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1
Sainsbury, Mark. A Display Theory of Attitude Attribution. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198803348.003.0004.
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This is the central chapter in the book. It describes and defends display theory, a theory of attitude attribution according to which the words in the complement put concepts on display rather than using them in the normal attributive way. Attributions are true if the displayed concepts match the concepts subjects exercise in their intentional states. Display theory explains various features of intensionality. For example, there is no reason why a displayed concept in a true attribution need be true of some real entity: all that matters is whether the subject exercised it, not what, if anything, it refers to. A use of superscripts is developed which enables us to state with precision different ways in which attitude attributions can be true. The theory is extended to apply to non-conceptual intentional states.
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Guitton, Clement. Modelling Attribution. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699994.003.0002.
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How and why does the attribution of an incident become the responsibility of the executive rather than the judiciary? How do the processes of attributing a criminal incident and attributing a national security incident differ? This chapter offers a two-pronged model for attribution, based on the nature of the process either as criminal or as a threat to national security. Criminal cases rarely rise to the level of "national threat," and are mostly dealt with by law enforcement agencies and subsequently by judiciary organizations. Several cases, based on certain criteria, fall within the remit of the executive rather than the judiciary, because government officials regard them as threats to national security. This transfer has several consequences. First and foremost, the question of knowing the full name of the attacker becomes less relevant than knowing who the enemy is and who the sponsors are; for instance, a state actor or a terrorist organization. Second, a national security incident usually implies broader investigative powers, especially those of intelligence services, which can use secret methods bordering legality.
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Plecháč, Petr. Versification and Authorship Attribution. Karolinum Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.14712/9788024648903.
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The technique known as contemporary stylometry uses different methods, including machine learning, to discover a poem’s author based on features like the frequencies of words and character n-grams. However, there is one potential textual fingerprint stylometry tends to ignore: versification, or the very making of language into verse. Using poetic texts in three different languages (Czech, German, and Spanish), Petr Plecháč asks whether versification features like rhythm patterns and types of rhyme can help determine authorship. He then tests its findings on two unsolved literary mysteries. In the first, Plecháč distinguishes the parts of the Elizabethan verse play The Two Noble Kinsmen written by William Shakespeare from those written by his coauthor, John Fletcher. In the second, he seeks to solve a case of suspected forgery: how authentic was a group of poems first published as the work of the nineteenth-century Russian author Gavriil Stepanovich Batenkov? This book of poetic investigation should appeal to literary sleuths the world over.
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Hilton, Denis. Social Attribution and Explanation. Edited by Michael R. Waldmann. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199399550.013.33.
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Attribution processes appear to be an integral part of human visual perception, as low-level inferences of causality and intentionality appear to be automatic and are supported by specific brain systems. However, higher-order attribution processes use information held in memory or made present at the time of judgment. While attribution processes about social objects are sometimes biased, there is scope for partial correction. This chapter reviews work on the generation, communication, and interpretation of complex explanations, with reference to explanation-based models of text understanding that result in situation models of narratives. It distinguishes between causal connection and causal selection, and suggests that a factor will be discounted if it is not perceived to be connected to the event and backgrounded if it is perceived to be causally connected to that event, but is not selected as relevant to an explanation. The final section focuses on how interpersonal explanation processes constrain causal selection.
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Sainsbury, Mark. Thinking about Things. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198803348.001.0001.
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In the blink of an eye, I can redirect my thought from London to Cairo, from cookies to unicorns, from former President Obama to the mythical flying horse, Pegasus. How is this possible? How can we think about things that do not exist, like unicorns and Pegasus? Thinking About Things addresses these and related questions, taking as its framework a representational theory of mind. It explains how mental states are attributed, what their aboutness consists in, whether or not they are relational, and whether any of them involve nonexistent things like unicorns. The explanation centers on display theory, a theory of what is involved in attributing attitudes like thinking, hoping, and wanting. These attributions are intensional: some of them seem to involve nonexistent things, and they typically have semantic and logical peculiarities, like the fact that one cannot always substitute one expression for another that refers to the same thing without affecting truth. Display theory explains away these seeming anomalies. For example, substituting coreferring expressions does not always preserve truth because the correctness of an attribution depends on what concepts it displays, not on what the concepts refer to. And a concept that refers to nothing may be used in an accurate display of what someone is thinking. The book describes how concepts can be learned, originated, and given a systematic semantic description, independently of whether there exist things to which they refer. There being no things we are thinking about does not mean that we are not thinking about things.
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Beebe, James R., and Jake Monaghan. Epistemic Closure in Folk Epistemology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198815259.003.0003.
