Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Unjust enrichment'

Birks' unjust enrichment formula was intended to provide a common descriptive structure to all the instances where there was recovery. He did not, however, engage in an analysis of the various reasons why courts awarded restitution. My thesis seeks to fill this gap. I argue that without such an account Birks work is incomplete. According to Birks, for example, money and services both amounted to enrichments and so should be considered together. But there are some differences and similarities between money and services. In order to be able to group them together Birks needs to be able to say that the reasons for giving recovery in money and service cases are similar enough that they can be grouped together. The same goes for all the unjust factors. The point is, the generalisation that Birks sought to do, can only properly be done if one is attuned to the reasons why recovery is granted in each of those cases. If the reasons are similar then the generalisation makes sense. But if they are not then it does not make sense to so generalise. The argument of the thesis is that there three relevant principles to justifying unjust enrichment: the Property Principle, the Benefit-Burden Principle and the Autonomy Principle. The Property Principle states that one should not have property belonging to another. The Benefit-Burden Principle states that if one takes a benefit then one must bear the associated burdens; to put it more colloquially: you have to take the rough with the smooth. These first two principles provide reasons for considering a situation to be defective and the last principle provides a constraint for the operation of the first two. It is there to ensure that the imposition of liability will not unduly affect the autonomy of the defendant. Based on that the thesis proposes that the scope of the unjust enrichment formula be trimmed down to only cover defective transfers of money and other assets. For the other cases, a different analytical structure is needed. This is because the reasons for recovery in those cases are different.

This thesis is about the law of mistake in the law of unjust enrichment. It argues that a particular, autonomy-based normative account explains and justifies the current substantive law of mistake, and goes on to suggest consequential resolutions for some of the remaining controversial areas of the law. The normative account is that the justification for recognising mistake as a reason for restitution - what makes the mistaken enrichment 'unjust' - is the value given to the personal autonomy of individuals in determining the terms on which their resources are disposed. That account explains why the law of unjust enrichment has an initial but not exclusive focus on the claimant's intention, including that it must be present, properly formed and properly effected; and for the law of mistake specifically, the account provides a coherent explanation for why the established or 'core' areas of the law appear the way they do. In relation to the still controversial areas of mistake, the same account suggests that: (i) a reasonable degree of uncertainty or doubt should deny an unjust enrichment action based on mistake; (ii) causative ignorance is neither a mistake nor should it be recognised as an unjust factor; (iii) voluntary dispositions should be considered unjust once causative mistake is established; and (iv) while the line between mistakes and mispredictions is blurred in certain circumstances, clear and sound resolutions can be structured on the basis of the autonomy-centred normative account.

This thesis examines the law's response to defective transfers and other misapplications of assets and argues that the present variety of responses is unprincipled and fails to treat like cases alike. Sometimes, when A mistakenly transfers property to B, the law says that, because of the mistake, A's legal title to that property never left him. At other times the law says that legal title did pass to the recipient but that the mistake leads to a new equitable title to the property arising in A's favour. And at other times, the law says that A relinquishes all title to the property but has instead a personal claim against the recipient for recovery of the value of the property mistakenly transferred. These differences matter because they affect issues such as the measure and form of recovery, the impact of B's insolvency, and the availability of defences. Yet in all such cases the claimant's complaint seems to be the same: the asset was mine to dispose of and I did not consent to its passing to the defendant. If all these cases are concerned with the same question, they should all receive the same answer. Accordingly a new, uniform approach, consistent with the principles underlying such claims, will be put forward. This will then point the way to a clearer understanding of certain issues of a more fundamental nature, such as the organisation and structure of private law, the use of concepts in legal theory and reasoning, and the distinction between property and obligations.

This thesis presents an account of attribution in unjust enrichment. Attribution refers to how and when two parties – a claimant and a defendant – are relevantly connected to each other for unjust enrichment purposes. It is reflected in the familiar expression that a defendant be 'enriched at the claimant's expense'. This thesis presents a structured account of attribution, consisting of two requirements: first, the identification of an enrichment to the defendant and a loss to the claimant; and, secondly, the identification of a connection between that enrichment and that loss. These two requirements must be kept separate from other considerations often subsumed within the expression 'enrichment at the claimant's expense' which in truth have nothing to do with attribution, and which instead qualify unjust enrichment liability for reasons that should be analysed in their own terms. The structure of attribution so presented fits a normative account of unjust enrichment based upon each party's exchange capacities. A defendant is enriched when he receives something that he has not paid for under prevailing market conditions, while a claimant suffers a loss when he loses the opportunity to charge for something under the same conditions. A counterfactual test – asking whether enrichment and loss arise 'but for' each other – provides the best generalisation for testing whether enrichment and loss are connected, thereby satisfying the requirements of attribution in unjust enrichment. The law is stated as at 15 March 2014.

Overpaid remuneration is an ordinary aspect of the employment relationship. From time to time, it happens. What is extraordinary is the lack of attention that this issue has received from the legislature, and from legal scholars. The resolution of overpayment disputes between employers and employees has been left almost entirely to the common law. This thesis looks at how employers and employees in Western Australia can use the law to resolve an overpayment dispute. It does so through the lens of unjust enrichment law. In particular, this study examines how the truck provisions in the Minimum Conditions of Employment Act 1993 (WA) and in the Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth) limit an employer’s ability to unilaterally deduct an overpayment from the pay of an employee; what an employer needs to prove in order to establish a prima facie case for restitution of an overpayment; how an employee can use the restitutionary defences to rebut the employer’s prima facie case; what strategies an employee can utilise to defend against a claim by their employer for overpaid tax or superannuation; and, the remedies that are available to an employer who is successful in an unjust enrichment-type claim against an employee. This thesis concludes that the common law is not always a practical mechanism for resolving overpayment disputes between employers and employees. This is because of the costs involved in litigating in the common law courts. This thesis recommends that the Western Australian and Commonwealth legislatures should make legislative changes in order to better facilitate the resolution of overpayment disputes that arise in an employment context. This thesis also provides some suggested wording that the legislatures could adopt to implement that recommendation.

The Thesis was inspired by a perceived need better to understand the unique description of unjust enrichment by the Australian courts, as a unifying legal concept. It demonstrates that concepts and principles are essential features of the common law because they identify the character and taxonomy of rules. The comparative study, encompassing Australian and English law primarily, and law of other jurisdictions, modern and ancient, elucidates the special characteristics of the concepts and principles of Anglo/Australian unjust enrichment and of concepts and principles generally. A like concept has had a place in the common law since its inception under several characterisations. It bears the mark of ancient Roman jurisprudence, but relates to independent principles. The jurisprudence was formed by special characteristics of its history. It is distinct from modern Roman/Dutch law but the doctrinal overtones of its foundational case law reflect the basis of reasoning which in Continental law, is found in the adopted ancient codes. It is this foundation of reasoning and the firm rejection of a normative general principle that makes Anglo/Australian law different in character and jurisprudence from unjust enrichment in USA and Canada. Stifled for centuries by quasi contract misconceptions, the law of unjust enrichment entered the modern law in the 20th C through the seminal judgements of Lord Wright in Fibrosa Spolka Akcyjna v Fairbairn Lawson Coombe Barbour Ltd, and related cases and through the strong judicial and juristic following they inspired. That “…any civilised system of law is bound to provide remedies for … unjust enrichment…” became an imperative across the common law world: it has long held a place in the Roman Dutch jurisdictions of South Africa and Continental Europe. The special character of unjust enrichment in Anglo/Australian law is focussed upon a unique action where-by the law imposes an obligation upon the establishment of a recognised ground. The notion of breach of a primary rule does not arise: the obligation is therefore a primary obligation imposed by law, as distinct from a remedy for a breach. Important consequences flow from the characteristic. The juristic development of unjust enrichment in the common law has long been the sole prerogative of the superior courts. The place of historical features of the jurisprudence has however been subsumed by modern judicial methodology that is slowly assuming a unifying pattern of reasoning from case to case; from one ground to another. This is the special characteristic of the unifying legal concept and English principle of unjust enrichment. The thesis draws widely based conclusions about concepts and principles of unjust enrichment and the actions and obligations they sponsor. It portrays them as the substance of legal reasoning and analyses underlying theory. to this end, it addresses counter juristic and historical arguments. Its central conclusion are that there are sound jurisprudential arguments for actions based upon a unifying legal concept and English principle of unjust enrichment, and that the explanation of the unjust enrichment concept as the foundation of an independent branch of the common law and taxonomy is theoretically sustainable. In this manner concepts and principles of the common law are demonstrated as critical characteristics of the common law at large.

This study analyses certain controversial issues commonly arising when a claim for restitution is brought against a bank. Chapter 1 considers the equitable claim traditionally labelled ‘knowing receipt’. Three issues are discussed: (i) the basis in principle of the claim for ‘knowing receipt’; (ii) whether the claim requires proof of fault on the part of the recipient; and (iii) whether the claim can be brought in relation to the receipt by a bank of a mortgage or guarantee offered to the bank in breach of trust or fiduciary duty. The conclusions are (i) that ‘knowing receipt’ is often a claim in unjust enrichment, though the dishonest recipient will also be liable for an equitable wrong; (ii) that when the unjust enrichment version of ‘knowing receipt’ is in issue, the claim should be one of strict liability; and (iii) a claim in unjust enrichment can be brought against a bank to defeat its interest in a mortgage or guarantee offered in breach of trust. Chapters 2 to 4 concern a concept within the law of unjust enrichment that has come to be called ministerial receipt. A ministerial receipt is a receipt of money or property by an agent on behalf of his or her principal. Banks often receive money as agents on behalf of account holders. Chapters 2 and 3 analyse that concept as it is dealt with at common law and in equity respectively. At common law, ministerial receipt is a defence which exists only if the agent pays over the money in question before receiving notive of the right of the plaintiff to restitution. By contrast, ministerial receipt in equity operates to restrict a right to restitution which would otherwise arise. A claim for 'knowing receipt' cannot be brought against an agent in equity. Chapter 4 argues that the equitable tratement of agents is correct as a matter of principle, and that no common law claim in unjust enrichment should be maintainable against a person who receives as agent. Special attention is given to banks. Chapter 5 analyses three other defences which a bank can plead in answer to restitutionary claims: 'good consideration', bona fide purchase and set off. It is concluded that there is no general defence of 'good consideration'; that the bank can plead bona fide purchase in relation to money deposited into an account in credit; and that in the context of combining two or more bank accounts set off is merely a species of bona fide purchase.

