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Books on the topic 'Tumours; Cancers'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 15 February 2022

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1

Liu, Dongyou. Tumors and Cancers. Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2018. | Series: Pocket guides to biomedical sciences | “A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.”: CRC Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/b22275.

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Liu, Dongyou. Tumors and Cancers. Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2018. | Series: Pocket guides to biomedical sciences | “A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.”: CRC Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315120522.

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Liu, Dongyou. Tumors and Cancers. Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc, 2018. | Series: Pocket guides to biomedical sciences: CRC Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315120546.

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4

Liu, Dongyou. Tumors and Cancers. Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2018. | Series: Pocket guides to biomedical sciences | “A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.”: CRC Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781315120553.

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5

1939-, Jones E. L., and Young Jennifer A, eds. Tumours: Structure & diagnosis. London, England: Harvey Miller Publishers, 1991.

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6

Janes-Hodder, Honna. Childhood cancer: A parent's guide to solid tumor cancers. 2nd ed. Beijing: O'Reilly, 2002.

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7

M.J. van de Vijver. WHO Classification of Tumours of the Breast: IARC WHO Classification of Tumours, No 4. LYON, FRANCE: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2012.

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8

Del Regato, Juan A., 1909-, Spjut Harlan J. 1922-, and Cox James D. 1938-, eds. Ackerman and del Regato's Cancer: Diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. 6th ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1985.

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9

J, James Steven L., Sundaram Murali, and SpringerLink (Online service), eds. Imaging of Bone Tumors and Tumor-Like Lesions: Techniques and Applications. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2009.

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10

M, Lukeman John, and Ordóñz Nelson G, eds. Tumors of the lung. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1991.

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11

Boveri, Theodor. Concerning the origin of malignant tumours. [Cambridge, England]: The Company of Biologists, 2008.

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12

Cassidy, Jim, Donald Bissett, Roy A. J. Spence OBE, Miranda Payne, Gareth Morris-Stiff, and Madhumita Bhattacharyya. Skin cancers. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199689842.003.0023_update_001.

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Tumours of the central nervous system examines the epidemiology, aetiology, genetics and pathology of these heterogeneous tumours. Clinical presentation reflects the site of origin and rate of growth. Investigation usually comprises imaging (MRI superior to CT for most), and biopsy; requirement for additional staging depends on pathology. The treatment of low-grade gliomas may be delayed if small with few symptoms, otherwise surgery and/or radiotherapy. High grade gliomas may be managed with surgery, radiotherapy, and temozolomide chemotherapy in fit patients. Unfit patients should be offered supportive care only. Brief summaries are provided for management of ependymoma, pineal tumours, meningioma, germ-cell CNS tumours, pituitary tumours, CNS lymphoma, acoustic neuroma, medulloblastoma, and spinal cord tumours. Radiotherapy for primary CNS tumours is described along with its side effects, and chemotherapy for these diseases is reviewed. Brain metastases far outnumber primary brain tumours, with generally poor prognosis, but this relates both to the pathology and patient performance status. Appropriate treatment may include surgery, radiotherapy, and/or chemotherapy.
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Keshav, Satish, and Alexandra Kent. Gastrointestinal tumours. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0204.

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Gastrointestinal (GI) tumours can affect any part of the GI tract, and colorectal cancer is the most common. Throughout the GI tract, chronic inflammation seems to promote the development of neoplasia: for example, chronic reflux oesophagitis is linked to oesophageal adenocarcinoma; chronic Helicobacter pylori infection is linked to gastric cancer; chronic pancreatitis is linked to pancreatic cancer; cirrhosis is linked to hepatocellular cancer; chronic biliary inflammation is linked to cholangiocarcinoma; untreated coeliac disease is linked to intestinal lymphoma; and chronic inflammatory bowel disease is linked to colorectal cancer. Symptoms depend on the location of the tumour, and occur as a result of local anatomical disruption, with consequent functional consequences and, less frequently, as a result of hormonal, metabolic, and immune effects. Weight loss is a common symptom seen in the gastroenterology outpatient clinic, given the high overall incidence of GI tumours. Often, the associated symptoms will direct the doctor to the site of a possible underlying cancer. Anaemia is another non-specific finding with a strong association with luminal cancers. Patients with anaemia with or without weight loss will normally undergo upper and lower GI investigations, usually via oesophagogastroduodenoscopy and colonoscopy (either CT or endoscopic colonoscopy). In tumours that are difficult to identify or assess the malignant potential, PET scanning can provide a large amount of information. PET scanning is a nuclear medicine scanning technique that utilizes 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), which is taken up by metabolically active tissue. When combined with CT scanning it can provide information about both anatomical and metabolic activity. FDG is rapidly taken up by malignant tumours and, as a result, is often used for diagnosing, staging, and monitoring response in cancers.
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14

Hodgkiss, Andrew. Psychiatric consequences of particular cancers. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198759911.003.0004.