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This chapter reports the results of four empirical studies that investigate the extent to which an epistemic closure principle for knowledge is reflected in folk epistemology. Previous work by Turri (2015a) suggested our shared epistemic practices may only include a closure principle that applies to perceptual beliefs but not to inferential beliefs. The chapter argues that the results of these studies provide reason for thinking individuals are making a performance error when their knowledge attributions and denials conflict with the closure principle. When the chapter authors used research materials that overcome proposed difficulties with Turri’s original materials, they found that participants did not reject closure. Furthermore, when they presented Turri’s original materials to non-philosophers with expertise in deductive reasoning, they endorsed closure for both perceptual and inferential beliefs. These results suggest that an unrestricted closure principle provides a better model of folk patterns of knowledge attribution than a source-relative one.
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Guitton, Clement. Standards of Proof. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699994.003.0004.
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When can we consider that an attack is attributed, if attribution is not dependent on court proceedings? Do we need "appropriate" standards for the attribution of cyber attacks? What would such standards look like? This chapter starts by noting that there is a mismatch between how attribution functions, and how the law operates. Attribution is not contingent on legal proceedings, and can occur despite a lack of condemnation by a court. This lack of reliance on strict standards of evidence leads us to consider the following argument: that attribution is easily malleable. On top of the reliance of attribution on judgment, two factors notably underpin this malleability: an apparent lack of scrutiny for the evidence presented in cases of cyber attacks, and the use of non-conclusive criteria that are nevertheless presented as decisive. This malleability can be of great help to officials who seek to convince an audience of their attribution claims.
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Guitton, Clement. Private Companies. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699994.003.0005.
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What specific constraints do private companies face? What is the role of private companies in outing state-sponsored attacks? States accused of cyber attacks use three commonly recurring arguments to try to undermine claims by private companies—but as with judgment inherent to attribution, these arguments are based on characteristics inherent to the functioning of cyber security companies. Accused states attempt to bring into question the companies’ independence, and so to undermine the validity of their claims. To do so, they point out that many former government officials work for the company in question; that the timing of reports being published can appear to be in support of a government’s policies; and that companies are not always keen on attributing any attacks at all, and are focused only on particular, official enemies of the state. This chapter will verify the strength of these arguments. It concludes that such critiques of private companies often lack an evidence base, exaggerate certain points, and can read at times closer to conspiracy theory than to serious counterarguments.
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Guitton, Clement. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190699994.003.0001.
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The introduction sets to explain why it is important to look at the question of attribution: in short, it is central to defense and deterrence strategies. Furthermore, the introduction presents the different nuances of sponsorships to distinguish: from writing code without being aware of its intended malicious use, to states refusing to cooperate in investigations. The chapter goes on with exposing three common misconceptions that have permeated the debate on attribution: that it is a technical problem; that it is unsolvable; and that it is unique. These misconceptions will be debunked in turns throughout the remaining chapters. Finally, the chapter summarizes the argument and key terms such as "attribution" and cyber attacks.
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Demichele, Jacqueline Therese. Disease models, attributions, and attitudes in the treatment of the mentally ill, chemically addicted (MICA) patients. 1995.
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Elies, van Sliedregt. Part 2 Attributing Criminal Responsibility, 4 Perpetration and Participation. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199560363.003.0004.
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National criminal law has been an important source for drafting provisions of individual criminal responsibility in international law. Notions that we know from national criminal law, such as aiding/abetting, conspiracy and instigation, are used to refer to modalities of criminal responsibility. To gain a better insight into the modalities of participating in international crime as codified in international statutes, they need to be analyzed in light of national criminal law. This chapter discusses five models of participation in crime and international models of participation.
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Elies, van Sliedregt. Part 2 Attributing Criminal Responsibility, 6 Forms of Criminal Responsibility. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199560363.003.0006.
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This chapter discusses forms of criminal responsibility from a comparative and international perspective. They include direct and indirect perpetration, co-perpetration, instigation — including ordering, soliciting, and inducing — planning, and aiding/abetting. These modalities can be referred to as ‘classic’ or ‘general’ in the sense that they feature in most international statutes and have equivalents in national criminal codes, often in the general part. The comparative perspective is important and has been added for two reasons. First of all, because the link with national criminal law is strongest with these forms of criminal responsibility; they are largely modelled on municipal criminal law. Secondly, a comparative perspective is useful in discerning the scope and limits of these concepts. Moreover, it may assist in understanding these concepts when used in the international arena. After all, judges and other legal practitioners at international courts and tribunals understand these forms of responsibility from their own national perspective, which may cause — and has caused — misunderstandings.
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Mole, Tom. Celebrity and Anonymity. Edited by David Duff. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199660896.013.30.
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This chapter argues that the discourses, understandings, and practices surrounding the attribution of literary works changed significantly during the Romantic period. It examines the wide range of attribution styles that were available in the period, including the use of initials, phrases such as ‘by a Lady’, invented names such as Malachi Malagrowther (Walter Scott), and the formula ‘by the author of’. Drawing on a quantitative analysis of the bibliographical record, it shows how the popularity of anonymous publication shifted during the period in different ways for novels and poetry volumes. These changes were bound up with the emergence of modern celebrity culture. The chapter suggests that celebrity, anonymity, and pseudonymity were not opposed to one another, but were complexly intertwined, so that anonymity could be a form of celebrity and (paradoxically) celebrity could be a form of anonymity.