O presente estudo tem por objetivo demonstrar que, nas hipóteses em que alguém intervém na esfera jurídica alheia e obtém benefícios econômicos sem causar danos ao titular do direito ou, causando danos, o lucro obtido pelo ofensor é superior aos danos causados, as regras da responsabilidade civil, isoladamente, não são suficientes, à luz do ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, enquanto sanção eficaz pela violação de um interesse merecedor de tutela. Isto porque, como a principal função da responsabilidade civil é remover o dano, naquelas hipóteses, não fosse a utilização de um remédio alternativo, o interventor faria seu o lucro da intervenção, no primeiro caso integralmente e, no segundo, no valor equivalente ao saldo entre o lucro obtido e a indenização que tiver que pagar à vítima. A tese pretende demonstrar que o problema do lucro da intervenção não deve ser solucionado por intermédio das regras da responsabilidade civil, devendo, portanto, ser rejeitadas as propostas de solução neste campo, como a interpretação extensiva do parágrafo único, do artigo 944, do Código Civil, as indenizações punitivas e o chamado terceiro método de cálculo da indenização. Como alternativa, propõe-se o enquadramento dogmático do lucro da intervenção no enriquecimento sem causa, outorgando ao titular do direito uma pretensão de restituição do lucro obtido pelo ofensor em razão da indevida ingerência em seus bens ou direitos. Defende-se que a transferência do lucro da intervenção para o titular do direito tem por fundamento a ponderação dos interesses em jogo à luz da Constituição Federal, com especial atenção ao princípio da solidariedade, e da teoria da destinação jurídica dos bens. A tese procura demonstrar, ainda, que o ordenamento jurídico brasileiro não exige um efetivo empobrecimento do titular do direito para a configuração do enriquecimento sem causa e que a regra da subsidiariedade não impede a cumulação de ações, de responsabilidade civil para eliminar o dano (e no limite do dano), e de enriquecimento sem causa, para forçar a restituição do saldo positivo que permanecer no patrimônio do ofensor após o pagamento da indenização, se houver. Finalmente, a tese pretende provocar a discussão acerca da quantificação do objeto da restituição, propondo alguns critérios que deverão orientar o aplicador do direito.
The present study aims to demonstrate that when someone profits by interfering In: another persons rights without causing damage to the victim, or when the act does cause damage but the benefits so obtained are greater than the damage caused, tort rules alone are not enough, under Brazilian Law, as an efficient sanction for violation of an interest or right that deserves protection. Since the maIn: function of civil liability rules is to redress the damage, or make the victim whole, without an alternative remedy the wrongdoer would keep the benefits wrongfully obtained, fully In: the first case and In: the second case to the extent of the difference between the profits obtained and damages paid to the victim. I aim to show that the problem of benefits wrongfully obtained cannot be solved through tort rules alone, and some proposed measures In: this area, such as expansive interpretation of Article 944, sole paragraph, of the Civil Code, punitive damages and the so-called third method of quantifying damages should be rejected. As an alternative, I propose framing the question of benefits wrongfully obtained withIn: the rules on unjust enrichment, granting the victim the right to claim restitution of benefits obtained by the wrongdoer by interference In: the victims assets or rights. I argue that the transfer of the benefits wrongfully obtained to the victim should be based on a balance of conflicting interests In: light of the Federal Constitution, with special attention to the solidarity principle and on the theory of the juridical allocation of assets. Besides this, I argue that Brazilian law does not require the victim to suffer any kind of damage In: order to apply unjust enrichment rules and that the subsidiarity rule does not prohibit the filing of joint claims, a tort one to remedy the damage (limited to the actual damage caused) and an unjust enrichment one to force restitution of any positive balance that remains with the wrongdoer after payment of damages. Finally, I intend to stimulate discussions on how to quantify the amount of restitution In: these cases and offer some criteria that can guide judges.

This thesis is an investigation of a doctrine generally known as ‘failure of consideration’, but which I term ‘failure of condition’. I have two principal aims. First, to clarify quite what the doctrine of failure of condition is. Secondly, to explain why it has the effects it does – in particular, why it justifies the response of restitution. The doctrine, at core, concerns conditional transfers: when a transfer is made conditionally, and the condition fails, the transfer can be recovered. For this reason, I term the doctrine ‘failure of condition.’ I investigate the nature of this relationship and argue that the reason why the transfer is conditional is that the agent’s intention to make the transfer was itself conditional. The justification of restitution is a more complex affair than is customarily accepted – but there is a valid justification lurking not far from the surface of orthodoxy. A secondary concern of the thesis is to re-examine an old theory in the field of common mistake, frustration and termination following a breach of contract. It used to be thought that these doctrines could be explained by failure of condition. That theory has fallen out of favour – it seems that no one accepts it today. This rejection rests upon a confusion over the nature of the doctrine of failure of condition. Once the nature of this doctrine has been clarified, we can see how closely the various doctrines align with one another; we can also see where the true difficulty with the failure of condition explanation lies.

This thesis is about corporate attribution in private law. Unlike human persons, companies are artificial legal persons. They lack a physical body with which to act, and a mind with which to think. English law therefore developed the concept of attribution so that legal rules could be applied to companies. Attribution is the process of legal reasoning by which the acts and states of mind of human individuals acting for a company are treated as that of the company, so as to establish the company’s rights against and obligations owed to other parties. This thesis examines the rules of attribution across the private law of obligations, focusing on the law of contract, tort, unjust enrichment, and selected aspects of equitable liability. Three main arguments are made in this thesis. First, there is a sharp distinction between the rules of attribution and the substantive rules of private law to which they apply. The former belongs in the law of persons, and it concerns when the acts and states of mind of an individual can be attributed to a company. The latter belongs in the law of obligations. Second, the same rules of attribution should be, and have largely been used across the entire expanse of private law. Regardless of the area of private law in which the question of attribution arises, the same question is being asked, and so the law’s answer should be the same. Like should be treated alike. This is normatively desirable, because it ensures coherence across private law. Third, it is therefore possible to state the rules of attribution that apply in private law. The acts of an individual A will be attributed to the company C where they were (i) specifically authorised (‘specific authority’), (ii) where A performs an act within the class of acts that A has power to do on behalf of C, even if A is acting in breach of duty (‘actual authority’), or (iii) where A has either been placed in a position or been held out by C such that a reasonable person in the position of a third party would reasonably believe that A had the power to act for C (‘apparent authority’). A’s knowledge will be attributed to C where it is material to the class of acts that A had specific or actual authority to do on behalf of C. Although commonly thought to be a series of diverse, disparate rules found in different doctrines and different areas of law, the rules of attribution form a remarkably coherent, consistent whole across private law.

