Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Urban Poverty'

This thesis examines the changes in the extent and nature of child povel1y in urban China using all waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey Data (CHNS) between 1989 and 2011. It also explains how household demographic and socioeconomic characteristics impact on child poverty. A combined measure of income and deprivation is employed to measure child poverty in urban China. The number of poor children in urban China with both a low income and a low standard of living declined from 1989 to 201l. However, the number of children who were not deprived but were income poor increased sharply during this period. They are vulnerable to sinking into poverty in the future if their household income remains low. A disaggregated analysis shows that the extent of child deprivation remains a problem in 2011 including sanitation, nutrition and shelter deprivation. The analysis using a Cox proportional hazard model shows that parents' work units and the hukou type of the family exert the greatest influences on child poverty. This thesis provides strong evidence that child poverty in urban China is mainly caused by structural rather than individual factors. This calls for a fundamental reform by Chinese policy makers to remove the structural barriers to child survival and development and to ensure that all children in urban China can have equal access to social security and associated cash and in-kind benefits.

Poverty is generally acknowledged as one of the most serious problems facing post-apartheid South Africa. The biggest challenge facing South Africa localities today is their ability to cope with alarmingly high levels of unemployment that are severely retarding both economic growth and poverty. The growth of the poverty in South Africa increases the spread of poverty in communities in which the cycle of their poverty can be passed onto the next generation if not well addressed. South Africa is characterised by inequitable growth and development, a high degree of poverty, increasing demands and limited resources and challenge of integration. In order to fight poverty the South African government has introduced mechanisms and plans to alleviate poverty and to monitor and evaluate the impact of their policies and programmes on reduction of poverty, the government has prioritized poverty alleviation in its development agenda. To fight poverty the South African government introduced a well planned and coordinated programme known an Integrated and Development programme (IDP) with its main purpose that is to enhance service delivery and fight poverty through an integrated and aligned approach between different role players and stakeholders. The IDP seeks to promote integration by balancing the social, economic and ecological pillars of sustainability without compromising the institutional capacity required in the implementation.

South Africa as integral part of the global village has been affected by the global economic meltdown that affected some parts of the globe. The Government has her other three monsters to deal with which exacerbated after the meltdown, inter alia; poverty, unemployment and inequality. The heat is felt most on unemployment and poverty. The masses on the ground are the greatest victims. Missionvale just like other small areas is not immune to the scourge caused by the crisis alluded to before. The ripple effect of the crisis is felt in classroom, when manifestations emerge in different forms, leaving victims by the way side. Poverty is rife in the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality as a consequence to that the title of the study on poverty alleviation came into being. South Africa as a country rich in natural and human resource experiences a high rate of unemployment and harbours the majority of people living in squalor and chronic poverty. Methodology approach to gather information for this study is through relevant literature consisting of books, legislation and interviews with knowledgeable individuals in the field. The study points out the major role the municipality in collaboration with other stakeholder, inter alia; social development, and other sister departments and NGO‟s can play towards poverty alleviation in Missionvale.

This thesis presents three essays on Malaysia’s poverty profile based on the Household Expenditure Survey (HES). The first and second studies were motivated by the shortcomings of the official poverty lines and poverty measurements. There are several conceptual and measurement problems related to evaluating the extent of poverty in Malaysia. The first study offers several alternative regional poverty analyses based on the consumption expenditure approach with varying underlying assumptions. The poverty lines are estimated using Ravallion-Bidani and Kakwani-Sajaia approaches and the consumption pattern of the 10th and 20th percentile per capita expenditure (PCE) households. Regional poverty lines based on Kakwani-Sajaia and Ravallion-Bidani lower bounds produced robust poverty measurement rankings across regions in the country for both the 10th and 20th percentile PCE households. However, for the 10th percentile PCE, Ravallion’s upper bound poverty lines do not produce robust poverty rankings. In relation to the shortcomings of the official poverty measurements, the second study analyses the economies of scale in consumption, specifically amongst poor households. Using the 10th and 20th percentile PCE households, the household size economies are estimated using specifications proposed by Deaton-Paxson and Kakwani-Son. The findings show that the economies of scale indices are sensitive to the selection of methods and sample groups. Economies of scale in poor household consumption are present for food, housing, clothing, furnishing, personal goods and miscellaneous goods. This study further suggests that these indices be used as complementary to the existing national poverty measurements. The final study provides new insights into the limited urban poverty studies and to the new dimension of urban poverty. Using logistic regression, the determinants are analysed using the new poverty lines estimated in the earlier essay. The test of robustness of the determinants is conducted through re-estimating the logistic regression using a range of poverty lines. The findings show that education, locational dimension, foreign migrant workers and household size are significant determinants of poverty in the urban areas.

The rapid process of urbanization currently swelling the poor urban neighborhoods of developing countries is changing local and national political landscapes. As the population of urban poor continues to grow—it is expected that by 2030 half of the total urban population will be poor—so are poor peoples' demands for access to public services, as well as the type and intensity of their engagements with political actors. The dissertation focuses on the different types of interactions between the urban poor and politicians and specifically tackles the following questions: What explains the variation in political participation among the urban poor? What drives the urban poor to become active in politics? What types of political activity are these citizens engaging in? The dissertation uses a mixed-methods strategy that makes use of a case study of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and survey data, including an original dataset that includes interviews with over 400 favela dwellers. It finds that in Brazil, there is a "favela effect" in political participation: favela dwellers are more likely to become politically engaged in a number of activities—voting, working for a politician, participating in neighborhood meetings—than people living in more affluent neighborhoods. In addition, the dissertation demonstrates that there are multiple pathways to political participation and that four factors are key in explaining the levels of political engagement: social networks, religious groups, government transfer schemes, and NGO programs. The dissertation contributes to the literature on political participation and democracy, and helps move the debate on political engagement of the urban poor beyond arguments that, on the one hand, portray them as uninterested or unable to engage in political activities and, on the other hand, describe them as the inevitable victims of clientelism and political bosses.

In order to adequately address problems associated with poverty, definitions and measurements of the issue must first be understood. This goal is complex, as both the definitions and measurement of poverty are subjective and vary geographically and categorically. The commonly used American poverty measure (i.e. the "poverty line") has recently received criticism because of its limitations as an absolute measure that fails to recognize the relative nature of poverty. Such criticisms have led to the development of alternate poverty measures. However, no single measure has the ability to account for all factors associated with poverty. As such, it is important to understand the strengths and weaknesses of various poverty metrics.

The aim of this study is to identify the benefits and limitations of several alternate poverty measures by examining each measure in relation to cultural and social indicators. In this study, several alternate poverty measures are identified and applied to the St. Louis Region. Principal component analysis and multiple linear regression techniques are used in conjunction with census data from the St. Louis metropolitan statistical area to identify the social and cultural factors that are concomitant to poverty as measured by each of the alternate poverty metrics. The poverty measures are then compared based on the significance of each identified concomitant. Additionally, alternate poverty metrics are compared through an examination of maps created to show variations in geographic distribution. The distribution of poverty is measured geographically for each alternate measure and subsequently standardized for meaningful comparison between measures by mapping the variance of distribution.