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Trapp, Kimberley. Can Non-State Actors Mount an Armed Attack? Edited by Marc Weller. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199673049.003.0031.
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Article 2(4) of the UN Charter prohibits the use of force between States. In so doing, it addresses itself to a strictly interstate context and does not speak to the phenomenon of uses of force by non-state actors (NSAs). The question examined in this chapter is whether the exception to that prohibition—the right to use force in self-defence—is nevertheless responsive to the war-making capacity of NSAs. Otherwise put, is the definition of ‘armed attack’ in Article 51 of the UN Charter (and related customary international law) conditioned on the attacker being a state? In exploring this question, the chapter considers whether attribution is a necessary condition (in ratione personae terms) for the applicability of Article 51 by assessing the language of the Charter (including its travaux préparatoires), jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice, and state practice.
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Bender, John W. Aesthetic Realism 2. Edited by Jerrold Levinson. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199279456.003.0004.
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Aesthetic property realism would seem to be committed to at least some version of the following two claims: (a) there is a distinctive category of predications or attributions used in describing art works and other objects of our aesthetic attention; and (b) it is correct to construe these attributions as asserting that certain aesthetic properties exist and are objectively true of art works and other objects. Although anti-realist challenges have focused mainly on deconstructing (b), there has also been considerable scepticism over (a), i.e. over the very concept of aesthetic properties. The distinction between the aesthetic and the non-aesthetic is one of those distinctions that has strong intuitive credibility but yields grudgingly to philosophical analysis.
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Goldstein, Benjamin I. Coping style and attributional style as mediators of alcohol use and depression among young adults. 2001.
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Douglas, Thomas, and David Birks. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198758617.003.0001.
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Philosophers have recently found fertile ground in the area of intersection between neuroscience and criminal law. They have, for example, entered lively debates concerning the extent to which findings in neuroscience might undermine attributions of criminal responsibility, and whether and how neuroscientific evidence, such as brain scan results, should be used in criminal trials....
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Lagnado, David A., and Tobias Gerstenberg. Causation in Legal and Moral Reasoning. Edited by Michael R. Waldmann. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199399550.013.30.
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Causation looms large in legal and moral reasoning. People construct causal models of the social and physical world to understand what has happened, how and why, and to allocate responsibility and blame. This chapter explores people’s common-sense notion of causation, and shows how it underpins moral and legal judgments. As a guiding framework it uses the causal model framework (Pearl, 2000) rooted in structural models and counterfactuals, and shows how it can resolve many of the problems that beset standard but-for analyses. It argues that legal concepts of causation are closely related to everyday causal reasoning, and both are tailored to the practical concerns of responsibility attribution. Causal models are also critical when people evaluate evidence, both in terms of the stories they tell to make sense of evidence, and the methods they use to assess its credibility and reliability.
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Cullity, Garrett. Moral Virtues. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198807841.003.0008.
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When we use virtue-terms to make moral evaluations of persons, attitudes, and actions, we are evaluating the quality of their responsiveness to the reasons morality gives us. A convincing vindication of that claim needs to provide a detailed account of which virtues respond to which reasons. To that end, this chapter supplies a taxonomy of moral virtues that draws on the previous chapters’ explanations of the routes by which different reasons derive from the foundations of morality. It also gives an account of the relationship between the different uses of aretaic terms: those that are virtue-attributing and those that are not.
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Ostrowski, Donald. Who Wrote That? Cornell University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501749704.001.0001.
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This book examines nine authorship controversies, providing an introduction to particular disputes and teaching students how to assess historical documents, archival materials, and apocryphal stories, as well as internet sources and news. The book does not argue in favor of one side over another but focuses on the principles of attribution used to make each case. While furthering the field of authorship studies, the book provides an essential resource for instructors at all levels in various subjects. It is ultimately about historical detective work. Using Moses, Analects, the Secret Gospel of Mark, Abelard and Heloise, the Compendium of Chronicles, Rashid al-Din, Shakespeare, Prince Andrei Kurbskii, James MacPherson, and Mikhail Sholokov, the book builds concrete examples that instructors can use to help students uncover the legitimacy of authorship and to spark the desire to turn over the hidden layers of history so necessary to the craft.
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Aloysius P, Llamzon. Part III Towards a Jurisprudence Constante in Investment Arbitration Decision-Making on Corruption, 10 State Responsibility for Corruption: The Attribution Asymmetry. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198714262.003.0010.
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This chapter examines the law on State responsibility for corruption. It argues that the application of the international law on responsibility to transnational corruption issues in investment arbitration should involve bringing States to account for the fulfilment of their national and international anti-corruption obligations, before the issue is allowed to be used for mostly exculpatory reasons. Transnational corruption cannot be combated effectively by focusing and punishing only the foreign investor, which is only one side of the equation. Corruption-plagued states are doomed to repeat the failures of governance that have persisted in their public spheres so long as they are not asked to do more.