Thesis (LLM)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
Includes bibliography
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It is a general principle of the law of South Africa that an unassisted contract of a minor is unenforceable against the minor. Although it binds the other party, the minor is not bound. The minor will only be bound if the contract is enforced by his guardian, or if the contract is ratified by the child after attaining majority. This implies that the other party is in a rather unfortunate position, since the effectiveness of the contract will remain uncertain until the guardian of the minor decides to enforce or repudiate the contract, or until the minor ratifies it after attaining majority. The other party may not resile from the contract during this interim period. Should it be established that the contract has failed, the question arises to what extent the parties are obliged to return performances made in purported fulfilment of the contract. In terms of the law of South Africa, the prevailing view is that these claims are based on unjustified enrichment. However, the extent of these claims differs. In principle, both parties’ liability will be limited to the amount remaining in its estate, according to the defence of loss of enrichment. But the application of the defence is subject to an exception that does not apply equally to the parties. Had the other party known or should the other party have known that the enrichment was sine causa, yet continued to part with it, he will be held liable for the full enrichment. However, this exception does not apply to the enrichment liability of minors. In other words, whether the minor knew or should have known that the enrichment was sine causa, he would still be allowed to raise the defence of loss of enrichment. Furthermore, the rules applicable to minors’ enrichment liability applies to all minors, and no scope is left to consider the specific circumstances of each minor. It is accepted that there are two competing principles relating to minors’ unassisted contracts. On the one hand, the law must protect the minor from his immaturity and lack of experience. On the other hand, the law must protect the interests of the other party. It will be seen throughout this study that the determination of how to balance these competing principles is not an easy task. The key aim of this thesis is to investigate the principles governing the unwinding of unassisted minors’ contracts in South Africa. A comparison will be made with the principles applied in other legal systems, in order to identify similarities and differences in the approaches and, to establish what underlies the differences in the various approaches. Germany, England and Scotland have been chosen for comparison for various reasons. First, they share some historical roots, and they represent three major legal traditions, namely the civil law, common law and mixed legal systems, of which South Africa also forms part. Secondly, both England and Scotland have experienced recent legislative reform in this regard, which implies that their respective legal systems should be in line with modern tendencies, and consequently they may provide a valuable framework for possible reform in South Africa. In Germany, although mainly regulated by rather older legislation, there have been interesting developments in the determination of consequences of failed contracts. Hellwege has argued that the unwinding of all contracts should be treated similarly, regardless of the unwinding factor. He has also suggested that in order to prevent the accumulation of risk on one party, and to ensure that the risk is placed on the person who is in control of the object, the defence of loss of enrichment should not be available to any party. His reasoning and suggestions is dealt with in more detail in this thesis. This study argues that the current strict approach applied under South African law regarding minors’ unassisted contracts needs to be re-considered. The current approach is dated and is not in line with modern tendencies and legislation. No proper consideration is given to minors’ development into adulthood or personal circumstances of the parties. It is submitted that in the process of re-consideration, some form of acknowledgement must be given to minors’ development towards mature adults. It is submitted that this would be possible by introducing a more flexible approach to regulate the enforceability and unwinding of minors’ unassisted contracts.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING Dit is ‘n algemene beginsel van die Suid-Afrikaanse reg dat ‘n kontrak aangegaan deur ‘n minderjarige sonder die nodige bystand van sy ouer of voog onafdwingbaar is teenoor die minderjarige. Die minderjarige sal slegs gebonde wees indien die kontrak afgedwing word deur sy voog, of indien die minderjarige self die kontrak ratifiseer nadat hy meerderjarig word. Dit impliseer dat die ander party in ‘n ongunstige posisie is, aangesien die werking van die kontrak onseker is totdat die voog besluit om die kontrak af te dwing of te repudieer, of totdat die minderjarige dit ratifiseer nadat hy meerderjarig word. Gedurende hierdie interim periode mag die ander party nie terugtree uit hierdie kontrak nie. Sou dit bepaal word dat die kontrak misluk het, ontstaan die vraag tot watter mate die partye verplig word om prestasies wat reeds gemaak is, terug te gee. In terme van die Suid-Afrikaanse reg is die meerderheidsopinie dat hierdie eise gebaseer is op onregverdige verryking, maar die omvang van die partye se eise verskil. In beginsel is beide partye se aanspreeklikheid beperk tot die bedrag wat steeds in sy boedel beskikbaar is, weens die beskikbaarheid van die verweer van verlies van verryking. Maar die toepassing van die verweer is onderworpe aan ‘n uitsondering wat nie op beide partye geld nie. Indien die ander party geweet het of moes geweet het dat die verryking sine causa was, maar steeds afstand gedoen het van die verryking, sal hy aanspreeklik gehou word vir die volle verryking. Hierdie reel is egter nie van toepassing op die minderjarige se verrykingsaanspreeklikheid nie. Met ander woorde, indien die minderjarige geweet het of moes geweet het dat die verryking sine causa was, en steeds afstand gedoen het van die verryking, sal hy steeds die verweer van verlies van verryking kan opper. Bowendien, die reels van toepassing op minderjariges se verrykingsaanspreeklikheid is van toepassing op alle minderjariges, en geen ruimte word gelaat om die spesifieke omstandighede van elke minderjarige in ag te neem nie. Wanneer ons kontrakte aangegaan deur minderjariges sonder die nodige bystand, oorweeg, word dit algemeen aanvaar dat daar twee kompeterende beginsels van belang is. Aan die een kant moet die reg die minderjarige beskerm teen sy onvolwassenheid en gebrek aan ondervinding. Aan die ander kant moet die reg ook die belange van die ander party beskerm. Dit sal deurlopend in hierdie studie gesien word dat die behoorlike balansering van hierdie twee beginsels nie ‘n maklike taak is nie. Die hoofdoel van hierdie tesis is om die beginsels wat die afdwingbaarheid en ontbinding van minderjariges se kontrakte in Suid-Afrika, wat aangegaan is sonder die nodige bystand van ‘n voog, te ondersoek. ‘n Vergelyking sal getref word met die beginsels wat in ander regstelsels toegepas word, om sodoende die ooreenkomste en verskille te identifiseer, asook om te bepaal wat hierdie verskille onderlê. Duitsland, Engeland en Skotland is gekies as vergelykende jurisdiksies vir verskeie redes, naamlik hulle historiese gebondenheid en die feit dat hulle drie groot regstradisies (die kontinentale regstelsel, die gemenereg en die gemengde regstelsel) verteenwoordig. Bowendien het beide Engeland en Skotland onlangse wetgewende hervorming ondergaan in hierdie sfeer van die reg, wat impliseer dat hierdie regstelsels waarskynlik in lyn sal wees met moderne tendense. Gevolglik kan hulle ‘n waardevolle raamwerk skep waarbinne moontlike hervorming in Suid-Afrika mag plaasvind. Alhoewel Duitsland grotendeels nog deur ouer wetgewing gereguleer word, het dit ook ‘n reeks interessante verwikkelinge ondergaan in die bepaling van die gevolge van kontrakte wat misluk het. Hellwege argumenteer dat die ontbinding van alle kontrakte dieselfde hanteer moet word, ongeag die onderliggende ontbindende faktor. Hy stel ook voor dat om te verhoed dat die risiko op slegs een party geplaas word, en om te verseker dat dit eerder gedra word deur daardie party wat beheer het oor die voorwerp, die verweer van verlies van verryking nie vir enige party beskikbaar moet wees nie. Sy redenering en voorstelle word in meer besonderhede in hierdie studie bespreek. Hierdie studie argumenteer dat die huidige streng benadering wat in Suid-Afrika toegepas word met betrekking tot kontrakte aangegaan deur minderjariges sonder die nodige bystand van ‘n voog, heroorweeg moet word. Die huidige benadering is verouderd en is nie lyn met moderne tendense en wetgewing nie. Bowendien word geen behoorlike oorweging gegee aan minderjariges se ontwikkeling tot volwassenheid nie, en die partye se persoonlike omstandighede word ook nie in ag geneem nie. Daar word argumenteer dat in die proses van heroorweging, ‘n mate van erkenning gegee moet word aan minderjariges se persoonlike ontwikkeling. Daar word verder argumenteer dat ‘n meer buigsame benadering toegepas moet word ten opsigte van die regulering van die afdwingbaarheid en ontbinding van hierdie kontrakte.

O objetivo da dissertação é investigar os Pressupostos da Obrigação de Restituir o Enriquecimento sem Causa no Código Civil Brasileiro. O enriquecimento sem causa, que tem antecedentes romanos, é reconhecido no Brasil independente desde os tempos do Império, passou por uma rejeição quando do advento do Código Civil de 1916, que não o previu expressamente, porém retomou sua força ao longo do século XX, ao fim do qual já era corrente a opinião de que se tratava de fonte de obrigações autônoma. Na vigência do Código Civil de 1916 não havia unanimidade quanto à enumeração e ao preenchimento de sentido dos pressupostos da obrigação restituitória. Uma minoria dispensava os requisitos do empobrecimento e da correlação entre o enriquecimento e o empobrecimento em favor de um novo pressuposto, qual seja, o de que o enriquecimento se dê à custa de outrem. O Código Civil de 2002, nos arts. 884 a 886, regulou expressamente o enriquecimento sem causa como fonte de obrigação, sendo que os autores atuais têm em geral indicado como seus pressupostos a existência de um (i) enriquecimento que ocorra (ii) à custa de outrem sem (iii) justa causa e que (iv) não concorra com outro remédio jurídico (i.e., subsidiariedade), não sendo essenciais os requisitos do empobrecimento e da correlação. O estudo dos principais paradigmas cristalizados na doutrina estrangeira, especialmente na portuguesa e na alemã, permitiu a conclusão de que deve ser adotado o paradigma da divisão do instituto do enriquecimento sem causa, pelo qual se investigam os pressupostos da obrigação de acordo com as suas diversas categorias, a saber, no Brasil, o enriquecimento por prestação, o enriquecimento por intervenção e o enriquecimento por despesas efetuadas por outrem. O enriquecimento por prestação tem por pressupostos o (i) enriquecimento em sentido real que (ii) ocorre por prestação (iii) sem justa causa, entendida esta última como a frustração do fim da prestação. O enriquecimento por intervenção tem por pressupostos (i) o enriquecimento (ii) obtido à custa de outrem (iii) sem causa jurídica ou, mais analiticamente, o (i) enriquecimento em sentido patrimonial (ii) obtido pela intromissão em direitos de outrem, quando na verdade (iii) é reservado pela ordem jurídica ao titular da posição jurídica afetada. Já o enriquecimento por despesas efetuadas por outrem tem por pressupostos o (i) enriquecimento em sentido patrimonial cuja (ii) conservação seja vedada pelo ordenamento jurídico e que decorra de uma (iii) despesa efetuada por outrem, sendo a restituição limitada, na circunstância de o beneficio ser imposto, ao que resultar de dispêndios de necessários. A regra da subsidiariedade não consubstancia um pressuposto propriamente dito, pois não integra o suporte fático da obrigação restituitória, funcionando mais como uma norma de sobredireito que fixa o caráter especialíssimo dos arts. 884 e 885 do Código Civil, e tem um sentido concreto, ou seja, somente obsta a pretensão restituitória o meio jurídico alternativo que concretamente forneça a mesma solução que é garantida pelo instituto do enriquecimento sem causa. Por fim, pela análise de dois grupos de casos comuns na jurisprudência, concluiu-se que, por falta de familiaridade com a lei, os tribunais brasileiros, ao menos quanto aos casos pesquisados, ainda não deram efetividade ao enriquecimento sem causa como fonte de obrigação.
The purpose of the present thesis is to unveil the requisites of the obligation based on the law of restitution according to the Brazilian Civil Code. The law of restitution, which has its roots in the Roman law, has been acknowledged in independent Brazil since the 19th century. In spite of the fact that it has not been expressly stated in the Brazilian Civil Code of 1916, the authors throughout the 20th century have recognized the unjust enrichment as an obligation-creating event. Nevertheless, the doctrine under the Civil Code of 1916 was not unanimous regarding the enumeration and the content of the requirements of the restitutionary obligation. In fact, there was a minority that downplayed the requisites of both impoverishment and correlation between the enrichment and the impoverishment in favor of others, i.e., that the enrichment occurs at the plaintiffs expense. The rise of the unjust enrichment as an obligation-creating event had its climax with the publication of the 2002 Brazilian Civil Code. Specifically, its articles 884, 885 and 886 included the phenomenon amidst the source of obligations. Under the new Code, it has been generally assumed that the requisites underlying the unjust enrichment are the presence of an (i) unjust (ii) enrichment (iii) at the plaintiffs expense that (iv) does not compete with an alternative legal remedy (i.e., rule of subsidiarity). The requirements of impoverishment and correlation aforementioned were abandoned by most authors. An adequate answer to the questions regarding the requisites of the restitutionary obligation, however, demands the analysis of the paradigms crystallized in the foreign doctrine, especially of the German and Portuguese legislation. It has been concluded that the paradigm of the categorization of the unjust enrichment has to be adopted. In compliance with this perspective, the requisites underlying the restitutionary obligation have to be investigated pursuant to the different categories, namely the enrichment through transfers, the enrichment through interference and the enrichment through expenditures made by the plaintiff. The requisites of the restitution based on enrichment through transfers are (i) the enrichment in its objective sense that (ii) occurs through the performance of a conscious and goal oriented patrimonial increment in which it is evident (iii) the failure of this particular goal. Importantly, this goal is sought to be assessed objectively from the unilateral manifestation of the performer, in conformity to the good-faith principle. The restitution based on enrichment through interference has as requirements (i) the enrichment in its subjective sense (ii) obtained through the interference with the rights (iii) legally reserved to the plaintiff. Finally, the requirements of the restitution based on enrichment through expenditures made by the plaintiff are (i) the subjective enrichment (ii) that the law forbids and that is originated from (iii) an expense effectuated by the plaintiff. In the particular case of an imposed enrichment, the restitution is constrained to the incontrovertible benefits resulting from the act of the plaintiff. Because the subsidiarity rule does not integrate the fattispecie of the restitutionary obligation, it does not substantiate a requisite by itself. The subsidiarity rule functions rather as a secondary norm that determines the character of lex specialis of the articles 884 and 885 of the Civil Code. Additionally, the subsidiarity rule has a concrete character, i.e., the restitutionary pretensions are only prevented by an alternative legal remedy that offers an effective solution that is identical to the one ensured by the law of restitution.