The relationship between knowledge and development is of growing importance in development theory and practice. Despite the growth in interest, there are significant issues that have not been explored in detail. I will focus on some of these issues, including: the ways in which knowledge and learning are conceived and created in development; the ways in which knowledge travels; the opportunities for learning between 'North' and 'South'; and the political spaces that are created through different kinds of knowledge. To explore these issues, I examine a network of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and community-based organisations (CBOs) called Slum/Shack Dwellers International (SDI). This network seeks to reconfigure the governance of urban poverty reduction strategies and encourage poor' people to re-think their own capacities and potentials. In particular, I draw on interview-based fieldwork conducted on one key member of this group, the Indian Alliance based in Mumbai. I critically examine some of the possibilities and challenges of various forms of 'travelling knowledges'. These are strategies that have travelled through exchanges, wherein groups of poor people travel from one settlement to another to share stories and experiences with other poor people in what amounts to an informal 'training' process. By examining exchanges between SDI and groups in the UK, I critically discuss the broader potential in development to move beyond barriers of North and South that limit learning. I adopt a broadly post-rationalist approach to the concerns in the thesis. Through this, I argue the importance of considering knowledge and learning as produced through relations of near and far, social and material, and as driven by routines and practices. A post-rationalist approach helps us to understand and appreciate the importance of geography for knowledge and learning in the SDI network. This approach draws attention to power. It encourages a critical consciousness that is alert to the kinds of knowledge conceived for development, and that recognizes the various ways in which different knowledges help create different types of politics. A post-rationalist approach also cautions against conceptions of knowledge and learning that risk marginalizing geography and power in development more generally. The thesis demonstrates the need to give further consideration of how knowledge is conceived as a development strategy, and what the potential possibilities and pitfalls of travelling knowledges are.

This thesis explores urban poverty and the adaptations of the urban poor in the slums of the megacity of Dhaka, Bangladesh. It seeks to make a contribution to understanding and analysis of the phenomenon of rapid mass urbanisation in the Third World and its social consequences, the formation of huge urban slums and new forms of urban poverty. Its focus is the analysis of poverty which has been overwhelmingly dominated by economic approaches to the neglect of the social questions arising from poverty. This thesis approaches these social questions through an ???urban livelihood framework???, arguing that this provides a more comprehensive framework to conceptualise poverty through its inclusion of both material and non-material dimensions. The study is based on primary data collected from slums in Dhaka City. Five hundred poor households were surveyed using a structured questionnaire to investigate the economic activities, expenditure and consumption, access to housing and land, family and social networking and cultural and political integration. The survey data was supplemented by qualitative data collected through fifteen in-depth interviews with poor households. The thesis found that poverty in the slums of Dhaka City was most strongly influenced by recent migration from rural areas, household organisation, participation in the ???informal??? sector of the economy and access to housing and land. Almost half of the poor households in the study locations were identified as ???hardcore poor???, that is having insufficient income for their physical needs. The remainder were found to be ???absolute poor???, those who experienced poverty and vulnerability but varied in their levels of income and consumption. This level of poverty was also characterised by their social, cultural and political marginalisation. In summary, the urban poor remain very much dependent on their household and social networking, the main social capital they use to adapt to life in Dhaka City. Overall, the urban poor in this study experience the highest level of poverty and vulnerability in their everyday life. The thesis argues that the experience of poverty in the megacity of Dhaka for these households follows the pattern of urbanisation without development, the very opposite to their expectations and aspirations.

ABSTRACT It is estimated that there are currently 3.9 million people living in urban poverty in Thailand, without the existence of an effective social assistance safety-net. This thesis presents an analysis of Thai governments’ urban poverty alleviation policy. The central aim of the thesis is to question whether Thai government policy on urban poverty alleviation can be effective for the poor and the poorest in urban slum communities. Qualitative methods are used, supported by documentary research, and the author’s own experience of being a community development worker and researcher in the urban slums of Thailand over a period of 18 years. I have endeavoured to elicit information from the range of stakeholders engaged with contemporary urban poverty alleviation policy in Bangkok. Thus the research includes the perspectives of policy makers, the poor, and the poorest. I distinguish between these latter two groups by describing those who have access to some government provision for the urban poor and those who are excluded from such provision. I interviewed 18 policy makers, 15 community savings groups committee members, and 65 of the excluded poorest. I investigated the development of policy relating to the urban poor through an analysis of key government reports and documents. I examined all of the government policy documents relating to policies for urban poverty alleviation and the Thai Governments’ five year National Economic and (later) Social Development Plans from 1961 to 2006. I also analysed each of the fifty four Government statements on their policies to the National Assembly covering this period. This research produced two major new vehicles for understanding and interpreting Thai government urban poverty alleviation policy. First, the policy document research enabled me to construct a critical account of the historical development of policy relating to the urban poor, particularly those in slum communities. Second, the interviews produced a unique view of the often desperate lives lived by some Thai citizens who are part of communities residing in what is estimated as 2,000 slums in Thailand. This view is seen through the eyes of both the urban poor and the policy makers. I found attitudes of the policy makers towards the urban poor contain a number of diverse stances, both negative and positive. The Government’s preferred way of helping, previously by housing improvements, and recently by promoting credit and loan schemes with a low interest rate to strengthen community-based organisations and emphasise self-reliance, does help some of the poor; it also excludes others. An important discussion in the thesis is about self-reliance. This is widely referred to by all stakeholders-from HM The King, through leading thinkers including Buddhist scholars, to the poorest in the slum communities. I analyse what such a concept means to each of these groups. I have found there may be little agreement, either on what is being spoken about, or what the implications of self-reliance are for helping Thailand’s poorest citizens. The thesis is also concerned with how to improve the situations of the poor. There is therefore a review of some curricula relating to the training of social/community workers to assess how well students are prepared for their work. The conclusions make some practical recommendations for change at a policy level, via civil society, and in professional education. The direct education and training of the poor is seen as crucial to any substantial improvements. My own experience, producing the thesis in a western country, is included throughout. This is in order to reflect on my learning and the challenges of researching within and outside the Thai social structure.

Since the mid-1970s, subsidized housing policy in the U.S. has shifted from providing aid through public housing projects to providing aid through vouchers to be used in the private market and through smaller-scale, often mixed-income developments. These policy shifts are guided by a deconcentration ideology drawn from social science research on the deleterious effects of the concentration of poverty on individuals and neighborhoods. These changes in subsidized housing policy have led to a major geographic redistribution of the urban poor, which has implications for neighborhoods and cities that are not yet fully understood. This dissertation investigates the extent to which the changing location of subsidized housing units accounts for changes in neighborhood poverty and metropolitan poverty concentration. My findings show that while the subsidized housing policies adopted since the 1970s successfully deconcentrated subsidized housing units, they did not deconcentrate poverty in neighborhoods or metropolitan areas. I find that neighborhood poverty rates increase when neighborhoods either gain or lose subsidized housing units. Neighborhoods that gain more subsidized units see larger increases in poverty rates, and because these neighborhoods already have many poor residents, there is a risk of creating new neighborhoods of concentrated poverty. Surprisingly, neighborhoods that lose subsidized units also become poorer, suggesting an enduring legacy of subsidized housing for neighborhood poverty. At the metropolitan level, reducing the concentration of subsidized housing in high subsidy neighborhoods leads to only very small declines in the concentration of poor residents in high poverty neighborhoods. My results suggest that subsidized housing policy may maintain, rather than break, the cycle of neighborhood inequality. Subsidized housing policy is implemented in a context of neighborhood inequality, and as the policies increasingly rely on the private rental market, higher-SES neighborhoods’ interests in keeping low-income subsidized renters out may shape how the policy is implemented, leaving lower-SES neighborhoods to receive more subsidized low-income tenants and thus experience larger increases in poverty rates.