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Zettl, Kerstin, Sebastian Harnisch, and Mischa Hansel, eds. Asymmetrien in Cyberkonflikten. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/9783748913573.
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This volume sheds light on the increasingly (geo-)political relevance of cyber conflicts and the importance of information asymmetries within them. The authors concretely examine the role of information asymmetries in the context of attribution, e.g. through the use of state proxies, in the resolution of cyber conflicts. In line with efforts to build and establish binding norms in the context of cyber operations, the third part of the volume explores the impact of such asymmetries on the diffusion and effectiveness of cyber norms. With contributions by Rebecca Beigel, M.A; Dr. Mischa Hansel; Prof. Dr. Sebastian Harnisch; Dr. Alexander Klimburg; Dr. Matthias Schulze; Dr. Stefan Steiger and Kerstin Zettl, M.A..
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Han, Shihui. Cultural diversity. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198743194.003.0001.
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Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of cultural differences in human behavior by giving examples of human behaviors in East Asian and Western societies. It reviews the concept of culture used by psychologists, anthropologists, and philosophers, introduces several dimensions of culture, and emphasizes shared beliefs and behavioral scripts as the key components of culture that influence human behavior. It also reviews cross-cultural psychological research that has revealed differences in multiple cognitive processes including perception, attention, memory, causal attribution, and self-reflection between individuals in East Asian and Western cultures. It gives an overview of cultural neuroscience studies that employ brain imaging techniques to reveal neural mechanisms underlying cultural differences in human behavior and mental processes.
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Gratzer, Wolfgang. Is Listening to Music an Art in Itself—or Not? Edited by Christian Thorau and Hansjakob Ziemer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190466961.013.22.
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This chapter discusses features of the extensively used attribution “art of listening” in contexts of therapy, partially New Age–like capacity building, sociology, and music. The second section comments on the relationship between music listening and music appreciation. The key assumption discussed is that understanding (described as a process of relating oneself to something or somebody) unfolds as activities that can be increased respectively between four poles: creating meaning, making music, generating emotion, and deepening reflection. Finally, the chapter returns to the question: Is listening to music an art—or not? Agreeing with Adam Heinrich Müller’s assumption that “the art of listening” stands for creating meaning autonomously, this question is answered in the affirmative.
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Danae, Azaria. 1 Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198717423.003.0001.
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Chapter 1 illustrates the importance of means of transportation in the development of international law, and the modern relevance of transit of energy via pipelines in this respect. The chapter sets the framework and method used in the study. Key concepts (transit, energy, and pipelines) and the scope of application of the treaties (ratione loci and ratione materiae) examined in the study are explained. It explains the rules of treaty interpretation that are used in the study for determining the scope and content of obligations regarding transit of energy, for identifying the nature of these obligations with a view to establishing standing to invoke international responsibility in case of their breach, and for determining the relationship between treaty rules and customary international law. It focuses on the role of subsequent agreements and practice, which is extensively used in this study as a means of treaty interpretation. The elements of an internationally wrongful act are then discussed. Emphasis is placed on attribution of conduct of private entities, and on the dual function of countermeasures under the law of international responsibility.
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Risse, Guenter B. Framing “Loathsome” Diseases. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252039843.003.0003.
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This chapter examines the connotations of “loathsomeness” in characterizing disease. By the nineteenth century, the term was most frequently mentioned for the immediate separation and isolation of individuals, owing to perceptions of epidemics in so-called civilized European and North American countries as tragic and transformative while deemed natural and cyclical in poor Asian and African populations. The use of this code word was deliberate; readily institutionalized by the medical profession, it was part of an emotional vocabulary designed to instill aversion. Loathsomeness implied a broad range of revolting feelings, from a physical disgust to moral contempt, fear to outrage and repulsion, horror to odium. Primarily intended to identify acute ailments with hideous skin manifestations, the attribution was also linked to ethical infringements.
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Strawson, Galen. “Person”. Princeton University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.23943/princeton/9780691161006.003.0002.
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This chapter examines John Locke's use of the word “person” as the root cause of the misunderstanding about his theory of personal identity. Most of Locke's readers tend to take the term “person” as if it were only a sortal term of a standard kind, that is, a term for a standard temporal continuant, like “human being” or “thinking thing.” However, they fail to take into account the fact that Locke is using “person” as a “forensic” term, that is, a term that finds its principal use in contexts in which questions about the attribution of responsibility (praise and blame, punishment and reward) are foremost. The chapter explains how a Lockean person, or more specifically Person [P], differs from the standard person and describes the three components of [P]: a whole human material body, an immaterial soul, and a set of actions both present and past.
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Li, Wai-Yee. Concepts of Authorship. Edited by Wiebke Denecke, Wai-Yee Li, and Xiaofei Tian. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199356591.013.24.