This research critically analyses and compares how the United Arab Emirates (UAE)1 Law and English and Welsh (EW) Law regulates obligations in a contract, for a thing that is to come into existence in the future, namely a construction contract. Uncertainty/speculation as to how an obligation is to be performed in UAE Law is termed gharar. The word that is synonymous with this terminology in EW Law is “risk”. The extent of gharar or ‘risk’ (these terms are used on an interchangeable basis in this thesis) in an obligation plays a fundamental role in the profitability of a construction contract. Where losses become unacceptable, particularly for the Contractor, a dispute will arise. These circumstances may be in conflict with UAE Law, which obligates parties to a contract to ensure circulation of wealth by maintaining the anticipated profit to be made from a contract. This analysis also reviews how the level of gharar or ‘risk’ can be increased by operation of two types of provision that are included in standard forms of construction contract such as the International Federation of Consulting Engineers, Geneva, Switzerland (FIDIC) Conditions of Contract for Construction for Building and Engineering Works Designed by the Employer 1st Ed. 1999 (FIDIC99). The first is a provision that releases the Employer from liability where the Contractor does not give timely notice of an Employer’s act of prevention. The second is a provision giving the Employer a discretion to act in an opportunistic manner, and exempt or limit his liability. It considers how FIDIC99 should be applied to control gharar or ‘risk’ in a positive way. It also identifies similarities between how UAE Law controls gharar and that of the notion of parties’ reasonable expectations in contract Law (herein referred to as parties’ expectations), and how relational contracts operate to ensure parties achieve their expectations.

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The unjust enrichment in the Brazilian Civil Code is viewed as a source of obligations and a principle of Civil Law. The Civil Code of 2002 defined the term of unjust enrichment, in an innovative and autonomous manner, as a source of obligatons in the form of a unilateral act (arts. 884 to 886). At the same time, unjust enrichment existed before the publishing of this Code and remains in existance as a general principle of Civil Law. The present work has, as its objective, the analysis of historical aspects that resulted in the legal establishment of the term as a source of obligations, the main theories surrounding the theme, as well as the analysis of normative dispositions of the Brazilian Civil Code and its position in international judicial order, relating its fundamental principles to the manner in which it is applied. Therefore, the work intends to analyse the general characteristics of the term, its reach within Private Law, relating hypotheses of the configuration of the term expressed in the Brazilian Civil Code and examples of its application in Brazilian jurisprudence. The development of the project demonstrates that unjust enrichment has a large and growing importance in the Brazilian legal context, presenting itself as an important tool to render balance and justice to private dealings. The methodological direction used lies in judicial/dogmatic principles, since the intention is to analyse legal norms and their repercussion on the presented theme. In some aspects, it comes close to judicial/theoretical methodology, considering the social relevance that surrounds the term under scrutiny. As to the generic investigation types, the judicial/descriptive method predominates, since this work has, as its main objective, the interpretation of legal terms, not eliminating the possibility of judicial/progressive research, inasmuch as the study may lead to future tendencies concerning the application of the measure. The hypothetical/deductive method is applied, in which a theme is proposed and an analysis of the development of its characteristics is requested. The conclusions about the theme are relative and result from the argumentation structure presented in this dissertation, without disconsidering the fundaments of other studies, especially because it is a term whose comprehension is increasing with every new day
Trata-se de análise sobre o enriquecimento sem causa no Código Civil brasileiro, como fonte de obrigação e como princípio de Direito Civil. O Código Civil de 2002 disciplinou, de forma autônoma e inovadora, o instituto do enriquecimento sem causa como fonte de obrigação na espécie de ato unilateral (arts. 884 a 886). Paralelamente, o enriquecimento sem causa já existia antes do advento deste Código e continua a existir como princípio geral do Direito Civil. O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar os aspectos históricos que resultaram na previsão legal do instituto como fonte de obrigações, as principais teorias acerca do tema, bem como a previsão em ordenamentos jurídicos estrangeiros. Pretende-se também a análise das disposições normativas do Código Civil brasileiro e sua contextualização no ordenamento jurídico, relacionando seu fundamento principiológico e critérios para sua aplicação. Objetiva-se, assim, a análise das características gerais do instituto, seu alcance no Direito Privado, relacionando-se hipóteses de configuração do instituto expressamente previstas no Código Civil brasileiro e exemplos de sua aplicação pela jurisprudência brasileira. O desenvolvimento do trabalho demonstra que o enriquecimento sem causa tem grande e crescente importância no contexto jurídico brasileiro, apresentando-se como ferramenta importante para conferir equilíbrio e justiça às relações privadas. A vertente metodológica utilizada é a jurídico-dogmática, uma vez que se pretende analisar as normas legais e sua repercussão na análise do tema apresentado. Em alguns aspectos, aproxima-se da metodologia jurídico-teórica, tendo em vista a relevância social que circunda o tema em debate. Quanto aos tipos genéricos de investigação, tem-se a predominância jurídico-descritiva, pois o presente trabalho tem como principal objetivo a interpretação dos institutos legais, não se podendo descartar a possibilidade de pesquisa jurídico-projetiva, na medida em que o estudo poderá conduzir às futuras tendências quanto à aplicação do instituto. O método utilizado é o hipotético-dedutivo, em que, a partir do tema fornecido, propõe-se a análise e desenvolvimento de suas características. As conclusões a respeito do tema são relativas e decorrem da estrutura dos argumentos apresentados nessa dissertação, sem que se desconsidere a fundamentação de outros estudos, principalmente por tratar-se de um instituto cuja compreensão é construída a cada dia

Le quasi-contrat est consacré comme une source autonome d’obligation dans le code civil. Pourtant, l’unité de la notion est problématique. En effet, la loi définit le quasi-contrat comme un fait volontaire dont il résulte un engagement alors que la doctrine le présente comme une notion à mi-chemin entre le contrat et la responsabilité civile extra-contractuelle en raison de l’application du régime contractuel en dehors d’un accord de volontés des parties. Or, en pratique, hormis la gestion d’affaires qui obéit au régime du mandat sans pouvoir exprès, l’enrichissement sans cause, (désormais enrichissement injustifié) et la répétition de l’indu n’obéissent pas à un régime contractuel. Si la doctrine a tenté de proposer le critère du transfert de valeurs dépourvu de cause pour justifier l’unité de la notion, ce critère se trouve mis à mal par la jurisprudence sur les loteries publicitaires. La thèse tente ainsi de rechercher une nouvelle unité, recherche qui s’avère difficile, voire impossible, dans la mesure où chaque quasi-contrat répond à des règles tantôt propres au contrat, tantôt propres à la responsabilité civile extra-contractuelle, ce qui vient alors fausser l’autonomie du quasi-contrat
Quasi-contracts are set as an autonomous part of the civil code, yet the notion answers to no unity. Law defines the notion as a voluntary fact leading to bind its author but scholars are considering quasi-contracts to be halfway between contract law and tort law due to the lack of will leading nevertheless to binding obligations. Practice shows that, except for the business management based on a mandate without any express will, the other quasi-contracts, unjust enrichment and repetition of undue do not follow any contractual regime. Scholars have attempted to propose the transfer of value for explaining the unity of the notion but this criterion is no longer relevant since cases creating a new quasi-contracts: lotteries. This work aims to discover a new criterion to find back unity of quasi-contracts. Impossible task as each quasi-contract shares common aspects of contract law and of tort law