Over 17 million food-insecure households are associated with increasing obesity rates across the United States. Although food insecurity and obesity are distinct social concerns, the two are linked and may be influenced by poverty and geographic location. Public health authorities and state leaders responsible for the health and nutrition of rural populations in particular would benefit from this information. The purpose of this quantitative cross-sectional study was to examine whether poverty mediated the relationship between food insecurity and obesity among urban and rural adults. The study was guided by the poverty, food insecurity, and obesity conceptual framework. The study addressed the association between poverty and food insecurity, poverty and obesity, and food insecurity and obesity. Records from 9068 participants in the 2012 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) were weighted to represent the population of Louisiana. Logistic regression models indicated that individuals living in poverty were 6 times more likely to experience food insecurity and that living in poverty and being food insecure doubled the odds of being obese. Poverty mediates the relationship between food insecurity and obesity in a dynamic and complex manner. Findings also indicated gender and age differences in rates of obesity, poverty, and food insecurity, as well as higher rates of obesity in rural populations. Social change implications include providing additional evidence of how poverty affects food insecurity and obesity, which may encourage states with high poverty rates to initiate food insecurity surveillance using BRFSS to reduce obesity.

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2010.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 110-115).
The widespread popularity of microfinance as a "win-win" solution to global poverty alleviation has significantly limited debate and dialogue around contesting viewpoints, program structures, and implementation norms. The present microcredit industry in Lebanon offers an authoritative space for practitioners to explore a differing microcredit model as implemented by a Hezbollah affiliated NGO, Al Qard Al Hassan Association. As one of the oldest and largest microcredit institutions in the Middle East, I argue that the perceived Lebanese schism allows us to explore the role in which organizational diversity has enabled a reinterpretation and an opportunity to revisit microcredit as a poverty alleviation tool in the context of the Southern Suburbs of Beirut. The country of Lebanon also offers a new locality in which development planners can explore how an NGO grassroots program, Al Majmoua, and how an institution, Hezbollah, that began as a grassroots political movement for the community and is now in many ways of the state, implement successful microcredit programs. Through the lens of Lebanese microcredit professionals and borrowers of the programs, this study explores how a hybrid narrative of microcredit has escaped industry isomorphism in Lebanon and how social capital has been created, managed, and reproduced.
by Naveen Q. Jawaid.
M.C.P.

Thesis (M.Sc.)--Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies, 2007.
Included: Wider Community Questionnaire and Management Committee Questionnaire.

This thesis investigates income inequality and poverty in urban China using survey data from 2002. It shows that in urban China, income in the coastal region is less equally distributed than in the interior region, although social welfare is higher. Developed cities have more inequality than less developed cities, but they also have a higher level of social welfare. Further decomposition analysis indicates that intragroup inequality accounts for the dominant part of overall inequality no matter how groups are categorized - by region, by city level, by gender, or by education. There is a significant difference in the incidence of poverty between interior regions and coastal regions, with the interior region having a higher headcount ratio and a greater poverty gap ratio. It is also found that developed cities have lower poverty than less developed cities.