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What are the words and phrases used to designate authorship in classical Chinese literature? What are the anecdotes and stories told to emblematize or dramatize the contexts and meanings of authorship? How does the attribution to or the invention of an author define or control the meanings of a text? How do markers of authorial presence function in a text? How does genre shape authorial voice? How do anonymous texts generate authors? How do images of authors (as distinct from historical actors) produce texts? Many scholars believe that authorship becomes increasingly individualistic and self-conscious for the period covered by this volume. How valid is this historical trajectory? In exploring these questions, this chapter examines notions of orality, textual authority, textual transmission, patronage, commentary, editorial labor, forgery, anonymity, originality, imitation, and collective authorship.
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Scherer, Klaus, Marcello Mortillaro, and Marc Mehu. Facial Expression Is Driven by Appraisal and Generates Appraisal Inference. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190613501.003.0019.
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Emotion researchers generally concur that most emotions in humans and animals are elicited by the appraisals of events that are highly relevant for the organism, generating action tendencies that are often accompanied by changes in expression, autonomic physiology, and feeling. Scherer’s component process model of emotion (CPM) postulates that individual appraisal checks drive the dynamics and configuration of the facial expression of emotion and that emotion recognition is based on appraisal inference with consequent emotion attribution. This chapter outlines the model and reviews the accrued empirical evidence that supports these claims, covering studies that experimentally induced specific appraisals or that used induction of emotions with typical appraisal configurations (measuring facial expression via electromyographic recording) or behavioral coding of facial action units. In addition, recent studies analyzing the mechanisms of emotion recognition are shown to support the theoretical assumptions.
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Chakravartty, Anjan. Dispositions. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190651459.003.0004.
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Armed with the framework for thinking about naturalized metaphysics given in the previous chapters, this chapter turns to a case study in the metaphysics of science. By considering a case in some detail, various aspects of the prior framework are exemplified in a concrete way. The example considered comes from a popular arena of discussion in contemporary metaphysics of science: the attribution of a specific kind of property, dispositional properties, in giving interpretations of scientific work and practices such as explanation. The appeal to dispositional properties represents a case study of how some have attempted to use scientific knowledge and practice as a starting point or inspiration for ontological theorizing—one in which answers to certain questions, such as what stands in need of explanation and what is genuinely explanatorily powerful, figure centrally.
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Carlson, Matt. The Problems—and Promise—of Unnamed Sources. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252035999.003.0001.
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This introductory chapter elaborates on this study's premise and provides a brief overview of the use of unnamed sources in American journalism. It demonstrates how anonymity alters the underlying relationship among news sources, journalists, and audiences. In contrast to conventional attribution, the absence of a source's identity leads to unique risks and rewards that prove difficult to disentangle. Both arise from the bargain struck when a journalist grants anonymity: the identity of the source is withheld to obtain and distribute otherwise unattainable information. This loss of transparency exposes journalists who rely on unnamed sources to challenges over the accuracy of the information provided and the intentions of all those involved. What emerges is a set of extremes as unnamed sources contribute to journalism's greatest triumphs and its most shameful episodes.
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Kim, Sunae, Ameneh Shahaeian, and Joëlle Proust. Developmental diversity in mindreading and metacognition. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198789710.003.0006.
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A first aim of this chapter is to explain why children seem to present different patterns of development across cultures for solving false-belief tasks. Anthropological evidence is presented suggesting that the tests devised for Western children might not be adequate outside Western cultures. Alternative practices and values, such as the willingness/refusal to express one’s own mental states, the degree of autonomous agency allocated to young children, and the style of communication used in child-rearing, might partly explain the timing differences in the development of mindreading. A second aim is to identify the sociocultural factors that might also differentially impact the development of metacognitive abilities. It is proposed that the cultural practices that regulate patterns of attention, ways of learning, and communicational pragmatics should differentially influence the kinds of epistemic decisions that need to be monitored and the process of attribution of knowledge to the self in young children.
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Otto, Spijkers. 6 Responsibility, 6.9 Nuhanović v Netherlands , Judgment, BZ9225, and Mustafić v Netherlands , Judgment, BZ9228, Supreme Court of The Netherlands, 6 September 2013. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198743620.003.0037.
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The Nuhanović and Mustafić cases deal with the legal responsibility of the Netherlands for acts committed by a battalion of Dutch soldiers, placed at the disposal of the United Nations (UN) to take part in a peacekeeping mission. In its judgment, the Dutch Supreme Court made extensive use of the Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ARS), and the Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations (DARIO) of the International Law Commission (ILC). While the question of attribution is decided on the basis of international law, the wrongfulness of the conduct of the Dutch peacekeepers is assessed mainly on the basis of local domestic (Bosnia-Herzegovina) private law. Nonetheless, as an obiter dictum, the Supreme Court also had something interesting to say about the extraterritorial application of international human rights law in a case such as this one.
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Moir, Lindsay. Action Against Host States of Terrorist Groups. Edited by Marc Weller. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199673049.003.0033.