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Certain tumour types can cause psychopathology through direct biological mechanisms such as metastatic spread to the brain, release of onconeuronal antibodies, ectopic hormone secretion, or release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Lung cancers, adenocarcinoma of the pancreas, brain tumours, and ovarian tumours are considered in detail. Confusional states due to brain metastases, syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion, hypercalcaemia of malignancy, and anti-Hu encephalitis are found in lung cancers. Severe depression, due to interleukin-6 release and its actions on the HPA axis and tryptophan metabolism, is common in adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Anti-NMDA-receptor limbic encephalitis, clinically indistinguishable from acute schizophrenia, can complicate teratomas. Gliomas, pituitary tumours, and thyroid, adrenal, and testicular tumours can also disrupt mental health through various biological mechanisms described here.
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Cassidy, Jim, Donald Bissett, Roy A. J. Spence OBE, Miranda Payne, Gareth Morris-Stiff, and Madhumita Bhattacharyya. Gynaecological cancers. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199689842.003.0020_update_001.

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Genitourinary cancers examines the malignancies arising in the kidney, ureter, bladder, prostate, testis, and penis. Renal cancer has high propensity for systemic spread, largely mediated by overexpression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Treatments include surgery, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. Wilms tumour, a childhood malignancy of the kidney, warrants specialist paediatric oncology management to provide expertise in its unique pathology, staging, and treatment, often with surgery and chemotherapy. Cancer of the bladder and ureters, another tobacco related cancer, may present as either superficial or invasive disease. The former is managed by transurethral resection and intravesical therapy. The latter may require radical surgery, preoperative chemotherapy, or radiotherapy. Prostate cancer, the commonest male cancer, is an androgen dependent malignancy. It has attracted controversy with regards to PSA screening, and potential over treatment with radical prostatectomy. Division into low, intermediate, and high risk disease according to tumour grade, stage, and PSA helps in deciding best treatment, antiandrogen therapy for metastatic disease, radiotherapy and adjuvant hormone therapy for locally advanced disease, either surgery or radiotherapy for early intermediate risk disease, and active monitoring for low risk cases. Testicular cancer divides according to pathology into seminoma, nonseminomatous germ cell tumours (NSGCT), and mixed tumours, the latter two frequently producing tumour markers, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) and/or human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG). Stage I disease is managed by inguinal orchidectomy and surveillance or adjuvant chemotherapy. More advanced disease is managed by chemotherapy, with high probability of cure in the majority. Penile cancer, often HPV related, can be excised when it presents early, but delay in presentation may lead to regional and systemic spread with poor prognosis.
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Cassidy, Jim, Donald Bissett, Roy A. J. Spence OBE, Miranda Payne, and Gareth Morris-Stiff. Endocrine cancers. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199689842.003.0018.

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This chapter examines the aetiology, diagnosis, and management of malignant tumours of the oesophagus, stomach, and small intestine as well as those of the liver, pancreas, gallbladder and the biliary tree. It highlights the multidisciplinary approach to these tumours and illustrates the improved results now being seen through this approach.
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Ajithkumar, Thankamma, Ann Barrett, Helen Hatcher, and Natalie Cook. Cancers of unknown primary. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199235636.003.0017.

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Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) site is one of the 10 most frequent cancers, accounting for approximately 3–5% of all malignant tumours. Patients with CUP present with disseminated metastatic lesions for which a laboratory and clinical work-up fail to identify the primary site.CUP represents a heterogeneous group of mainly epithelial tumours with more or less unique clinical and biological behaviour....
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Bertz, Simone, and Arndt Hartmann. Pathology of bladder and upper urinary tract tumours. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0072.