The dissertation examines the enforcement of monetary claims in cases of intellectual property rights infringement. It focuses on the Act n. 221/2006 Sb. on the enforcement of intellectual property and on the directive 2004/48/EC of the European parliament and of the Council. The main aim is to evaluate the extent of monetary claims especially with regard on possible overlap or mutual consumption of the claims.The second aim is the analysis of English terminology in relation to the nearest Czech equivalents. The dissertation uses methods of logic induction and abstraction and the international multilateral comparative method, where the use of language plays a crucial role. The exact method of modelling combined with mathematical game theory is used. The dissertation progressively explains terms and relevant enactments. It introduces existing ambiguities. It tries to clarify them by analysing the EU legislation, the implementations in different member states, the statutory and common law in the USA. Consecutively it focuses on unjust enrichment in English law, then in the USA and in the continental system, where this institute is set negatively -- as the unjustified enrichment. Within the whole thesis the analysis takes place in relation to intellectual property rights infringement. In the penultimate chapter, TRIPS and ACTA are compared with the directive 2004/48/EC to provide further explanations. The dissertation concludes that a parallel award of damages and infringer's profits theoretically is possible, when it is not a single flow of value which is concerned by the infringement. The dissertation negatively replies to the question if damages and infringer's profits may be awarded concurrently in two separate lump-sum amounts according to § 5 (2) or (3) of the Act n. 221/2006 Sb. The reason is that the rate of the royalty is applied to sales of the infringer. These sales relate to the unjust enrichment of the infringer. If damages were again calculated by applying the same rate to the same sales, that would be double recovery. But theoretically this possibility cannot be excluded. A real-world example is very hard to find, even in the non-lump-sum form. Collateral sales awarded with lost profit in US law may serve as one. From the EU documents it seems, that infringer's profits is equalled to unjust enrichment and that is translated as unjustified enrichment. But English theory distinguishes restitution of unjust enrichment and gain-based recovery for wrong, the latter encompassing the award of infringer's profits in the form of damages. The broader Czech notion of unjustified enrichment is not to be equalled to unjust enrichment in the pure English notion, because the former encompasses also intentional wrongs. With regard to the restitution of infringer's profits based on unjust enrichment, the intent plays a role. The broader notion of unjust enrichment relevant to intellectual property rights infringement is called interceptive unjust enrichment, where enrichment "from the property of the plaintiff" is at stake and it is also possible to claim profits gained by the infringement. Focus is on the enrichment "from the property", not on the wrong. The dissertation examines the terms "account of profits", apportionment of profits", "disgorgement" and impure negotiorum gestio with regard to intellectual property infringement. In several countries reasonable royalty is regarded as good measure of net gain from the infringement of intellectual property. When the infringement was not innocent or wilful, it's possible to claim not only the objective enrichment but also the subjective enrichment -- profits of the infringer. In Czech law, that is represented by the emoluments from the enrichment. The aim of the last chapter is to evaluate, in the context of the operation of other relevant elements of legal environment, the preventive function of the double royalty claim introduced by the Act n. 221/2006 Sb. By construing a game theory model and using simulation, the thesis concludes that in lower royalty intervals, where attorney's costs are a high burden, the effect of the double royalty is insignificant. Where "more significant infringements" are at stake, and the royalty passes a given frontier, the application of the double royalty heightens the preventive function of the Act. Those "more significant infringements" have two intervals -- with the highest effect of the double royalty and with the "stabilized effect of the double royalty". But overall, in cases of "more significant infringements", the application of the double represents a heightening of the preventive power by a third and fifth respectively, and this is true only in the case, where the prospective infringers would try to calculate the effect of their infringement before infringing.

Trata-se de dissertação de mestrado acadêmico cujo problema de pesquisa consiste na identificação de soluções e respectivos fundamentos jurídicos para a reparação do dano sofrido pelo genitor aparente que é indevidamente obrigado ao pagamento de alimentos, considerando tratar-se de verba irrepetível. Foi utilizado como método de abordagem o hipotético-dedutivo e como métodos de procedimento o monográfico e o histórico. O trabalho foi dividido em três capítulos. O primeiro capítulo foi destinado ao aprofundamento do estudo da obrigação alimentar, com abordagem da evolução histórica, características, classificações, pressupostos, presunção de paternidade, alimentos gravídicos e, por fim, a identificação do dano consubstanciado na constatação da imposição do dever alimentar a destinatário ilegítimo. O segundo capítulo propôs uma solução ideal, que consiste no dever de reparação do dano pelo genitor verdadeiro, analisando inicialmente a possibilidade de imputação de responsabilidade objetiva, mas concluindo, por fim, estar no enriquecimento sem causa o fundamento adequado. O terceiro capítulo apresentou soluções subsidiárias, para o caso de desconhecimento do genitor verdadeiro, buscando imputar o dever de reparação à genitora que age culposamente ao indicar o alimentante errado em juízo. Para tanto, quatro possíveis fundamentos foram cogitados: enriquecimento sem causa, abuso de direito e responsabilidades civis subjetiva e objetiva, concluindo-se que, em todos os casos, haverá responsabilidade objetiva da genitora guardiã ou gestante, embora ainda impositiva a irrepetibilidade quando presente a boa-fé da agente.
This is an academic master's thesis which research problem consists in the identification of solutions and respective legal grounds for the relief of the damage suffered by the apparent parent who is improperly required to pay for the child support, considering that it is an unrepeatable sum. It was used as method of approach the hypothetical-deductive one and as method of procedure the monographic and historical ones. The work was divided in three chapters. The first chapter aimed the deepening of the study of child support obligation, with an approach to historical evolution, characteristics, classifications, assumptions, presumption of paternity, child support during pregnancy, and, finally, the identification of the damage consubstantiated in the obligation of the imposition of paying the child support to an illegitimate child. The second chapter proposed a idealsolution, consisting of the obligation to repair the damage by the true parent, which initially examined the possibility of imputation of strict liability, but finally concluded that unjust enrichment was the appropriate basis. The third chapter presented subsidiary solutions, in the case of ignorance of the true parent, seeking to impute the duty of reparation to the mother who acts guilty by indicating the wrong parent in court. In order to do so, four possible reasons have been considered: unjust enrichment, abuse of rights and liability and strict liability, and it is concluded that in all cases there will be strict liability of the female custodian or pregnant mother, although still impositive the unrepeatable when present the good faith of the agent.

Nel luglio 2017, la Cassazione civile a sezioni unite ha pronunciato una sentenza con cui è stata ammessa la delibabilità delle sentenze straniere di condanna ai punitive damages. La Cassazione non ha, però, limitato la propria attenzione al solo profilo di diritto internazionale privato, ma si è spinta a statuire che «nel vigente ordinamento […] sono interne al sistema la funzione di deterrenza e quella sanzionatoria del responsabile civile». Tale affermazione ha offerto l’abbrivo alla presente ricerca, che è stata svolta in riferimento al sistema completo del diritto civile (responsabilità civile, responsabilità cosiddetta “relazionale” e conflitti appropriativi di risorse in contesti proprietari). La ricognizione problematica e la conseguente analisi sistematica svolte mostrano che il ruolo della funzione punitiva nel sistema di diritto civile è assai limitato: i tradizionali istituti del diritto civile appaiono idonei a presidiare gli interessi che fanno capo ai privati, di conseguenza mancando cogenti ragioni da porre a fondamento di una operazione di riconfigurazione del loro statuto in senso punitivo. Se gli esiti della ricerca suggeriscono che la sanzione nel diritto civile, de iure condito, non assurge a una categoria generale e, de iure condendo, non è assistita da ragioni che ne impongano una maggiore centralità, nondimeno essi hanno anche delineato la possibilità per la funzione punitiva di assolvere un certo ruolo euristico, modesto ma non banale, e che opera tanto in negativo (cioè nel senso di escludere eccentrici esiti interpretativi), quanto in positivo (cioè nel senso di porre l’opportunità di una innovazione sistematica).
In July 2017, the Civil Court of Cassation, Joint Sections issued a judgment opening to the exequatur of punitive damages award rendered by foreign courts. However, the Supreme Court did not limit its attention to the profile of private international law but went so far as to state that «in the current legal system, […] the functions of deterrence and punishment are inherent in the system». This dictum prompted the present research, which has been carried out with reference to the civil law system as a whole (tort law, so-called “relational” liability, and appropriative conflicts of resources in proprietary contexts). The problematic survey and the consequent systematic analysis carried out show that the role of the punitive function in the civil law system is very limited. The traditional civil law institutions appear capable of protecting private interests, thus the lack of compelling reasons to reconfigure them in a punitive sense. The main research results show that: de lege lata, punishment in private law does not rise to a general category; and de lege ferenda, there is no ground to promote a greater scope for it. Nevertheless, they have also outlined the possibility that punitive function plays a heuristic role – modest but not trivial – which may operate both in the negative (i.e., excluding eccentric interpretative outcomes), and in the positive (i.e., posing the question of a possible systematic innovation).

The thesis deals with monetary remedies in intellectual property infringement suits, focusing on industrial property rights. On the background of enacting of the czech Act number 221/2006 Sb. which implements the directive 2004/48/EC of the European parliament and of the Council, the thesis compares these two texts with each other and also with the proposal for the directive KOM(2003) 46 final in their relevant parts. By doing this, it evaluates the directive and the czech act as the directive's implementation. This evaluation represents the secondary aims of the thesis. Comparison, analysis of factual articles and interviews with relevant experts practicising in the area show that by setting the damages as double the "customary" royalties, the czech Act in his § 5 ods. 2 represents a sanction, which confirms the hypothesis of the prevailance of an analogy between the czech provison and the punitive damages in american law. This fact creates scope for the hypothesis of existance of further analogies, the verification of which is the central aim of the thesis. Therefore, the second part of the thesis analyzes american provisions of the United States Code concerning copyright, trademark and patent law, and related caselaw. This is compared both to the directive and the proposal for it, moreover to the czech copyright Act number 121/2000 Sb. and in particular to the czech Act number 221/2006 Sb. The third part supplements the analysis of relevant czech court decisions. The second and third part identify similar and distinct elements of the provisions and reveal analogies in seemingly different institutes. Differences are spotted in the construct used to achieve the punitive function, furthermore between the terms "customary royalty" and "reasonable royalty" and also between the terms "bezdôvodné obohatenie", "infringer's profits" and "unjust enrichment". Conversely, an analogy is identified between the discretionary power of american courts to increase proven damages or determine statutory damages and the czech institute of "primerané zadosťučinenie" (appropriate satisfaction). The prevailance of prohibition of double recovery is another existing analogy between the american and czech law.