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This chapter examines the problems that could arise when a state invokes self-defence to justify action against terrorist groups in another state. It first considers indirect armed attack against armed groups and the controversy surrounding the use of self-defence where armed groups are controlled by a foreign state, with particular reference to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) jurisprudence. It then discusses the possibility that an armed attack could occur, permitting a forcible response in the context of international law, without attribution to a state by citing the Nicaragua case in which the ICJ pronounced that self-defence is permissible against a host state in effective control of an armed group. The chapter also looks at the case of Afghanistan and its relationship to Al Qaeda as an example of a state’s claims of self-defence against terrorism.
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Motoc, Iulia, and Johann Justus Vasel. The ECHR and Responsibility of the State: Moving Towards Judicial Integration. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198830009.003.0011.
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This chapter discusses the recent jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), reaching the conclusion that the Court’s approach evolves towards judicial integration. After analysing the notion of lex specialis with regards to the question of responsibility and jurisdiction, as (implicitly) proposed by the ECtHR in the Catan judgement, the chapter considers the question of the attribution of conduct introduced for the first time in the Jaloud judgment. The chapter draws a parallel between the notion of effective control used in the International Court of Justice’s (ICJ’s) Nicaragua case and the Chiragov case. It argues that the Courts ruling in Chiragov is closer to the criteria of effective control imposed by the ICJ. The analysis will display that, in both recent decisions, the Court is moving towards judicial integration in the sense of a reasoned difference between the responsibility of human rights and general international law. It is evident that the European Convention of Human Rights is no self-contained regime.
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Wildman, Wesley J. Agential-Being Models of Ultimate Reality. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198815990.003.0003.
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Agential-being models of ultimate reality affirm that ultimate reality is an aware, agential being. The Central Result of the scientific study of religion—that human beings will spontaneously create anthropomorphic supernatural agents to believe in, and to make religious use of, whether or not those agents actually exist—erodes the plausibility of any belief in supernatural agents, without proving such beliefs false, so it imposes a heavy burden on proponents of agential-being theism to show that the agential-being God hypothesis is plausible in light of all relevant information, and convincingly superior to competitor views. Agential-being ultimacy models resist the Rational Practicality and Narrative Comprehensibility dimensions of anthropomorphism to some degree but continue to employ the Intentionality Attribution dimension of anthropomorphism, resulting in a strategy of judicious anthropomorphism. Variations, strengths, and weaknesses of the agential-being class of ultimacy models are discussed.
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Hughes, Aaron W. Messianism in the Shadows. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190684464.003.0004.
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Chapter 3 deals with the decades immediately following the death of Muhammad and examines an inchoate set of overlapping Islams that use a number of Jewish themes and motifs (e.g., messianism) without attribution or even awareness. Such Islamically underdefined social groups paradoxically created a number of diverse and equally underdefined Jewish responses that run the gamut from the apocalyptic to what would only later emerge as normative. This is a far cry from the regnant narrative that imagines a normative and a stable Judaism on the Arabian Peninsula in the late antique period. This does not rule out that a normative Judaism was being developed in the workshops associated with the rabbis in Babylonia. What it does mean is that many scholars from the nineteenth century onward have assumed that what was happening in Babylonia was simply and straightforwardly representative of the entire Jewish world.
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Anderl, Sibylle. Astronomy and Astrophysics. Edited by Paul Humphreys. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199368815.013.45.
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This article looks at the philosophical aspects and questions that modern astrophysical research gives rise to. Other than cosmology, astrophysics particularly deals with understanding phenomena and processes operating at “intermediate” cosmic scales, which has rarely aroused philosophical interest so far. Being confronted with the attribution of antirealism by Ian Hacking because of its observational nature, astrophysics is equipped with a characteristic methodology that can cope with the missing possibility of direct interaction with most objects of research. In its attempt to understand the causal history of singular phenomena, it resembles the historical sciences, while the search for general causal relations with respect to classes of processes or objects can rely on the “cosmic laboratory”: the multitude of different phenomena and environments naturally provided by the universe. Furthermore, the epistemology of astrophysics is strongly based on the use of models and simulations and a complex treatment of large amounts of data.
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Chryssochoou, Xenia. Social Justice in Multicultural Europe: A Social Psychological Perspective. Edited by Phillip L. Hammack. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199938735.013.18.
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Informed by Social Representations and Social Identity theories, this chapter argues that investigation of justice issues in multicultural Europe requires focusing on the ideological context in which justice is pursued or obstructed. Following Touraine (2005), it argues that two social representations of societal organization coexist in Europe with different implications for status, values, and justice attribution: one that organizes society and builds hierarchies in terms of merit; and another that organizes society according to cultural differences and to group membership. The use of each representation implies different criteria for distributive and procedural justice and emphasizes conflicts based on different memberships. A representation of society following a cultural order might hide the class membership of migrants and obstruct their individual mobility. Unable to fight in terms of class, migrants’ sole opportunity for seeking justice and equal treatment is to fight collectively by adopting an ethno-cultural or religious identity.
