contains motifs conserved broadly among the apicomplexa. In contrast, the carboxy terminal half of B. bovis RAP-1 is less well conserved and contains multiple repeats encoding a linear B cell epitope potentially capable of inducing an ineffective, T cell independent, type 2 immune response. Therefore, we are testing an amino terminal fragment of RAP-1 (RAP-1N) in an immunization trial in cattle. Cattle have beer immunized with RAP-1N or control antigen, and IL-12 with Ribi adjuvant. Evaluation of the immune response is ongoing, and challenge with virulent B. bovis will occur in the near future. While no new rhoptry antigens were identified, our studies did identify and characterize a new spherical body antigen (SBP3), and several heat shock proteins (HSP's). The SBP3 and HSP21 antigens stimulate T cells from immune cattle and are considered new vaccine candidates worthy of further testing. Overall, we conclude that a single RAP-1 vaccine construct representing the conserved amino terminal region of the molecule should be sufficient for immunization against all strains of B. bovis. While results of the ongoing immunization trial will direct our next research steps, results at this time are consistent with our long term goal of designing a subunit vaccine which contains only the epitopes relevant to induction of protective immunity. Parallel studies are defining the mechanisms of protective immunity. Apicomplexan protozoa, including babesiosis and malaria, cause persistent diseases for which control is inadequate. The apical organelles are defining features of these complex protozoa, and have been conserved through the evolutionary process, Past and current BARD projects on babesiosis have established the validity and potential of exploiting these conserved organelles in developing improved control methods applicable to all apicomplexan diseases.

Staphylococcus aureus is a major cause of mastitis in dairy cattle. The organism is able to adhere to and penetrate mammary epithelium, forming deep seated abscesses that result in chronic infections. This study was based on the observation that certain genotypes of S. aureus are isolated more frequently from field cases of bovine mastitis than others and the most prevalent genotypes of S. aureus have an increased ability to resist neutrophil phagocytosis and killing compared to the rare variants. It was hypothesized that these predominating genotypes differentially express virulence factors that allow them to overcome or suppress essential host defense mechanisms and successfully colonize mammary parenchyma. The overall objective of this study was to determine the mechanisms by which predominating S. aureus genotypes were able to resist mammary gland defense mechanisms. The following specific aims were accomplished to address the overall objectives of this project: 1. Analyze and compare cell surface and secreted protein profiles of common and rare S. aureus genotypes isolated from field cases of bovine mastitis. 2. Purify and sequence selectively synthesized proteins unique to the most prevalent genotypes of S. aureus . 3. Determine the in vitro effects of isolated proteins on essential host defense mechanisms. Results from each specific aim showed that these redominating genotypes differentially express factors that may allow them to overcome or suppress essential host defense mechanisms and successfully colonize mammary parenchyma. Using complementary approaches, both the US and Israeli teams identified differentially expressed S. aureus factors that were positively correlated with virulence as determined by the ability to modify host immune cell responses and increase disease pathogenesis. Several candidate virulence factors have ben identified at both the molecular (US team) and protein (Israeli team) levels. Components of the phosphotransferase system were shown to be differentially expressed in prevalent strains of S. aureus and to modify the growth potential of these strains in a milk microenvironment. Evidence provided by both the Israeli and US teams also demonstrated a potential role of Staphylococcal enterotoxins in the pathogenesis of mastitis. Certain enterotoxins were shown to directly affect neutrophil bactericidal activities which can profoundly affect the establishment of new intramammary infections. Other evidence suggests that S. aureus superantigens can suppress mammary defenses by enhancing lymphoid suppressor cell activity. Collectively, these data suggest that unique factors are associated with predominating S. aureus genotypes that can affect in vitro and in vivo virulence as related to the pathogenesis of bovine mastitis. The potential development of a subunit mastitis vaccine which incorporates only relevant antigenic determinants has not been investigated in depth. Experiments outlined in this proposal has identified putative virulence factors which contribute to the pathogenesis of S. aureus mastitis and which may be used to formulate an efficacious subunit mastitis vaccine. Results from these studies may lead to the development of new methods to prevent this costly disease, providing a viable alternative to less effective mastitis control procedures based on chemotherapy.