La Constitución de la República del Ecuador, promulgada en octubre de 2008, reconoció el enriquecimiento injusto como parte de la naturaleza de las relaciones laborales y, a la vez, estableció que, de incurrir en ella, la persona responsable sería sancionada y penalizada conforme a la ley. Al hacer una revisión general del enriquecimiento injusto pudimos advertir que está presente en la mayoría de los ordenamientos jurídicos que provienen del derecho romano y del common law. Cuando pretendimos estudiarla a partir del derecho laboral, encontramos que, hasta la presente fecha, no se había realizado prácticamente ninguna aproximación que permitiera determinar su viabilidad en esta rama, de naturaleza tuitiva. De la misma manera, tampoco pudimos encontrar los supuestos en los que se puede configurar, sin perjuicio de que en el Derecho civil patrimonial pudimos apreciar que existe un amplio desarrollo de esta, lo que fue un elemento determinante para esta investigación. El enriquecimiento injusto es una figura que puede ser estudiada desde diversas ramas del derecho, ya que su finalidad consiste en que las relaciones jurídicas sean equitativas para las partes, tanto en su participación como en el resultado que obtengan de ellas. Este trabajo toma como punto de partida la disposición constitucional ecuatoriana y pretende establecer si el enriquecimiento injusto, por su propia naturaleza jurídica, puede ser aplicable en el derecho laboral español y en el ecuatoriano. El problema surge a partir del momento en que el legislador ecuatoriano, pese a que la disposición constitucional forma parte del ordenamiento jurídico desde hace más de diez años, no ha dictado ninguna ley que regule su aplicación a su interpretación, unido al hecho de que en España no se localiza ninguna regulación legal respecto a esta figura en el ordenamiento jurídico. Por ello, el presente trabajo inicia con el estudio doctrinario y jurisprudencial del enriquecimiento injusto desde el derecho civil patrimonial para así estar en capacidad de trasladarla al Derecho laboral y, de esta manera, poder identificar su ámbito de aplicación y los requisitos necesarios para su procedencia, para lo cual circunscribimos el objeto de estudio en las legislaciones de España y Ecuador, sin perjuicio de que para casos puntuales nos refiramos a alguna legislación comparada diferente. De la misma manera, pretendemos encontrar los fundamentos que llevaron al constituyente ecuatoriano a incorporarlo en el ordenamiento jurídico, y planteamos posibles soluciones a las problemáticas encontradas.
La Constitució de la República de l'Equador, promulgada l'octubre de 2008, va reconèixer l'enriquiment injust com a part de la naturalesa de les relacions laborals i, alhora, va establir que, en cas d'incórrer en ella, la persona responsable seria sancionada i penalitzada conforme a la llei. En fer una revisió general de l'enriquiment injust vam poder advertir que és present en la majoria dels ordenaments jurídics que provenen del dret romà i del Common Law. Quan vam pretendre estudiar-la a partir del dret laboral, ens vam trobar que, fins avui dia, no s'havia realitzat pràcticament cap aproximació que permetés determinar la seva viabilitat en aquesta branca, de naturalesa tuïtiva. De la mateixa manera, tampoc vam poder trobar els supòsits en els quals es pot configurar, sense perjudici que al Dret Civil Patrimonial vam poder apreciar que existeix un ampli desenvolupament d'aquesta, la qual cosa va ser un element determinant per a aquesta recerca. L'enriquiment injust és una figura que pot ser estudiada des de diverses branques del dret, ja que la seva finalitat consisteix en el fet que les relacions jurídiques siguin equitatives per a les parts, tant en la seva participació com en el resultat que obtinguin d'elles. Aquest treball pren com a punt de partida la disposició constitucional equatoriana i pretén establir si l'enriquiment injust, per la seva pròpia naturalesa jurídica, pot ser aplicable al dret laboral espanyol i a l'equatorià. El problema sorgeix a partir del moment en què el legislador equatorià, malgrat que la disposició constitucional forma part de l'ordenament jurídic des de fa més de deu anys, no ha dictat cap llei que reguli la seva aplicació a la seva interpretació, unit al fet que a Espanya no es localitza cap regulació legal respecte a aquesta figura en l'ordenament jurídic. Per això, el present treball inicia amb l'estudi doctrinari i jurisprudencial de l'enriquiment injust des del dret civil patrimonial per així estar en capacitat de traslladar-la al Dret Laboral i, d'aquesta manera, poder identificar el seu àmbit d'aplicació i els requisits necessaris per a la seva procedència. Per aquest motiu circumscrivim l'objecte d'estudi a les legislacions d'Espanya i l'Equador, sense perjudici que per a casos puntuals ens referim a alguna legislació comparada diferent. De la mateixa manera, pretenem trobar els fonaments que van portar al constituent equatorià a incorporar-lo en l'ordenament jurídic, i plantegem possibles solucions a les problemàtiques trobades.
The Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador promulgated on October 2008, acknowledged the legal figure of “unjust enrichment” as part of labor relations and sanctioned such conduct accordingly. As a result of an overall review of the unjust enrichment figure across civil law and common law legal systems, we noticed that such figure has been regulated or acknowledged in most of them. From a labor law perspective, we could not find comprehensive analyses or studies on the compatibility of this legal figure with the protective nature of this field of law. Furthermore, we did not find precedents and sufficient guidance to establish the legal scenarios under which this legal figure could be materialized (nonetheless, we note that the Civil Property Law has explored this concept extensively). This situation was a crucial and decisive factor to carry out this research. The unjust enrichment figure can be understood and studied by different fields of the law as it aims to achieve fair and equitable treatment and results for all parties involved. The starting point of this research is the Ecuadorian constitution and we will analyze whether the unjust enrichment figure can be applicable to the Spanish and Ecuadorian labor law. The main complication for such task is the lack of regulation on this concept. The Ecuadorian lawmakers have not issue any secondary laws to regulate the interpretation or enforcement of unjust enrichment even though such figure has been part of the Ecuadorian legal framework for more than 10 years. Likewise, there are no specific provisions on unjust enrichment in the Spanish legal framework. In light of the above, this research starts with an analysis of the doctrine and jurisprudence of the unjust enrichment figure from a Civil Property Law perspective and its compatibility or applicability to Labor Law. We also aim to identify the scope of application and the requirements or characteristics that conform this legal figure under Spanish and Ecuadorian Law; nevertheless, we may refer to different jurisdictions for specific cases. Likewise, we intend to (i) identify the grounds and reasons that led the Ecuadorian lawmakers to incorporate this figure into the Ecuadorian legal system, and (ii) propose possible solutions to any problems identified along this research.

La subrogation est un mode privilégié de transmission des créances en assurance maritime. Elle met en présence les principaux acteurs du commerce maritime : l'assuré, l'assureur et le tiers responsable. La subrogation de l'assureur maritime a toujours bénéficié d'une faveur particulière se traduisant par la souplesse des textes juridiques aussi bien pour la subrogation légale qui s'exerce de plein droit par le seul fait de la loi, que pour la subrogation conventionnelle qui procède de la volonté des parties. Cependant, face aux exigences procédurales des juridictions, le contentieux de la subrogation tend davantage vers un durcissement. Dès lors, la question se pose de savoir s'il existe d'autres alternatives pour l'assureur maritime ? Le recours à l'arbitrage constitue une bonne solution au regard de la souplesse des sentences rendues en la matière. Aussi, la jurisprudence judiciaire fait état d'une grande évolution qui porterait les assureurs vers des moyens de droit commun, entre autres, la cession de créance, la répétition de l'indû et l'action "de in rem verso" pour pallier l'incertitude du contentieux de la subrogation. Sur le plan du droit international privé, il n'y a pas de règle spécifique à la subrogation de l'assureur maritime. Mais, les Règlements Rome I et Rome II édictent des mécanismes de conflits de lois applicables aux relations contractuelles et extra contractuelles. Ils désignent la loi qui régit la subrogation
Subrogation is a privileged mode of transmission of claims in marine insurance. It brings together key players in the maritime trade: the insured, the insurer and the third party responsible. Subrogation of the underwriter has always enjoyed a special favor resulting flexibility of legal texts both for subrogation exerted automatically by the fact of the law, for contractual subrogation which proceeds the will of the parties. However, faced with the procedural requirements of the courts, litigation of subrogation tends more toward a cure. Therefore, the question arises of whether if there are other alternatives to the underwriter? The arbitration is a good solution in terms of the flexibility of awards made in the matter. Also, judicial jurisprudence reported a great change that would insurers to ordinary means, among other things, the assignment, the repetition of the undue and action "de in rem verso" to overcome the uncertainty of litigation of subrogation. In terms of private international law, there is no specific rule of subrogation of the marine insurer. However, the Regulations Rome I and Rome II enact conflict mechanisms applicable to contractual and extra-contractual. They designate the law that governs subrogation

Après avoir quitté le monde de la réprobation, le concubinage a intégré l'ordre social et par suite, l'ordre juridique. Le concubinage est devenu l'une des conjugalités. Contrairement au législateur français, le législateur polonais n'a pas donné de définition du concubinage. Nonobstant cette différence, les éléments constitutifs du concubinage dans les deux systèmes légaux se ressemblent. Le concubinage se caractérise tant en France qu'en Pologne par: l'absence de lien juridique entre les concubins, la monogamie, la stabilité et la continuité et la communauté de vie. Dans les deux pays, le concubinage n'est pas juridiquement inorganisé. Le concubinage ne fait naître aucun droit ni obligation entre concubins, que ce soit sur le plan personnel ou patrimonial
After leaving the world of disapproval, concubinage has integrated the social order and consequently the legal order. In French law, cohabitation is legally defined. In Poland, a legal definition of cohabitation does not exist. Notwithstanding this difference, the elements of cohabitation in the two legal systems are similar. Cohabitation is characterized in France and in Poland by the absence of a legal relationship between partners, monogamy, stability and continuity, and community of life. In both countries, concubinage is not legally organized. Cohabitation does not create any rights or obligations between the cohabitants, whether in a personal, property or financial sphere. Property relationships of cohabitants and their liquidation pose many difficulties. In order to legally qualify the economic acts of the cohabitants, it is necessary to retrospectively analyse the facts