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Stein, Gabriele. On the sources of Huloets Dictionarie (1572). Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198807377.003.0003.
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The chapter discusses the French translations in John Higgins’ revision of Richard Huloet’s bilingual dictionary, the Abecedarium Anglico–Latinum (1552). The revision appeared in 1572 as a trilingual work including English, Latin, and French. Higgins acknowledges his main sources for the revision in his preface. For the French language, these are the dictionaries compiled by Hadrianus Junius and Robertus Stephanus. In the dictionary itself, further sources are indicated in the form of abbreviated names, consisting of up to four letters. The investigations reveal that for the French language the Englishman also turned to the works of Ambrogio Calepino, John Palsgrave, and Mathurin Cordier. The reliability of Higgins’ source attributions is established. It is shown that when Higgins provides several French translation equivalents for an English headword he used his source works side by side.
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Glymour, Clark. Causation and Statistical Inference. Edited by Helen Beebee, Christopher Hitchcock, and Peter Menzies. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199279739.003.0024.
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In the applied statistical literature, causal relations are often described equivocally or euphemistically as ‘risk factors’, or as part of ‘dimension reduction’. The statistical literature also tends to speak of ‘statistical models’ rather than of causal explanations, and to say that parameters of a model are ‘interpretable’, often means that the parameters make sense as measures of causal influence. These ellipses are due in part to the use of statistical formalisms for which a causal interpretation is wanted but unavailable or unfamiliar, and in part to a philosophical distrust of attributions of causation outside experimental contexts, misgivings traceable to the disciplinary institutionalization of claims of influential statisticians, notably Karl Pearson and Ronald Fisher. More candid treatments of causal relations have recently emerged in the theoretical statistical literature.
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Jockers, Matthew L. Style. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252037528.003.0006.
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This chapter shows how stylistic signals can be derived from high-frequency features and how the usage, or nonusage, of those features was susceptible to influences that are external to the so-called “authorial style,” external influences such as genre, time, and gender. These aspects of style were explored using a controlled corpus of 106 British novels where genre was a key point of analysis. The chapter first provides an overview of statistical or quantitative authorship attribution before discussing the author's project, in which he analyzed the degree to which novelistic genres express a distinguishable stylistic signal by focusing on the distribution of novels in a corpus based on their genres and decades of publication. Through a series of experiments, he demonstrates the use of the classification methodology as a way of measuring the extent to which factors beyond an individual author's personal style may play a role in determining the linguistic usage and style of the resulting text.
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Maitra, Keya, and Jennifer McWeeny, eds. Feminist Philosophy of Mind. Oxford University PressNew York, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190867614.001.0001.
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Abstract This collection is the first book to focus on the emerging field of study called feminist philosophy of mind. Each of the twenty chapters of Feminist Philosophy of Mind employs theories and methodologies from feminist philosophy to offer fresh insights into issues raised in the contemporary literature in philosophy of mind and/or uses those from the philosophy of mind to advance feminist theory. The book delineates the content and aims of the field and demonstrates the fecundity of its approach, which is centered on the collective consideration of three questions: What is the mind? Whose mind is the model for the theory? To whom is mind attributed? Topics considered with this lens include mental content, artificial intelligence, the first-person perspective, personal identity, other minds, mental attribution, mental illness, perception, memory, attention, desire, trauma, agency, empathy, grief, love, gender, race, sexual orientation, materialism, panpsychism, and enactivism. In addition to engaging analytic and feminist philosophical traditions, chapters draw from resources in phenomenology, philosophy of race, decolonial studies, disability studies, embodied cognition theory, comparative philosophy, neuroscience, and psychology.
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Siderits, Mark. Buddhist Reductionist Action Theory. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190499778.003.0015.
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This essay develops the theory of action presupposed by Buddhist Reductionists. Their account uses the theory of two truths to reconcile the folk theory of human action with the Buddhist claim that there are no agents. The conventional truth has it that persons are substance-causes of actions, and the willings that trigger actions are exercises of a person’s powers in light of their reasons. According to the ultimate truth, there are no persons, only causal series of bundles of tropes. An action is a bodily or mental event in one such series that has the occurrence of a prior intention event as its cause. Facts about causally connected psychophysical elements explain the utility, and thus the conventional truth, of claims about persons as agents. This two-tier account of human agency makes possible a novel approach to making attributions of moral responsibility compatible with psychological determinism.
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Turri, John. Primate Social Cognition and the Core Human Knowledge Concept. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190865085.003.0013.