Thesis (DTh)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This dissertation develops a theory for doing Malawian urban ministry called "Holistic hermeneutical practical theology." The effects of urbanization: secularization, disorientation, poverty and pollution in Malawi's urban centers make it difficult for the CCAP to implement successful ministry that deals with the shantytowns' circumstances. Chapter one: The first chapter describes the Malawian urban context. It defines the five components of the researcher's topic of study: "Urban poverty as a challenge for ministry within the Malawian (African) context" and the three components of the methodology: "Holistic hermeneutical practical theology." Four relational hypotheses are formulated to guide the study. Different research methods applied to gathering information for chapters of this dissertation are documented at the end of this chapter. Chapter two: The second chapter examines the CCAP's existing ministry practice and addresses the first hypothesis: "Its rural background and theory of ministry prevent the CCAP from developing an effective urban ministry that adequately addresses the problems of the poor." The missionaries introduced a comprehensive ministry approach to the early leaders of the CCAP Nkhoma Synod. In the process of blending the missionary approach to ministry in the local Chewa context, a philosophy of ministry that emphasizes spiritual salvation (neglecting the physical needs) was developed in the CCAP Nkhoma Synod. This approach poses a problem for the Church to adequately address the physical needs and realities of Malawians in the cities. Chapter three: The third chapter discusses the poverty situations of Malawian and South African shantytowns and slums and is the result of research conducted in order to examine the validity of the four hypotheses. The responses of the groups interviewed were helpful for an understanding of the current congregational challenges and ministry opportunities in urban areas. This chapter addresses issues of this thesis positively: research objectives, the population growth data of urban inter-censal, a brief historical description of Malawian cities, the government efforts to address urban challenges and problems, the CCAP ministry approach to urban ministry, and a brief description of two South African poverty scenarios. The research reveals that the church and the government work independently of each other. In this way the validity of the third hypothesis: "A holistic approach to urban ministry with joint forums for development is needed to address urban poverty problems," is confirmed. Chapter four: This chapter describes the extent of poverty in Malawi, which is most disturbing. The recent studies on Malawian poverty indicate that the poverty scenario is a pervasive problem affecting approximately 60% of the population; urban poverty, in particular, is 65%. Furthermore, chapter four discusses a number of issues, some of which are: a description and Christian views of the poor, an overview definition of urban poverty, the causes of poverty and the vocation of the urban church. The cities' informal economies can make a huge difference in the lives of the poor. All of the four hypotheses form the background to this chapter. Chapter five: Chapter five examines four different approaches of the urban ministry in poverty areas. The purpose of this chapter is to understand the approaches of current work in poverty areas. Various approaches are discussed: community organization, effective congregationally based advocacy ministries, a liberation model, and a church in solidarity with the poor and oppressed. This chapter repeatedly confirms the first and the fourth hypotheses. Chapter six: In this chapter the theory of a holistic, hermeneutical practical theology is applied to a number of activities called pillars, juxtapositioning it with the four hypotheses. This is presented as a model for doing urban ministry in Malawian (African) cities. In the process of describing or developing the model, the four hypotheses - that have already been thoroughly proved and discussed - now serve as orientation markers pointing the CCAP towards its future role in urban ministry. The model emphasizes a hermeneutic-communicative praxis, which makes it constantly concerned with understanding the Christian meaning produced in the past, and relating it to interaction with the present-day faith community. Thus, the church in urban Malawi will address the challenges presented by the effects of urbanization and industrialization. The model's ten pillars are discussed: i) ministry in a new era and context, ii) urban ministry among the poor requires community participation, iii) proclaiming the Gospel in word and deed, iv) Christian faith development, v) urban evangelism, vi) effective pastoral care, vii) the need to build faith communities, viii) the need to equip the urban mission, ix) moving towards ecumenical alliances in African cities, and x) the importance of congregational studies. Chapter seven is a summary and conclusion of the dissertation. It discusses issues of this thesis positively: orientation of the study hypotheses, congregational study methods used in each chapter, the study's path and results, the contribution the study has made to the existing knowledge, and the conclusion of the whole dissertation. Urbanization is Africa's new missionary challenge for this century. The Christian task in Africa is the mission of the continent, which is in the process of rapid urbanization. If the church delays its adaptation to the urban context (the theories of which are changing constantly) it will forsake her strategic mission of being a foreign body in the world, where the old and new overlap in her, rendering her too early for heaven and too late for the earth.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie proefskrif ontwikkel 'n teorie vir die Malawiese stadsbediening wat beskryf word as 'n "Holistiese hermeneutiese praktiese teologie." Die invloed van verstedeliking, sekularisasie, disorientasie, armoede en besoedeling in Malawi se stedelike sentra maak dit moeilik vir die CCAP om suksesvolle bediening, onder plakkersdorp-omstandighede, te implementeer. Hoofstuk een: Die eerste hoofstuk beskryf die Malawiese stedelike konteks. Dit omskryf die vyf komponente van die navorser se studie-onderwerp, "Stedelike armoede as 'n uitdaging vir die bediening binne die Malawiese (Afrika) konteks" en die drie komponente van die metodologie, "Holistiese hermeneutiese praktiese teologie." Vier verwante hipoteses is geformuleer om as riglyn vir die studie te dien. Verskillende navorsingsmetodes, toegepas vir die inwin van inligting vir hierdie tesis se hoofstukke, word aan die einde van hierdie hoofstuk beskryf. Hoofstuk twee: Die tweede hoofstuk ondersoek die CCAP se huidige bedieningspraktyk en is gerig tot die eerste hipotese: "Die CCAP se landelike agtergrond en teorie van bediening verhinder die kerk om 'n doeltreffende stedelike bediening te ontwikkel wat die armes se probleme toereikend kan aanspreek." Die sendelinge het 'n omvattende bedieningsbenadering vir die vroee leiers van die CCAP Nkhoma Sinode ingestel. In die proses om die sendingbenadering tot die bediening in die plaaslike Chewa konteks in te voer, is 'n filosofie van bediening wat die geestelike verlossing beklemtoon (terwyl fisieke behoeftes verwaarloos word) in die CCAP Nkhoma Sinode ontwikkel. Hierdie benadering veroorsaak 'n probleem vir die Kerk om die fisieke behoeftes en realiteite van stedelike Malawiers toereikend aan te spreek. Hoofstuk drie: Die derde hoofstuk bespreek die Malawiese en Suid-Afrikaanse plakkersdorpe en agterbuurtes se toestande van armoede. Die hoofstuk is die produk van navorsing wat die geldigheid van die vier hipoteses ondersoek het. Die reaksies van die groepe met wie onderhoude gevoer is, het bygedra tot 'n begrip van die huidige gemeentelike uitdagings en bedieningsgeleenthede in stedelike gebiede. Die proefskrif spreek die volgende kwessies in hierdie hoofstuk aan: navorsingsdoelstellings, die tussentydse data van die bevolkingsgroei van stedelike gebiede, 'n kort historiese beskrywing van Malawiese stede, die regering se pogings om stedelike uitdagings en probleme aan te spreek, die benadering van die CCAP tot stedelike bediening en 'n kort beskrywing van twee Suid-Afrikaanse armoede-tonele. Die navorsing toon dat die kerk en die regering onafhanklik van mekaar werk. Dus, die geldigheid van die derde hipotesis: "'n Holistiese benadering tot die stedelike bediening met gemeenskaplike forums vir ontwikkeling is nodig om stedelike armoedeprobleme aan te spreek" is hiermee bevestig. Hoofstuk vier: Hierdie hoofstuk beskryf die ontstellende impak van armoede in Malawi. Die onlangse studies, met betrekking tot Malawiese armoede, toon dat die armoede-toneel 'n deurdringende probleem is wat ongeveer 60% van die bevolking raak; stedelike armoede, in die besonder, is 65%. Hoofstuk vier bespreek 'n aantal kwessies, sommige hiervan is: 'n beskrywing en Christelike perspektief op armoede, 'n oorsigtelike definisie van stedelike armoede, die oorsake van armoede en die roeping van die stedelike kerk. Die stede se informele ekonomiee kan 'n baie groot verskil in die lewens van die armes maak. Al vier hipoteses vorm die agtergrond van hierdie hoofstuk. Hoofstuk vyf: Hierdie hoofstuk ondersoek vier verskillende benaderinge tot stedelike bediening in areas van armoede. Die doel van hierdie hoofstuk is om die benaderinge in arm dele te verstaan. Verskeie benaderinge word bespreek: gemeenskapsorganisasie, doeltreffende gemeentelik-gebaseerde voorspraakbedienings, 'n bevrydingsmodel en 'n kerk in solidariteit met die armes en verdruktes. Hierdie hoofstuk bevestig herhaaldelik die eerste en die vierde hipoteses. Hoofstuk ses: In hierdie hoofstuk word die teorie van 'n holisties-hermeneutiese praktiese teologie toegepas op 'n aantal aktiwiteite, wat pillare genoem word, en stel dit naas die vier hipoteses. Dit word voorgestel as 'n model vir stedelike bediening in Malawiese (Afrika) stede. In die proses om die model te beskryf of ontwikkel, dien die vier hipoteses (wat reeds deeglik bewys en bespreek is) nou as orientasie merkers wat die pad vir die CCAP vir sy toekomstige rol in die stedelike bediening aanwys. Die model beklemtoon 'n hermeneuties-kommunikatiewe praktyk, wat gedurig in verband gebring word met die verstaan van die Christelike betekenis wat in die verlede teweeggebring is en wat dit, deur interaksie met die huidige geloofsgemeenskap, in verband bring. Dus, die kerk in stedelike Malawi sal die uitdagings wat deur die uitwerking van verstedeliking en industrialisasie gebied word, aanspreek. Die model se tien pilare word bespreek: i) bediening in 'n nuwe era en konteks, ii) stedelike bediening onder die armes benodig gemeenskapsdeelname, iii) die verkondiging van die Evangelie in woord en daad, iv) Christelike geloofsontwikkeling, v) stedelike evangelisasie, vi) doeltreffende pastorale sorg, vii) die behoefte vir die opbou van geloofsgemeenskappe, viii) die behoefte om die stedelike sending toe te rus, ix) die vorm van ekurneniese alliansies in die stede van Afrika, en x) die belangrikheid van gemeentelike studies. Hoofstuk sewe is 'n opsomming en afsluiting van die proefskrif. Dit bespreek hierdie proefskrif se hoofpunte: die orientasie en die hipoteses van die studie, die navorsingsmetodes geimplementeer in elke hoofstuk, die studie se ontwikkeling en resultate, die bydrae van die studie tot die bestaande kennis, en die afsluiting van die werk. Afrika se stede is die nuwe sendinguitdaging. Die Christelike taak in Afrika is die evangelisasie van die vasteland wat tans in die proses van snelle verstedeliking is. Indien die kerk in gebreke bly om in die stedelike konteks aan te pas, sal die kerk sy strategiese missie versaak om lig in die wereld te wees.

Good teaching matters, especially for students growing up in poverty. But, effective teaching does not alone depend on the contributions of talented and skilled individuals. Rather, promising pedagogues are far more likely to rise to their potential when they are well-matched with both their teaching assignment and with the school organization where they work. Although recent staffing reforms have decentralized hiring and enabled many schools to exercise more discretion in recruiting and selecting teachers, little is known about how individual schools conceptualize and carry out these processes, or how administrators and teachers experience these efforts. This dissertation investigates these issues, drawing on data from a larger exploratory study conducted by the Project on the Next Generation of Teachers. The sample includes interviews with 142 administrators, teachers, and staff in six schools—three district and three charter—that were demonstrating success with low-income, minority students, in the same city. The dissertation includes three papers: A Quest for “the Very Best”: Teacher Recruitment in Six Successful, High-Poverty, Urban Schools; The Matchmaking Process: Teacher Hiring in Six Successful, High-Poverty, Urban Schools; and The Challenge of Recruiting and Hiring Teachers of Color: Lessons From Six High-Performing, High-Poverty, Urban Schools.
Culture, Communities, and Education