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Bladder cancer is the most common malignant tumour of the urinary tract, with approximately 386,000 new cases worldwide per year, and is the fifth most common cancer in humans. Mortality rates range between 1.1 per 100,000 for women to 4 per 100,000 in men. Most bladder and urinary tract cancers are urothelial carcinoma. The remainder are squamous cell carcinoma (5%), adenocarcinoma (<5%) and other rare tumours (<1%). Around 5–10% of urothelial carcinoma are found in the upper urinary tract. Unlike the majority of malignant tumours in other anatomical sites, most urothelial carcinoma have a favourable prognosis. In patients with these tumours, long-term follow-up is crucial but costly (making bladder cancer one of the most expensive to manage). The current WHO classification system of 2004 reflects these molecular and clinical features by the definition of distinct categories for low and high-grade flat or papillary lesions.
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Gilbert, Mark R., and Roberta Rudà. Ependymal tumours. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199651870.003.0005.

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Ependymomas are uncommon central nervous system cancers that can arise in the supratentorial, infratentorial, or spinal cord region. Recently, there have been several seminal findings regarding the molecular profiles of ependymomas that have led to marked changes in the classification of this disease. In addition to the World Health Organization grading system that designates ependymomas based on histological appearance into grade I, II, or III, a new molecular classification with distinct entities within the three anatomical regions provides additional subtyping that has prognostic significance and may ultimately provide therapeutic targets. Ependymomas are typically treated with maximum safe tumour resection. Grade III tumours always require radiation treatment even with extensive resection. Radiation is also often administered to patients with grade II ependymomas. Grade I tumours typically receive radiation if there is extensive residual disease, but complete resection may be curative. Local radiation is optimal unless there is imaging or cytological evidence of dissemination in the cerebrospinal fluid. Chemotherapy is less well established although recent molecular findings may lead to subtype specific treatments.
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20

Bagrodia, Aditya, and Yair Lotan. Low and intermediate risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0076.

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Bladder cancer is a common disease that affects more males than females. Most bladder tumours are histologically typed as urothelial cell carcinoma, and these are best divided into cancers invading the muscularis propria and non-invasive malignancies confined to the bladder. The latter are the majority of cancers and include low risk, indolent cancers that may recur within the bladder but not progress to invasion or metastases, and a proportion that subsequently progress to muscle invasion. The risk of intravesical recurrence or progression to invasion from a non-invasive bladder cancer can be stratified as low, intermediate, and high using various pathological factors (such as tumour grade, stage, size, multiplicity, and the presence of carcinoma in situ). In this chapter, we will give an overview of bladder cancer and focus upon tumours at low or intermediate risk of developing future progression to invasion.
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21

Cassidy, Jim, Donald Bissett, Roy A. J. Spence OBE, Miranda Payne, and Gareth Morris-Stiff. Tumours of the central nervous system. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199689842.003.0022.

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22

Chapman, Hannah, and Christine Elwell. Ovarian and testicular cancer. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0328.

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Ovarian cancer is the fifth most common cancer in females in the UK. In contrast, testicular cancer is a rare disease: there were 2138 new cases of testicular cancer diagnosed in 2008 in the UK, and only 70 deaths. Ninety per cent of all ovarian cancers are of epithelial origin, although germ cell and sex cord–stromal cell tumours also occur. In contrast, 95% of testicular cancers are germ cell tumours, with stromal cell tumours and lymphomas making up the remaining 5%. This chapter discusses ovarian cancer and testicular cancer, including definitions of the diseases and their etiologies, typical symptoms, uncommon symptoms, demographics, natural history, complications, diagnostic approach, other diagnoses that should be considered, prognosis, and treatment.
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23

Zehnder, Pascal, and George N. Thalmann. Muscle-invasive bladder cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0078.

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In the United Kingdom, >4,000 people die of bladder cancer every year. This reflects around one-third of affected patients and occurs in those with primary metastatic disease, with invasion at presentation, and in persons whose tumour progresses to invasion from non-invasive disease. The outcome from invasive cancers has not dramatically altered over the last 30 years, due to a lack of screening programmes, a lack of advances in treatment, and the fact that many patients present with tumours at an advanced stage. Around 50% of patients with invasive disease die from bladder cancer despite radical treatment, suggesting the disease is metastatic at presentation. Cure is rarely possible in patients with locally advanced tumours and lymph node metastases. Therapeutic options include systemic chemotherapy and salvage radical treatment for responders or palliation. Following radical cystectomy for cancer, patients require lifelong follow-up for both oncologic and functional reasons.
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Schiff, David, Jonathan Sherman, and Paul D. Brown. Metastatic tumours: spinal cord, plexus, and peripheral nerve. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199651870.003.0020.