Mervärdesskatterättsligt särbehandlas omsättning av upphovsrätter genom tillämpning av en reducerad skattesats. I 7 kap. 1 § 3 st. 8-9 p. ML hänvisas direkt till upphovs­rättslagen för bedömningen av förekomsten av en upphovsrättsligt skyddad prestation och rättighetens övergång. Föreligger en mervärdesskatterättslig omsättning av eko­nomiska värden samtidigt med en upphovsrättsligt giltig upplåtelse eller överlåtelse av en upphovsrättsligt skyddad prestation ska omsättningen beskattas med en reducerad skattesats om sex procent. Uppsatsen utreder intrångsersättning enligt 54 § 1 st. URL i relation till det mervärdes­skatterättsliga omsättningsbegreppet och den reducerade skattesatsen i 7 kap. 1 § 3 st. 8-9 p. ML.  Ersättning enligt 54 § 1 st. URL ska erläggas då ett intrång i upphovsrätten kan konstateras. Ersättning ska alltid utgå oavsett god tro och även i fall där upphovs­mannen, genom t.ex. positiva sidoeffekter, tjänat på intrånget. I doktrin har det därför uttalats att ersättningen inte utgör skadestånd, något som lagstiftaren uttryckligen klassificerat den att vara. Vid en granskning av ersättningens karaktär och syfte i rela­tion till upphovsrättslagens regler för rättighetens övergång framgår att en upphovs­rättsligt giltig överlåtelse eller upplåtelse inte föreligger vid en transaktion som föranlett ersättningsskyldighet enligt 54 § 1 st. URL. Enligt 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML är detta en förutsättning för att transaktionen ska omfattas av den reducerade skattesatsen. I ett mervärdesskatterättsligt perspektiv står det emellertid klart att ersättning enligt 54 § 1 st. URL är tänkt att spegla de förhållanden som hade gällt om parterna ingått avtal på för­hand och att det finns ett ostridigt samband mellan ersättningens storlek och det faktiska nyttjandet av rättigheten. Således skulle ersättningen mervärdesskatterättsligt kunna jämställas med en upplåtelse av nyttjanderätt. För tillämpning av den reducerade skatte­satsen i 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML är ett jämställande med upplåtelse ur mervärdes­skatterättslig synpunkt emellertid inte tillräckligt. Mervärdesskattelagens ovillkorliga koppling till upphovsrättslagen i 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML medför att en upplåtelse ska prövas enligt upphovsrättslagens regler för rättighetens övergång. Den samlade slutsatsen av uppsatsens utredning är följaktligen att ersättning enligt 54 § 1 st. URL kan omfattas av det mervärdesskatterättsliga omsättningsbegreppet. Mervärdesskattelagens ovillkorliga koppling till upphovsrättslagen innebär emellertid att ersättningen inte kan omfattas av 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML och den reducerade skattesatsen om 6 procent. Ersättningen utbetalas till följd av ett intrång och avsaknaden av en uttrycklig överenskommelse hindrar en tillämpning av 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML.
VAT turnover of copyrights are subject to a reduced VAT-rate. In the Value added tax act (ML) the paragraph of 7 kap. 1 § 3 st.  8-9 p. ML refers directly to the Copyright act (URL) for the assessment of the existence of a copyright and, the sale or lease of such a right. If a taxable supply is at hand while, simultaneously, a legally valid lease or sale of a copyright can be established, the turnover is taxed at a reduced VAT-rate of six percent. The thesis investigates intrusion compensation under Article 54 § 1 st. URL relative to the value added tax turnover concept and the reduced rate in 7 kap 1 § 3 st.  8-9 p. ML. Compensation according to Article 54 § 1 st. URL must be paid when an infringement of copyright is at hand. Compensation should always be paid regardless of good faith and even in cases where the holder of the right has earned revenue by e.g. spin-offs. In the legal literature, it has therefore been expressed that Article 54 § 1 st. URL does not con­stitute damages, something that the legislature explicitly has classified it to be. When reviewing the character and purpose of the compensation in relation to URL, and its rules for the transition of the right, it is clear that a valid transition does not exist in a transaction that has prompted compensation under Article 54 § 1 st. URL. According to 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML, this is a prerequisite. For the transaction to be covered by the reduced VAT-rate, a valid transition, according to the general rules of the rights transition in URL, must be at hand. However, from a VAT-perspective, compensation under 54 § 1 st. URL is meant to reflect the conditions that would have been if the concerned parties had reached an agreement in advance. There is an undisputed link between the remuneration and the actual use of the right. Thus, the compensation could be deemed equal to a lawful lease of copyright. For the purposes of the reduced tax rate in 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML, an equation of the compensation to a lawful lease of copyright is not sufficient. The provision is directly connected to URL and any transition of copyright must therefore be examined under the URL's rules for the transition of rights. The overall conclusion of this thesis is therefore that compensation under 54 § 1 st. URL may be subject to VAT. However, due to the unconditional connection to URL, the turnover cannot qualify for the reduced tax rate of six percent stipulated in 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML. The compensation is paid as a result of an infringement of copyright and the absence of an explicit agreement prevents the application of the reduced tax rate in 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML.

This thesis is about attempts to provide a theoretical framework for the law of Restitution, a subject in which there is growing academic and judicial interest. Part I of the thesis considers the concept of "unjust enrichment", which is currently gaining the status of orthodoxy as an explanation of Restitution. The law of Restitution, perceived to be a third category, alongside contract and tort, of the law of obligations, is said to consist of liability rules uniformly explicable as having a purpose of the reversal of unjustly obtained or retained enrichment. As a brief historical survey of Restitution demonstrates, unjust enrichment theory is an a-historical attempt to unify and explain a very diverse range of topics. Part I goes on to consider what unjust enrichment means, specifically by considering the content given to the two most important parts of that concept: "unjustness", and "enrichment" or "benefit". A range of views as to the meaning of both parts are considered. None of these views or approaches, however, satisfactorily allows us to explain liability in many cases. Many cases said to be explicable on the basis of the reversal of unjust enrichment are not in fact so concerned. It is concluded that the concept of unjust enrichment is not useful as an explanation of much of the law of Restitution. In Part II of this thesis, the writer consequently seeks alternative ways of conceptualising Restitution. Rather than conceive of that subject as explicable in terms of one, unifying principle, the writer instead identifies four distinct categories of cases. Each category addresses very different types of problems, and is explicable in terms of distinct ideas. In the first category of cases, (Chapter 6) liability is imposed because of particular conduct of a defendant, where a plaintiff has relied on such conduct to his or her detriment. Liability is imposed on a defendant at least to return the plaintiff to his or her previous position before the offending conduct, and irrespective of whether the defendant has obtained any benefit. In the second category of cases (Chapter 7) liability may arise because parties share a common interest in a matter, which matter is affected by an unprovided for contingency. In such cases, the parties community of interest in the matter justifies the operation of a principle of "just sharing", which principle requires the parties to share gains and losses arising as a result of the contingency, according to their relative contributions to the matter in which they have the common interest. In the third category of cases (Chapter 8) liability may arise where a plaintiff has justifiably intervened in another's affairs, and seeks to recover the costs of such intervention from that other. Social policy concerns appear to be the most important factor in determining in which circumstances such recovery will ensue. In the fourth category of cases (Chapter 9) recovery is sought from an innocent defendant who have received something (money, goods or services) from a plaintiff. The plaintiff will be entitled to recover the money or goods, or obtain some form of remedial relief for the services conferred, where such remedial relief or recovery in no way leaves the innocent defendant at a disadvantage.

碩士
開南大學
法律學系
103
According to the different validity of Juristic act, it can be divided into two parts — the act of real right and the act of personal right.Normally,the act of personal right is the cause of the act of real right. However, it must occur a kind of situation where the act of real right is invalid but the act of personal right is effective. During that time, the original owner cannot follow returning petition right to ask return the original. So it must have to create a new system for adjust the relationship between the parties. Even in taking the traditional view, the principle of “comparisons between benefits and damages” does fully comply with the legal context as well as the purpose of legal norm.Lawyers are familiar with unjust enrichment system, and which is widely used in judicial practice.Nevertheless, there only are five articles in unjust enrichment which mainly are abstractions and are many kinds of statement in how to make it concrete. In Chapter II, there will emphasis on discuss the important of unjust enrichment which would like to clear when the theory has various version does the practice processing in our country will have same opinion or do their own way. Also, in certain situation, the beneficiary needs to be responsible for return the interest to the injured. In Chapter III, through data analysis shows the importance of unjust enrichment in practice does increases year by year or not. In Chapter IV, focusing on discuss the research of unjust enrichment among three persons in depth and expect when the opinion of theory and practice are different there should study by case mainly and the theory to get much appreciated opinion. In Chapter V, there is a section of conclusion in this paper which point out the attitude in system of unjust enrichment and the difference in theory and practice.All in all, this paper looks forward to see a better cooperate with theory and the court of decisions in the future; meanwhile, there is properly done the spirit of unjust enrichment to make existing unjust enrichment law be more accord with people’s enforcement experience in Taiwan.

碩士
國立雲林科技大學
科技法律研究所
107
This thesis mainly discusses the relevant theory of "Unjust enrichment in public law". There are a lot of reasons for the unjust enrichment in public law, this thesis focuses on the scope of administrative contract, how to request in administrative or people. Combine searching for relevant interpretation with the resolutions, judgments and circulars, etc., to be collated and analyzed. 　　The adjudication case No.8, 2017 by Improper Labor Behavior Adjudication Board, Ministry of Labor, which about TRA’s legal leave. Writing down with the Ministry of Labor as the defendant, filed a lawsuit to the Taipei High Administrative Court, acknowledging that the nature of the case was public law. However, the labor contract is a privately-owned labor contract, how could a civil servant apply for a labor ruling? It’s the case of this article. Outline of thesis: Chapter 1.Introduction Chapter 2.Basic theory of Unjust enrichment in public law Chapter 3.Basic theory of Administrative contract Chapter 4.Unjust enrichment in public law returning after invalidation of the administrative contract Chapter 5.Dispute over the exercise of the right with Unjust enrichment in public law Chapter 6.Case of Taiwan Railways Administration Chapter 7.Conclusion and Suggestion 　　Through the collation, research and analysis of this thesis, could have a clearer understanding of the current situation and practical application with Unjust enrichment in public law of the administrative contract.

碩士
國立臺北大學
法律學系一般生組
101
Lawyers are familiar with unjust enrichment system, and which is widely used in judicial practice. However, under the traditional view there are many of irregularity in the benefits’ concept and application. This paper not only point out the mistake of traditional view, but also try to put forward a new aspect-“Fluctuation of Benefits”. By the Fluctuation of Benefits, it could rearrange the appropriate content of benefits, avoid the foregoing disadvantages of the traditional view, simplify the identification of benefits, clear the effectiveness system of unjust enrichment claims, so that the existing unjust enrichment law may more in line with the law experience of the people of Taiwan. In the liability for the restitution of benefits, according to the Fluctuation of Benefits the controversy under the traditional view will cease to exist. Even in taking the traditional view, the principle of “comparisons between benefits and damages” does not fully comply with the legal context as well as the purpose of legal norm. Therefore, by this comparative analysis, the principle of “comparisons between benefits and damages” should really be considered the abolition of application. Look forward, this paper hope that in the future the court decisions will get rid of the traditional accustomed prejudice and truly implement the legal spirit of unjust enrichment-"removing improper benefits ", so that benefit recipients are no longer "unjust enrichment".