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The author reviews recent work from armchair and cross-cultural epistemology on whether humans possess a knowledge concept as part of a universal “folk epistemology.” The work from armchair epistemology fails because it mischaracterizes ordinary knowledge judgments. The work from cross-cultural epistemology provides some defeasible evidence for a universal folk epistemology. He argues that recent findings from comparative psychology establish that humans possess a species-typical knowledge concept. More specifically, recent work shows that knowledge attributions are a central part of primate social cognition, used to predict others’ behavior and guide decision-making. The core primate knowledge concept is that of truth detection (across different sensory modalities) and retention (through memory), and may also include rudimentary forms of indirect truth discovery through inference. In virtue of their evolutionary heritage, humans inherited the primate social-cognitive system and thus share this core knowledge concept.
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Golder, Sona N., Ignacio Lago, André Blais, Elisabeth Gidengil, and Thomas Gschwend. Accountability across Elections. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198791539.003.0007.
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How do voters use elections as mechanisms of accountability in the multi-level systems in France, Germany, and Spain? The extent to which the voters attribute blame or credit for economic outcomes to the government at any one level depends on whether the voter believes that the government at that level plays an important role in shaping the economy. Also examined are voter opinions about corruption in government across all three levels. This is an issue that should affect voter satisfaction with, and trust in, their democratic institutions. In spite of the difficulties faced by voters in attributing responsibility, they do manage to vote in ways consistent with their evaluations of government performance at different levels.
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Nagel, Jennifer. 7. Shifting standards? Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199661268.003.0007.
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Some words have context-sensitivity. Some words (like ‘I’ and ‘now’) are sensitive to the speaker's identity and location in time and space. Others (like ‘big’ and ‘tall’) are sensitive to a comparison class. ‘Shifting standards?’ discusses the emergence of contextualism, which grew out of the ‘Relevant Alternatives’ theory of knowledge. Contextualism is a theory about knowledge-attributing language. The idea is that ‘know’ expresses something different as situations change. The view that knowledge is absolute, in the sense that the words we use for it are not context-sensitive, is known as ‘invariantism’. Invariantism faces a challenge in explaining the shifting intuitions that make knowledge sometimes seem easy and sometimes seem hard.
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Zimmer-Gembeck, Melanie J., Amanda L. Duffy, Samantha Ferguson, and Alex A. Gardner. Relational Aggression in Dating and Romantic Relationships. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190491826.003.0016.
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Romantic relational aggression (RRA) is aimed at harming a romantic partner’s relationships with others. In this chapter, we discuss 15 RRA studies that show a high prevalence of RRA in surveys of adolescents, young adults, and married partners, and a gender difference (favoring females) in studies with large sample sizes. There is evidence of personal and social antecedents (e.g., parents and peers) of RRA, as well as poorer psychosocial outcomes from RRA. Researchers are identifying a developmental pathway from late childhood or adolescent general relational aggression to RRA, which seems to also involve attributions for and beliefs about aggressive and other hostile behavior, physiological and emotional reactions, and alcohol use. We present key future research directions, including the integration of RRA research with that from related fields, clarification regarding the conceptualization and measurement of RRA, and the development and evaluation of intervention programs aimed at reducing this form of aggression.
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ten Hacken, Pius, and Renáta Panocová, eds. The Interaction of Borrowing and Word Formation. Edinburgh University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474448208.001.0001.
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When a new name is necessary for a concept, word formation and borrowing are possible ways to produce one. As such, they are in competition for the creation of neologisms. However, borrowings can also interact with existing word formation rules. The reanalysis of a borrowing can result in its attribution to an existing word formation rule. The reanalysis of a number of formally similar borrowings can even result in a new word formation rule. Word formation and borrowing both have an inherently diachronic component to them. Historically, Latin was an important source language for borrowing. The effects are found in neoclassical word formation and in many internationalisms. Nowadays, anglicisms have become the most frequent kind of borrowings. Word formation rules may be activated to counter the prevalence of borrowing by creating alternative designations, but they may also be used to integrate borrowings into the lexical and grammatical system of the borrowing language. After an introduction with some theoretical background, twelve case studies present particular situations illustrating different types of interaction of word formation and borrowing in a range of European languages. The concluding chapter describes some general trends that emerge from these case studies.
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McNamara, Patrick, and Magda Giordano. Cognitive Neuroscience and Religious Language. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190636647.003.0005.
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Communication between deities and human beings rests on the use of language. Religious language has peculiarities such as the use of a formal voice, reductions in first-person and elevation of third-person pronoun use, archaistic elements, and an abundance of speech acts—features that reflect and facilitate the binding of the individual to conceived ultimate reality and value, decentering the Self while focusing on the deity. Explorations of the neurologic correlates of these cognitive and linguistic processes may be useful to identify constraints on neurocognitive models of religious language, and metaphor. The key brain regions that may mediate religious language include neural networks known to be involved in computational assessments of value, future-oriented simulations, Self-agency, Self-reflection, and attributing intentionality of goals to others. Studies indicate that some of the areas involved in those processes are active during personal prayer, whereas brain regions related to habit formation appear active during formal prayer. By examining religious language, and the brain areas engaged by it, we aim to develop more comprehensive neurocognitive models of religious cognition.