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Systemic cancers produce substantial neurological morbidity when they spread to the spinal epidural space, producing epidural spinal cord compression—a neurological emergency. Less often, metastases spread directly to spinal cord parenchyma to manifest as intramedullary spinal cord metastasis or result in peripheral nerve dysfunction via compression of the brachial, lumbosacral, or, rarely, the cervical plexus. This chapter reviews the clinical manifestations and risk factors for development of these entities, the diagnostic approach, management options including the role of surgery, radiation (including stereotactic body radiation therapy), and chemotherapy, as well as the neurological prognosis.
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Chapman, Hannah, and Christine Elwell. Renal and bladder cancer. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0167.

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This chapter addresses the diagnosis and management of bladder and renal cancers. In the UK, bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men, and the eighth most common cancer in women. Bladder cancer arises from the bladder urothelium, and is typically a papillary transitional cell carcinoma. Chronic infection with the parasite Schistosoma haematobium is associated with squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder, and is most prevalent in Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa. Renal cancer accounts for 3% of cancers in adults in the UK and, in most cases, is a renal cell carcinoma arising from proximal renal tubule epithelium. A further 5%–10% of renal cancers are transitional cell (urothelial) carcinomas of the renal pelvis. Benign kidney tumours, such as cysts, are also common.
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Watson, Max, Caroline Lucas, Andrew Hoy, and Jo Wells. Oncology and palliative care. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199234356.003.0011.

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This chapter covers organization of cancer care, clinical trials, oncological surgery, chemotherapy, cytotoxic drugs, radiotherapy, types of radiation therapy, managing the side effects of radiotherapy, new developments, common cancers, including patients with lung cancer, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, gynaecological cancer, upper gastrointestinal tract cancer, cancer of the bladder and ureter, and tumours of the central nervous system, chronic leukaemia and myeloma, palliative care of patients with carcinomatosis of unknown primary site, and investigations.
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Bryant, Richard J., and James W. F. Catto. General overview of bladder cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0074.

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Bladder cancer (BC) is a common malignancy and is one of the most expensive to manage. This tumour typically affects middle-aged and elderly patients and is more common in men. These demographics reflect the aetiological links between BC and tobacco smoking and occupational exposure to carcinogens. While the presenting symptom of BC is usually painless visible haematuria, around one-quarter of tumours present with irritative voiding symptoms, recurrent or antibiotic-refractory urinary tract infections, non-visible haematuria, or are found by chance during the investigation of unrelated symptoms. As such, these urological symptoms require urgent investigation in patients at risk of BC. The diagnosis of BC is confirmed by endoscopic transurethral resection. This procedure requires meticulous tumour excision, sampling of the underlying detrusor muscle and the flat urothelium or prostatic urethra in patients with high-grade cancers. The prognosis of BC depends upon tumour grade, stage, and other features.
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Cooperberg, Matthew, and Peter Carroll. Prostate cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0064.

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Management of prostate cancer remains controversial, in large part because of its wide heterogeneity in terms of aggressiveness and prognosis. Early detection efforts based on prostate specific antigen (PSA) and aggressive treatment of high-risk cancers have yielded major improvements in mortality rates, but overtreatment of low-risk cancers—those unlikely to cause symptoms or threaten life if they were never detected—is associated with high rates of avoidable toxicity and cost. Prostate cancer can be effectively risk-stratified based on tools (e.g. nomograms, CAPRA score) integrating the PSA level, Gleason grade, clinical stage, and extent of biopsy tissue involvement. Most men with low-risk tumours are eligible for active surveillance, a programme of careful monitoring based on PSA and follow-up biopsies. Men with higher-risk cancers are best served with radical prostatectomy or radiation therapy.
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Verma, Raman, and Sarah Deacon. Lung cancer (including management of an isolated lung lesion). Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0141.