碩士
國立臺灣大學
法律學研究所
107
The thesis “The alteration of gains and losses in unjust enrichment for the infringement upon proprietary interests” mainly on how to definite and explain the requirements of unjust enrichment for the infringement upon proprietary interests. About the alteration of gains and losses, the thesis has two parts with that. The aim of the second chapter is to confirm the content of the property rights which is altered in case, in virtue of organizing and analyzing judicial judgements and scholars’ theories; in addition, introducing two causes of action of the law of restitution for defendant’s wrongs and claimant’s proprietary property right interfered by defendant in United Kingdom. Secondly, in the third chapter is about “The determination of the connection between gains and losses” , and with regard to the requirement of Civil Code Article 179 “A person who acquires interests without any legal ground and prejudice to the other”. The thesis points out the direct causation theory shall be replaced with direct connection. The reasons are not only distinguishing the purpose of unjust enrichment from the purpose of torts, but also the infringement upon other’s proprietary interests and receiving gain, equal to make the right holder suffer loss. Therefore, in the thesis, the process of identifying the alteration between gains and losses is: first, confirm what kind of interest or property right being altered in the case is; secondly, confirm the origin of the alteration of proprietary interests; third, determine the alteration of the attribution of proprietary interests, and establish the track of the alteration of interests; fourth, confirm the relative relationship between the gains and losses; fifth, determine whether the beneficiary has the legitimacy of the retained interest; and finally, determine whether there is a direct connection between the gains and losses

Collective administration of copyright, focusing on the unjust enrichment from the collective rights manager's point of view Key words: Collective administration, copyright, unjust enrichment This master's thesis is focused on the collective management of copyright in the Czech Republic and it especially focuses on the issue of claiming an unjust enrichment from the colletive administrator's perspective. The main aim of the theses is to introduce the aforementioned and systematically discuss the legal adjustments and the functioning of the institutions on both theoretical and practical levels. The theses is divided into two imaginary halves, the first half focuses on the collective administration of copyright in general terms, the second half deals with the enforcement of unjust enrichment by the collective administrator itself. The thesis is divided into ten chapters. The first chapter deals with the basic definitions of the concept of collective administration and it's inclusion into the Czech legal system as well as the definitions of the basic concepts and issues used in this area of law. The second chapter briefly discusses the history of collective administration in the world as well as in the Czech Republic. The third chapter describes the rights which are the subject of collective...

碩士
中原大學
財經法律研究所
106
ABSTRACT On July 12, 2016, the first Division Chief Judge Joint Meeting of July resolved to adopt the theory of summation for the subject matter of litigation regarding “inapplicable choice of law” in Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act - including error of fact in tax injunctions by revenue services - based on the principle of equity and the Taxpayer Rights Protection Act, which comes into effect on December 28, 2017. It is expected that this resolution will produce great impact on the implementation of Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act. Therefore, the present study explains the connection between unjust enrichment through public law and unjust enrichment through the Civil Code, fundamental theories of unjust enrichment in tax law, and the types of legal remedies available to taxpayers, leading into an investigation of the specificity of Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act in terms of administrative law and its practical issues. This study further discusses relevant theoretical bases, judicial practice, and opinions from academia. Based on the key points above, this study is structured as follows: Chapter 1, Introduction, explains the background, purposes, and methodology of this study and the definitions of the issues of interest herein to highlight the importance and of the legal bases of causes of action for tax refund in tax collection practice and issues that have arisen from such practice. Chapter 2, Legal Bases for Causes of Action for Tax Refund in Tax Law, explains the connection between the unjust enrichment system in public law and unjust enrichment in the Civil Code, the legal nature of causes of action for restitution of unjust enrichment in tax, and methods available to the public to request remedies from revenue services, so as to provide clear context to the issues raised thus far in this study. Chapter 3, On Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act, further discusses the reasons, nature, and elements of the amendment to Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act on January 21, 2009. Chapter 4, On Practical Issues of Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act, discusses common issues in tax collection practice. Chapter 5, Conclusions, summarizes arguments in previous chapters, submits the stance of this study, serve as the basis for future research, and offer reference for practical operations. Keywords：Unjust Enrichment in Public Law、Unjust Enrichment in Tax Law、Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act、The Right of Tax Refund、On Practical Issues of Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act、Elimination Time ABSTRACT On July 12, 2016, the first Division Chief Judge Joint Meeting of July resolved to adopt the theory of summation for the subject matter of litigation regarding “inapplicable choice of law” in Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act - including error of fact in tax injunctions by revenue services - based on the principle of equity and the Taxpayer Rights Protection Act, which comes into effect on December 28, 2017. It is expected that this resolution will produce great impact on the implementation of Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act. Therefore, the present study explains the connection between unjust enrichment through public law and unjust enrichment through the Civil Code, fundamental theories of unjust enrichment in tax law, and the types of legal remedies available to taxpayers, leading into an investigation of the specificity of Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act in terms of administrative law and its practical issues. This study further discusses relevant theoretical bases, judicial practice, and opinions from academia. Based on the key points above, this study is structured as follows: Chapter 1, Introduction, explains the background, purposes, and methodology of this study and the definitions of the issues of interest herein to highlight the importance and of the legal bases of causes of action for tax refund in tax collection practice and issues that have arisen from such practice. Chapter 2, Legal Bases for Causes of Action for Tax Refund in Tax Law, explains the connection between the unjust enrichment system in public law and unjust enrichment in the Civil Code, the legal nature of causes of action for restitution of unjust enrichment in tax, and methods available to the public to request remedies from revenue services, so as to provide clear context to the issues raised thus far in this study. Chapter 3, On Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act, further discusses the reasons, nature, and elements of the amendment to Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act on January 21, 2009. Chapter 4, On Practical Issues of Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act, discusses common issues in tax collection practice. Chapter 5, Conclusions, summarizes arguments in previous chapters, submits the stance of this study, serve as the basis for future research, and offer reference for practical operations. Keywords：Unjust Enrichment in Public Law、Unjust Enrichment in Tax Law、Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act、The Right of Tax Refund、On Practical Issues of Article 28 of the Tax Collection Act、Elimination Time

Dissertação de Mestrado em Ciências Jurídico-Forenses apresentada à Faculdade de Direito
O instituto da União de Facto tem vindo, progressivamente, a assumir uma grande importância no nosso ordenamento-jurídico. No entanto, ainda nos dias de hoje, se verifica uma grande discrepância na divisão de tarefas domésticas e nos encargos com a vida familiar. O desempenho das tarefas domésticas, bem como a ajuda na atividade comercial do outro companheiro e cuidado dos filhos, quando prestados de forma excessivamente onerosa e desproporcional, expõe a necessidade sentida no âmbito do Direito da Família, nomeadamente em caso de rutura União de facto, de uma regulação legal que vise nortear os efeitos patrimoniais que daí resultam. Isto assim, dada a discrepância verificada na situação patrimonial de cada unido de facto – o unido de facto de facto que, de forma exclusiva, se ocupa das tarefas do lar e do cuidado dos filhos vê-se numa situação desfavorável face àquele que não ajuda em casa pois este, trabalhando ou dedicando-se mais afincadamente ao trabalho, pode adquirir bens e aumentar o seu património. Esta desigualdade deve ser tutelada pelo Direito mas, como o legislador se remete ao silêncio, importa saber qual a via pela qual se deve optar para resolver estas questões. No casamento a questão é muito clara, a regulação destas situações é feita em artigo próprio para o efeito, mas, para a União de Facto, a solução não é unânime na doutrina e na jurisprudência. O casamento e a União de Facto, embora apresentem muitos pontos em comum, nomeadamente a afetividade e os laços que ligam o casal, apresentam igualmente muitas diferenças. Assim, não sendo assente na nossa jurisprudência e na nossa doutrina que é possível proceder à aplicação analógica das normas do casamento à União de Facto e, na ausência de qualquer regulamentação legal, as soluções dadas ao problema exposto encontram-se nos mais variados institutos de Direito Comum entre os quais, o instituto do enriquecimento sem causa.
The institute of cohabitation has progressively come to assume great importance in our legal system. However, even today, there is a large discrepancy in the division of domestic tasks and the burden of family life.The performance of domestic tasks, as well as helping the other partner in the commercial activity and taking care of children, when provided in an excessively onerous and disproportionate way, exposes the need felt within the scope of Family Law, namely in the event of a cohabitation rupture, of a legal regulation that aims to guide the patrimonial effects that result therefrom. In this sense, given the discrepancy verified in the patrimonial situation of each cohabitation partner - the partner who, exclusively, deals with the tasks of the home and the taking care of children is in an unfavorable situation compared to those who do not help at home, as they, working or dedicating themselves more diligently to work, can acquire goods and increase their assets. This inequality must be protected by law, but, as the legislator is silent, it is important to know which path should be chosen to resolve these issues.In marriage, the issue is very clear, the regulation of these situations is made in a specific article for the purpose, but, for the Cohabitation, the solution is not unanimous in doctrine and jurisprudence. Marriage and cohabitation, although they have many points in common, namely affection and the bonds that bind the couple, also present many differences. Thus, it is not based on our jurisprudence and on our doctrine that it is possible to proceed with the analogical application of the rules of marriage to the cohabitation and, in the absence of any legal regulation, the solutions given to the above problem are found in the most varied institutes of Common Law, including the institute of unjust enrichment.

Unjust enrichment under business law The aim of this work is to analyze the unjust enrichment with its overlap to commercial law. The introduction of the text summarizes the historical development of unjust enrichment from ancient Roman law provisions, including the Austrian General Civil Code and the Civil Code from 1950 up to the history of the currently effective codex published under no. 40/1964 Coll. This historical analysis points out certain analogies with the current regulation and the development of elements that are the foundation of today's unjust enrichment legislation. The following part of the work contains analysis of the current de lege lata legislation of unjust enrichment in the commercial law, the subsequent part constitutes the crucial part of this work that is concerned directly with unjust enrichment in the commercial law. First, it analyses the term of business contractual obligations, then it analyses the relationship between the Civil Code and the Commercial Code and finally it sums up the expert discussion relating to the unjust enrichment in the commercial law and subsequently the author presents his personal view of the problem and the effects of the unjust enrichment, especially on the question of limitation period, are considered briefly. The final chapter consists...