This thesis is a study of women, warung (small shops) and Cicadas kampung community of Bandung, West Java. Data on warung, women, and the Cicadas kampung is based on 12 months fieldwork in 2002. To collect the data, a combination of in-depth interviews, observation and participant observation were adopted. In this research I explore the warung issue from the perspective of warung owners and other members of the kampung. ¶ From the owners’ point of view the main reason to establish warung is to extend the limited income produced by their family members to make ends meet. Other reasons are the possibility to combine income earning activities with domestic chores and social prestige. Having a warung gives more social prestige to a woman warung owner than being a domestic helper. On the other hand, having a job in the formal sector is considered better than conducting a warung business. ¶ From the kampung residents’ point of view, the reasons to shop at warung are mainly related to certain services offered by warung which are not available in other trading sectors. Warung offer small quantities of goods and credit. These services match the socioeconomic condition of the people, who are mostly low income. For the poor, warung indeed ‘support’ them by providing these affordable services which are in accord with their purchasing power. Moreover shopping at warung enables the people to save, especially when buying cooked food. For kampung people, cooking may lead to a higher cost. Proximity is another reason people shop at warung—which could be as close as next door—and this saves them transportation costs. ¶ Warung are also a social centre where people interact and discuss community affairs. Buying snacks (jajan) and credit (nganjuk) are important practices which mark the relationship between warung owners and their customers. These practices are less likely to characterize other trading sectors. ¶ More women than men run warung because having a warung enables women to combine reproductive and productive work, though this leads to the women working extremely long hours—up to 16 hours a day—to perform both tasks. Warung can also be seen as an extension of women’s domestic responsibilities, by reinvesting money and providing meals for their family.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD
Food security is the ability to secure an adequate daily supply of food that is affordable, hygienic and nutritious and it has become a chronic development problem in most urban areas of the global South. This thesis contributes to the urban food security debate by exploring the connection between drought and food security in urban Swaziland. Specifically, the study examines the effects of the 2015/16 drought on access to food in the informal settlement of kaKhoza in the city of Manzini. The study used climate change and food security conceptual framework to interrogate the connection between drought and food security in the urban context. The framework shows how climate change variables like extreme weather events (e.g. drought) impact food security drivers such as agricultural management, demographic, cultural and socio-economic variables, and how these drivers impact the four components of food security (food availability, access, utilization and stability of access). The study drew from both the positivistic and interpretivistic paradigms and adopted a case study approach based on the mixed methods research design. Data was collected from the informal settlement of kaKhoza using a three step procedure involving a questionnaire survey, in-depth interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. A questionnaire was administered to 145 heads of households using systematic sampling technique. Purposive sampling was employed to select 30 and 8 respondents for in-depth and key informant interviews, respectively. The researcher also engaged the observation method approach to capture additional information about effects of drought as observed in the study site. The researcher adhered to all legal and ethical procedures during the data collection and research writing processes. As such, participation in the research was strictly voluntary without any form of coercion, whatsoever. The results reveal that drought contributes to food insecurity in low income urban spaces by reducing the quantity and frequency of free or low priced rural-urban food transfers. As a result, low income households have had to rely more on food purchases, thereby making them increasingly food insecure. The problem is compounded by reverse food flows from urban to rural areas. The drought induced food price hike, compelled many low-income households to be less dependent on the supermarket as the main source of their food, and to buy increased amounts of food from the vegetable markets and tuck shops. Residents employ different coping mechanisms to deal with drought induced food shortage, some of which are too risky and further expose them to food insecurity. These coping strategies include: skipping meals, begging, use of informal credit, over reliance on informal markets and selling of sexual favours, which expose respondents to HIV and AIDS infection.

[EN] The first part of this work reviews the potential applications of satellite remote sensing to regional science research in urban settings. The availability of satellite remote sensing data has increased significantly in the last two decades. The increasing spatial resolution of commercial satellite imagery has influenced the emergence of new research and applications of regional science in urban settlements because it is now possible to identify individual objects of the urban fabric. The most common applications found in the literature are the detection of urban deprivation hot spots, quality of life index assessment, urban growth analysis, house value estimation, urban population estimation, urban social vulnerability assessment, and the variability of intra-urban crime rates. The satellite remote sensing imagery used in these applications has medium, high or very high spatial resolution (Landsat MSS, Landsat TM and ETM+, SPOT, ASTER, IRS, Ikonos and QuickBird). Consistent relationships between socio-economic variables derived from censuses and field surveys and proxy variables of vegetation coverage measured from satellite remote sensing data have been found in several cities in the US. Different approaches and techniques have been applied successfully around the world, but local research is always needed to account for the unique elements of each place. Spectral mixture analysis, object-oriented classifications and image texture measures are some of the techniques of image processing that have been implemented with good results. This work contributes empirical evidence about the usefulness of remote sensing imagery to quantify the degree of poverty at the intra-urban scale. This concept is based on two premises: first, that the physical appearance of an urban settlement is a reflection of the society; and second, that the people who reside in urban areas with similar physical housing conditions have similar social and demo- graphic characteristics. We evaluate the potential of the image-derived urban fabric descriptors to explain a measure of poverty known as the Slum Index. We found that these variables explain up to 59% of the variability in the Slum Index. Similar approaches could be used to lower the cost of socioeconomic surveys by developing an econometric model from a sample and applying that model to the rest of the city and to perform intercensal or intersurvey estimates of intra-urban Slum Index maps. The last part of this work analyzes the relation between the urban layout and crime. The link between place and crime is at the base of social ecology theories of crime that focus in the relationship of the characteristics of geographical areas and crime rates. The broken windows theory states that visible cues of physical and social disorder in a neighborhood can lead to an increase in more serious crime. Based on the premise that a settlement's appearance is a reflection of the society, we ask whether a neighbor- hood's design has a quantifiable imprint when seen from space using urban fabric descriptors computed from VHR imagery. The percentage of impervious surfaces other than clay roofs, the fraction of clay roofs to impervious surfaces, two structure descriptors related to the homogeneity of the urban layout, and the uniformity texture descriptor were all statistically significant. Areas with higher homicide rates tended to have higher local variation and less general homogeneity; that is, the urban layouts were more crowded and cluttered, with small dwellings with different roofing materials located in close proximity to one another, and these regions often lacked other homogeneous surfaces such as open green spaces, wide roads, or large facilities. These results seem to be in agreement with the broken windows theory and CPTED in the sense that more heterogeneous and disordered urban layouts are associated with higher homicide rates.
[ES] La primera parte aporta una revisión de las aplicaciones de la teledetección satelital en la investigación de ciencia regional en entornos urbanos. La disponibilidad de imágenes satelitales se ha incrementado significativamente en las dos últimas décadas, al tiempo que la resolución espacial ha venido aumentando, lo que ha influenciado el surgimiento de investigaciones y aplicaciones de ciencia regional en zonas urbanas. Las aplicaciones más comunes son la detección de hot spots de pobreza urbana, la evaluación de índices de calidad de vida, el análisis del crecimiento urbano, la estimación de valores de vivienda, la estimación de población urbana, la evaluación de la vulnerabilidad social y las variaciones intra-urbanas en tasas de crimen. Las imágenes satelitales usadas tienen resolución espacial media, alta o muy alta (Landsat MSS, Landsat TM y ETM+, SPOT, ASTER, IRS, Ikonos y Quickbird). Se han encontrado relaciones consistentes entre variables socio-económicas obtenidas de censos y encuestas y variables de la cobertura de vegetación en varias ciudades de Estados Unidos. Algunas de las técnicas que se han implementado y obtenido buenos resultados son el análisis de mezcla espectral, las clasificaciones orientadas a objetos y las medidas de textura de la imagen. Se aporta evidencia empírica acerca de la utilidad de las imágenes satelitales para cuantificar el grado de pobreza a escala intra-urbana. Se basa en dos premisas: primero, que la apariencia física de un asentamiento urbano es un reflejo de la sociedad que lo habita; y segundo, que la población de áreas urbanas con condiciones físicas de vivienda parecidas tiene características sociales y demográficas similares. Evaluamos el potencial de los descriptores del tejido urbano extraídos de la imagen para explicar una medida de pobreza conocida como el índice Slum. Encontramos que esas variables explican hasta un 59% de la variabilidad en el índice Slum. Aproximaciones similares a esta podrían usarse para disminuir el costo de encuestas socioeconómicas por medio del desarrollo de un modelo econométrico usando una muestra y luego aplicando el modelo al resto de la ciudad, y para elaborar estimaciones inter-censales o inter-encuestas de mapas intra-urbanos del índice Slum. La última parte analiza la relación entre el trazado urbano y crimen. El enlace entre el lugar y el crimen está en la base de las teorías socio-ecológicas de crimen que se enfocan en la relación de las características de las áreas geográficas y las tasas de crimen. La teoría de las ventanas rotas afirma que las evidencias visibles de desorden físico y social en un barrio pueden llevar al incremento de crímenes más serios. Con base en la premisa de que la apariencia de un asentamiento es un reflejo de la sociedad, nos preguntamos si el diseño del barrio tiene un impacto cuantificable cuando se observa desde el espacio usando descriptores del tejido urbano obtenidos de imágenes de muy alta resolución. El porcentaje de superficies impermeables diferentes a los techos de arcilla, la fracción de techos de arcilla sobre las superficies impermeables, dos variables de estructura relacionadas con la homogeneidad del trazado urbano y la variable de textura uniformidad resultaron estadísticamente significativas. Las áreas con tasas de homicidio más altas tienden a tener mayor variación local y menor homogeneidad general; esto es, los trazados urbanos son más desordenados y hacinados, con pequeñas viviendas que tienen materiales diferentes en sus techos localizadas muy cerca unas de otras, y estas áreas carecen a menudo de otras superficies homogéneas tales como espacios verdes abiertos, vías amplias y grandes construcciones industriales o institucionales. Estos resultados parecen estar en acuerdo con la teoría de las ventanas rotas y CPTED en el sentido de que los trazados urbanos más desordenados y heterogéneos están asociados con tasas de homicid
[CAT] La primera part aporta una revisió de les potencials aplicacions de la teledetecció espacial a la investigació en ciència regional en entorns urbans. La disponibilitat de dades de percepció remota des de satèl·lits s'ha incrementat significativament a les dues últimes dècades. La resolució espacial de les imatges de satèl·lit comercials també han anat augmentant i això, ha influït en l'aparició de investigacions i aplicacions a la ciència regional en assentaments urbans. Les aplicacions més comunes trobades a la literatura són la detecció de punts calents de pobresa urbana, l'avaluació dels índex de qualitat de vida, les anàlisis de creixement urbà, l'avaluació de la vulnerabilitat social i les variacions intraurbanes de les taxes de crims. Les imatges de satèl·lit emprades tenen resolució espacial mitjana, alta o molt alta (Landsat MSS, Landsat TM i ETM+, SPOT, ASTER, IRS, Ikonos y Quickbird). S'han torbat relacions consistents entre variables socioeconòmiques obtingudes de censos i enquestes i variables de la cobertura de vegetació en varies ciutats del Estats Units. Algunes de les tècniques que s'han implementat i han donat bons resultats són l'anàlisi de mescla espectral, les classificacions orientades a objecte i les mesures de textura de les imatges. Es aporta evidència empírica sobre la utilitat de les imatges de satèl·lit per quantificar el grau de pobresa a escala intraurbana. Es bassa en dues premisses: primer, que l'aparença física d'un assentament urbà n'és un reflex de la societat que l'habita; i segon, que les persones que resideixen en àrees urbanes amb condicions físiques de vivenda paregudes tenen també característiques socials i demogràfiques similars. Avaluem el potencial dels descriptors del teixit urbà extrets de la imatge per explicar una mesura de pobresa coneguda com index Slum. Trobem que aquestes variables expliquen fins un 59% de la variabilitat de l'índex Slum. Aproximacions semblants a aquesta es podrien emprar per a disminuir el cost de les enquestes socioeconòmiques mitjançant el desenvolupament d'un model economètric utilitzant una mostra i després aplicant el model a la resta de la ciutat, i per elaborar estimacions inter-censals o inter-enquestes de mapes intraurbans de l'índex Slum. La darrera part analitza la relació entre el traçat urbà i el crim. L'enllaç entre el lloc i el crim està a la base de les teories socio-ecològiques del crim que es centren en la relació de les característiques de les àrees geogràfiques i les taxes de crims. La teoria de les finestres trencades afirma que les evidències visibles de desordre físic i social d'un barri pot portar a l'augment de crims més greus. Basant-se en la premissa de que l'aparença d'un assentament n'és el reflex de la societat, ens hi preguntem si el disseny del barri té un impacte quantificable quan s'observa des de el espai, utilitzant descriptors del teixit urbà obtinguts de imatges de molt alta resolució. Han resultat estadísticament significatius el percentatge de superfícies impermeables diferents a les teulades de argila, la fracció de teulades d'argila sobre les superfícies impermeables, dues variables d'estructura relacionades amb la homogeneïtat del traçat urbà i la variable de textura de uniformitat. Les àrees amb taxes d'homicidi més altes tendeixen a presentar una major variació local i una menor homogeneïtat general; és a dir, el traçats urbans són més desordenats i amuntonats, amb petites vivendes que tenen materials diferents a les seues teulades localitzades molt prop unes d'altres, i aquestes àrees manquen sovint d'altres superfícies homogènies, com ara espais verds oberts, vies amplies i grans construccions industrials o institucionals. Aquests resultats pareixen estar-hi d'acord amb la teoria de les finestres trencades i CPTED en el sentit de que els traçats urbans més desordenats i heterogenis estan associats amb taxes d'homicides m
Patiño Quinchía, JE. (2015). Cityscape, poverty and crime: a quantitative assessment using VHR imagery [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/59453
TESIS

xi, 41 p. : ill. A print copy of this thesis is available through the UO Libraries. Search the library catalog for the location and call number.
Urban parks play an important role in cities. Lack of understanding about their effects on urban dwellers and their capacity to play a role in promoting social well-being could diminish their benefits. With population growth in cities, park managers may need to increase the quantity and quality or diversify parks to achieve the same results. The relationship between availability and expenditure on parks and urban quality of life has received little research attention. An analysis of 75 US cities determined that park density, operational expenditure and park acreage as a percentage of the city are significantly related to average levels of income, obesity and violent crimes. Optimum park density is 49 people per acre of park. Violent crime is a key determinant of whether urban parks generate a virtuous cycle improving health and income and reducing obesity rates or a vicious cycle achieving the contrary.
Committee in Charge: Dr. Jean Stockard, Chair; Dr. Neil Bania; Dr. Robert Young

This thesis reports on the gynaecological and mental health of low-income urban women in Thane, India. The research objectives were to study the women's perception and experience of gynaecological symptoms, their association with mental ill-health and the role of social support and social networks in these two morbidities. A combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods was used in the form of a survey questionnaire and in-depth interviews. Gynaecological morbidity was measured by women's perception of morbidity and prevalence was calculated on women's reporting of symptoms. The Self Response Questionnaire (SRQ-20) was used to calculate mental ill-health 'cases'. Social support and social networks were separately explored for the first time in an Indian community setting using an adapted version of the Close Persons Questionnaire (CPQ). There was a high reporting (50.6%) of gynaecological symptoms in the community with reproductive tract infections, menstrual problems, urinary infections and prolapse being most commonly reported. 17.9% of the women were 'cases' of mental ill-health. Gynaecological morbidity was associated with poor mental health and affected women's social life. Women's age and reporting of a major illness were associated with gynaecological and mental health, whereas unemployment was associated with mental ill-health. Levels of social support were not associated with either morbidity. Higher levels of negative support were received from spouses, by the women. An extensively used social network appeared to protect against mental ill-health. The study's conclusions point to the need to plan more appropriate (participatory) and culturally sensitive programmes for the identification and treatment of gynaecological and mental health at the community level. The research findings emphasize the need for integration of mental health services at the primary health level especially in low income urban communities and the recognition of social networks in maintaining positive health.

The overall aim of the thesis is to investigate and evaluate the experience of poverty in an urban area during the period 1760-1835, using Oxford as a case study. Chapter 1 ofthe thesis reviews the current historiography on the subject and sets out the methodology and scope of the study. To fully capture the experience of poverty, a holistic approach is adopted; the poor are taken to be not just those receiving poor relief but all at the margin of subsistence, vulnerable for example to crisis episodes such as sickness. Chapter 2 examines the social and economic background in Oxford. It was found that, while atypical in being a university town, Oxford has much in common with other provincial centres of the period, with significant retailing and commercial functions, a sizeable middle-class and a large body of unskilled labour. To a certain degree, conclusions drawn from research on the city can thus be applicable to other English towns. Chapter 3 examines the numbers and composition of the poor in this period, using Poor Law and charity records from two Oxford parishes with particularly detailed information, St. Giles's and St. Clement's. In contrast to many rural areas, the numbers of those needing assistance in Oxford does not appear to have steadily increased between the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, but fluctuated more according to trade cycles and periods of hardship such as bad weather. The proportion ofpeople receiving poor relief was roughly the same in 1835 as it was in 1760. The composition of the poor in Oxford was also different than in rural areas. There was no significant increase in the numbers of young families on relief, as historians have observed in the so-called 'Speenhamland' counties. Life-cycle types seem to have predominated: widows, the elderly and the very young, and some people could move in and out of poverty over the course of their lives. To some extent, there was an underlying level of background poverty present throughout the period, as indicated by the charity evidence, from which more acute cases of hardship could arise. Oxford may have been experiencing its own 'urban' type of poverty: one that was a product of the city's market-driven economy and less influenced by structural factors as in the countryside. Chapter 4 discusses how those in poverty managed to support themselves in Oxford. Work and the Poor Law were two of the most obvious expedients, but a number of other strategies were also available: endowed and subscription charity, friendly societies, credit, help from kin and neighbours, even petty crime and prostitution. Rarely though were these makeshift strands sufficient by themselves to support people. The amount of help given was generally small and access conditions could constrain supply. Many of the poor were thus forced to utilise several strategies to make ends meet. Different expedients were also employed according to different phases of poverty; credit for short-term crisis episodes, for example, the Poor Law or endowed charity for longer life-cycle conditions. The search for work and changes in circumstance also occasioned much mobility among the poor, the subject of Chapter 5. By using material from maniage registers, settlement examinations and the records of the University police, a picture of the migratory habits of the poor in Oxford was built up. In line with existing research for this period, it was found that distances travelled were generally short, with 70 per cent of people moving less than 20 km, and many immigrants to Oxford came from its immediate hinterland. There was though a significant degree of inter-urban migration; particularly to London. The actual patterns of migration were complex, with people not only moving in and out of the city, but often stopping off at several points in the way. Movement within Oxford itself was also common. A whole variety of causes seem to have prompted people to move; as well as work we can see kin, maniage, housing, even individual crises like a sudden bereavement. An underlying feature behind many moves again seems to be the life-cycle. People could move for workrelated reasons when young; to find larger housing when they married; perhaps even to a smaller dwelling in old age. The final chapter of the thesis looks at living standards among the poor in Oxford. After an examination of the research concerning this subject, the extent of any changes between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are investigated through an analysis ofinfant mortality in S1. Clement's based on a family reconstitution. It was found that infant mortality in the parish fell from 270 per 1000 in the early eighteenth century to 169 per 1000 by 1800, though it then rose again slightly by 1837. This is in line with the general trend in urban areas at this time. Some ofthis improvement may have been caused by improved medical care at childbirth and reductions in the incidence of infectious disease, particularly smallpox. Conversely, changes in feeding practices and increased urbanisation in S1. Clement's during the 1820s and 1830s may then have led to some deterioration in conditions. Nevertheless, infant mortality rates were still lower in 1837 than in the early eighteenth century, and much of the fall appears to be due to a decline in endogenous mortality (associated with the physical condition of the mother). There therefore may be some scope for suggesting a slight improvement in living standards among the poor, one that may have as its background the economic growth occurring in Oxford at the time.

This thesis aims to develop greater understanding of older people's livelihood strategies in Latin America. It asks whether their contributions to household and family are reciprocated with care and support. The thesis analyses the informal livelihood strategies used by poor older people in urban Bolivia in relation to the household, community, labour market and wider political environment. Drawing on a combination of the sustainable livelihoods and life course perspectives, the thesis examines the multiple survival strategies used by older people and analyses the factors affecting their access to different assets. The primary data come from a year's fieldwork in three contrasting urban zones of La Paz, where 600 household surveys, 16 focus groups and more than 40 semi-structured interviews were conducted. The thesis highlights the heterogeneity of older people in La Paz and the broad range of strategies used to maintain their livelihoods in the absence of state support. It shows that family support is not the reliable source of security that it is generally thought to be and that older people often continue to support their descendents rather than vice versa, in cash or in kind. It stresses the importance of continuing reciprocity: few older people can rely on receiving support from others unless they too continue to contribute. Adult children may have to continue relying on their parents because of the high cost of housing and scarce employment opportunities. The rise in single-parent families and increasing labour migration mean that older people may also be responsible for raising their grandchildren. After a lifetime of balancing family and work obligations, women may be better than men at combining different strategies in old age, and they have stronger social networks. Men's lifelong focus on income generation makes it harder for them to devise other survival strategies in old age.

Thesis (Master)--University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 2002.
eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 101-105).

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2006.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 138-140).
HOPE VI was developed in 1992 as program to demolish and revitalize the nation's most severely distressed public housing. One element of the HOPE VI program is to move low-income households out of an environment of concentrated poverty and replace distressed public housing with a development that includes a variety of incomes, where the number and density of households in poverty is decreased. This policy of "poverty deconcentration" is now accepted and practiced by housing authorities as part of a greater prescription for neighborhood revitalization. However, there is little evidence to prove the merits of HOPE VI poverty deconcentration as a catalyst in neighborhood revitalization. The focus of this thesis is to further define the link between policies of poverty deconcentration and neighborhood revitalization while offering insight about the expected long-term benefit of this policy for future HOPE VI planning. The two housing authorities responsible for developing Mandela Gateway in Oakland, California and Posadas Sentinel in Tucson, Arizona aimed to achieve the HOPE VI mandate of poverty deconcentration through two strategies. For this thesis, these strategies are categorized as development-based poverty dilution and neighborhood-based poverty dispersal, respectively.
(cont.) This thesis relies upon interviews with key informants, document review, and some analysis of land use patterns in neighborhoods surrounding HOPE VI developments to investigate causality between two methods of HOPE VI poverty deconcentration and broader neighborhood revitalization. The main conclusions of this thesis are drawn from the interaction between the policies and practices of the local public housing authority and other public and private investors in the broader neighborhood. Overall, this thesis finds that HOPE VI poverty deconcentration strategies alone are not enough to affect broader neighborhood revitalization, but are a critical element in changing the perception of public and private investors as they contemplate investment around the development. In both cases the poverty deconcentration strategy was implemented in a way that harnessed existing market forces for neighborhood revitalization. This thesis concludes with a discussion of the best practices to advance the critical goals of HOPE VI poverty deconcentration and offers anagenda for further research.
by Carrie Ann Vanderford.
M.C.P.

Thesis: Ph. D. in Urban and Regional Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Urban Studies and Planning, 2015.
This electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.
Cataloged from student-submitted PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 312-344).
The majority share of metropolitan poverty in the United States has shifted from cities to suburbs through the effects of employment losses and the movement of lower-income populations. However, varied histories of suburban development, class and racial/ethnic divisions within and among suburbs, and widening suburban inequality all suggest that understanding suburban poverty requires moving beyond a simplified view of low-income suburbs as a uniform set. Suburbs are embedded in regions and have different degrees of connection to their associated metropolitan areas. These differences hint that symptoms of economic disadvantage in suburbs today are historically related to local patterns of social and economic development, prompting the central question of this dissertation: How have location and regional development histories shaped the economic trajectories of suburbs that could today be considered poor? The nature of the research question lent itself to a mixed-methods analysis of past and present suburban development. In the first part of this study I developed a five-category typology for more than 2000 low-income suburban Census Places. Mapping each category showed identifiable regional patterns suggesting a potential connection between major historical development processes and present-day spatial arrangements of poor suburbs. In the second part, I used the typology to select five case studies. Guided by a theoretical framework employing geological language of flows, deposits, and waves, I analyzed these individual locations whose narratives are engrained in regional and national processes of place formation but mediated by the expansive development cycles of the 20th century. My research demonstrates that poor suburbs are multilayered, contingent processes with links back to the selection of their spatial locations and the functions established in their earliest years of settlement. I argue that bound up in the socioeconomic status of individual suburbs are spatio-historical roots of those conditions. The variables contributing to change in suburbs do not simply move through time, but through space-time among a network of interdependent places. The economic development history of a suburb interweaves with its spatial location nested in different geographical scales to create its defining characteristics at any point in time. Strategies to address suburban poverty must therefore be contextualized and interscalar as well as backward and forward looking.
by Christa Rachel Lee-Chuvala.
Ph. D. in Urban and Regional Studies

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2010.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 84-89).
The Dominican Republic has an interesting juxtaposition of the largest tourism industry in the Caribbean with some of the worst social conditions in the region such as high rates of unemployment, poverty, and infant mortality. While the Dominican tourism industry experienced growth rates in the double digits in the 1990s, incomes for the lowest wage earners remained flat. This thesis analyzes if and how plans in the Dominican Republic extract greater value from the tourism industry for local economic development. It compares tourism in the Dominican Republic to models of "pro poor tourism" in the development literature. The plans steering the tourism industry in the Dominican Republic mention important factors such as social equity, labor force development and support of local businesses, but they are insufficiently detailed and do not include mechanisms for training and job creation. The private sector has demonstrated leadership in pro-poor tourism efforts in the Dominican Republic. Clustering as a national strategy to organize the tourism industry can be a promising mechanism for helping the poor through tourism in the Dominican Republic by coordinating private sector efforts. For greater distributional benefits to the poor from the tourism industry, however, these plans must be more aggressive and focused on quality job creation.
by Angelica Weiner.
M.C.P.

Poverty reduction and Education for All (EFA) are important policy issues in many developing countries as they are both Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). As the existing literature suggests, education positively influences poverty reduction, while poverty, or low income, adversely affects the quality and quantity of education. Accordingly, if education fails to facilitate poverty reduction, the following generation's schooling is likely to be adversely affected, thus perpetuating a vicious education–poverty circle. It was against such a background, and employing a mixed methods approach to data collection and analysis, that this study investigated the relationship between education and multidimensional poverty at an individual as well as household level, and the influence of deprivation on children's education, in the context of the slum in Delhi, India. The thesis reveals that education – particularly primary and middle schooling – enhances the earnings of male slum dwellers in particular, the overwhelming majority of whom suffer from informality and instability of employment. It also emerges that education plays an important role in the ability to participate with confidence in the public sphere. At the household level, education proves to have a positive association with monetary poverty, but a higher level of education per se does not necessarily facilitate escape from non-monetary poverty. In such a nexus of poverty and education, the thesis found that household wealth in association with social group and migration status tends to be positively correlated with child schooling, education expenditure, and basic learning. There may be a chance of escaping poverty through education, but such a likelihood is limited for those households that are underprivileged in terms of caste and religion owing to slow progress in basic learning, as well as migrant households due to lack of access to schooling. The thesis concludes by proposing some education policies drawn from the major findings of the study that may be implemented in the Indian slum context.

This dissertation investigates pro-poor urban adaptation to climate change in Bangladesh. Dhaka city, a capital of Bangladesh, is widely recognised to be one of the most climate vulnerable mega cities in the world. Climate change impacts are likely to affect the poorest urban residents disproportionately as having the least capacity to adapt to a changing climate. However, the assertion that the poorest are the most vulnerable to climate change is commonly made as a generalisation, with limited examination of the dynamic and differentiated nature of poverty. This research therefore aims to examine pro-poor urban adaptation in the context of climate variability and change. In analysing climate change vulnerability and asset adaptation from urban extreme poverty, this research identifies a differentiated view of poverty and vulnerability and also provides an analysis of how extreme poor households get access to assets and build asset adaptation strategies. This research found that extreme poor households do their best to adapt to perceived climate changes, but in absence of savings, access to credit and insurance, they are forced to adopt adverse coping strategies. Social policy and social protection could therefore become more of a priority sector for adaptation than it has been so far. This can create opportunities for the poorest to accumulate assets which help them to build asset adaptation or resilience strategies. By reviewing key theories and practices, this research first addresses the question of whether there is any interrelation between poverty dynamics and vulnerability. The research then explores drivers of climate change vulnerability for the urban extreme poor. This research critically analyses autonomous adaptation and planned asset based adaptation in order to build a conceptual framework of pro-poor asset adaptation for the urban extreme poor households and groups. Following this framework, this research aims to identify the individual adaptation practices and role of institutions and policies in supporting or constraining these adaptation practices. This research also examines the role of social policy and social protection for pro-poor adaptation. The research then applies the concepts drawn from a critical literature review to analyse the context of Bangladesh. Thus, the research has conducted household life-history interviews to explore the vulnerabilities and asset adaptation strategies of the extreme poor households. To understand household asset endowments (and their returns) descriptive statistics are derived from secondary sources. In addition to household interviews, key informant surveys, focus group discussions, grey materials and analysis of secondary academic materials were analysed to acquire qualitative information on the role of formal and informal institutions and policies for adaptation practices. The household life-history findings support the idea that poverty traps are likely to be linked to vulnerability. The empirical evidence also shows that there is a clear relationship between vulnerability to the market (exclusion from market opportunities), low asset holdings (and their returns) and ill-health. The slums and squatter settlements in Dhaka city are marked by high levels of physical vulnerabilities in the context of climate change, mainly as a consequence of their high politico-legal and socioeconomic vulnerabilities. The individual adaptation practices are impact-minimising, short lived, ad hoc and even harmful measures because the urban poorest are excluded from formal policies and institutions and in the absence of formal rights and entitlements, the process of facilitating and maintaining patron–client relationships is a central coping strategy for the poorest. The social policy and social protection are found to be effective in facilitating asset adaptation for the urban extreme poor and contribute to greater resilience to climate change. Analysing the empirical evidence through the lens of the pro-poor asset adaptation framework, this research reveals that the asset transfer approach was an effective programmatic intervention for building household adaptation strategies. Social funds and supports to community driven development can enhance the capacity of community organisations to develop small infrastructures that actually stops or greatly reduces flooding. However, challenging the adverse structural context is not a matter of building at a household and collective level assets but also capacity to participate in and influence the institutions from which they have previously been excluded. Attention must be paid to building a strong collective organisation in order to break the existing social order and inequalities. The city and municipal government can create an enabling environment for this grassroots mobilisation by providing services and information, and ensuring their access to the decision making process. A combination of micro (household), meso (community) and macro (city and municipal) level asset-based actions can ensure the long term resilience of extreme poor households and groups.