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Lung cancer is the second most common type of cancer in the UK. It is termed ‘primary’ if it originates in the lungs. and ‘secondary’ if it manifests elsewhere in the body but then spreads to the lungs. The main types of primary lung cancer are small cell lung carcinoma and non-small cell lung carcinoma. Bronchial carcinoids account for up to 5% of lung cancer. These are generally small when diagnosed and occur most commonly in people under 40 years of age. Unrelated to cigarette smoking, carcinoid tumours can metastasize and a small proportion of these tumours secrete hormone-like substances that may cause specific symptoms related to the hormone being produced. Carcinoids generally grow and spread more slowly than bronchogenic cancers, and many are detected early enough to be amenable to surgical resection. Mesothelioma is a rare type of cancer that affects the pleura.
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Winter, Christian, and Peter Albers. Testicular cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0090.

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Testicular germ cell tumours (GCTs) represent the most common solid malignancy of young men aged 15–40 years. The disease is rising in incidence. Germ cell tumours are best divided into those with pure seminoma and non-seminoma (NSGCT) histology. While cryptorchidism is clearly established as a risk factor, the pathogenesis of testicular cancer remains unknown. Familial studies and molecular analyses suggest an association to genetic alterations. Most testicular cancer patients present a primary tumour in the testis. Diagnostic examinations include testis palpation and ultrasound, and measurement of serum tumour markers (AFP, ß-HCG, and LDH). Surgical exploration is obligatory for suspected tumours and radical orchidectomy should be performed if a tumour is found. Prognosis and subsequent treatment depends upon the clinical stage and the IGCCCG classification (in case of advanced GCT disease).
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Squire, Roly. Urological malignancies in children. Edited by David F. M. Thomas. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0125.

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Urological malignancies are rare in children. Renal tumours have an annual incidence of approximately seven per million children while bladder/prostate malignancies and testicular tumours each have an incidence of less than five per million children. Urological malignancies account for less than 15% of all childhood cancers. In the United Kingdom, there are approximately 150 new cases of urological malignancy in children each year. Numerous national and international studies have been undertaken over more than four decades, which have provided a detailed understanding of the biology, genetic profiles, and behaviour of these tumours in children. Such studies have contributed to the development of refined treatment protocols with excellent outcomes.
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Almatar, Ashraf, and Michael A. S. Jewett. Treatment of localized renal cell cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0086.

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The incidence of localized renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has increased due to the widespread use of abdominal imaging, often for unrelated conditions. Despite improved understanding of the natural history of slow growth in many tumours and the impact of ageing and co-morbidities on patient survival, RCC is still the most lethal of genitourinary cancers and surgery remains the mainstay of treatment. Localized RCC is defined as stages T1-2 N0 M0. The relatively safe needle core biopsy is increasingly used, especially for small renal masses (SRMs), as we now know that up to 30% are benign and that RCC subtypes differ in biology and behaviour. Radical nephrectomy, either performed by open or laparoscopic technique, is indicated for stage T2 tumours or when partial nephrectomy (PN) is not believed to be feasible.
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Murphy, Barbara A., Lauren A. Zatarain, Anthony J. Cmelak, Steven Bayles, Ellie Dowling, Cheryl R. Billante, Sheila Ridner, et al. Palliative issues in the care of patients with cancer of the head and neck. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656097.003.0145.

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Head and neck cancer (HNC) refers to tumours arising from the epithelial lining of the upper aerodigestive track, including the oral cavity, larynx, pharynx, paranasal sinuses, and salivary glands. There are 50,000 cases of HNC diagnosed annually within the United States. The majority of tumours (> 90%) are squamous cell carcinomas. Risk factors include tobacco, alcohol, and areca nuts; human papilloma virus (HPV) or Epstein-Barr virus; and mucosal irritation. Previously considered to be a disease of older adults, the epidemic of HPV-associated oropharyngeal cancers has led to a striking increase in HNC among middle-aged adults. Symptoms are usually present at the time of diagnosis and remain problematic through the terminal phase. For those patients who are cured, long-term biopsychosocial sequelae may persist for years. Thus, assessment and treatment of palliative issues is an intrinsic and vital component of care for the HNC patient.
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Alves, Ines Teles, Jan Trapman, and Guido Jenster. Molecular biology of prostate cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0059.

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Prostate cancer is a heterogeneous disease that arises through the acquisition of key malignant hallmarks. At the molecular level, prostate tumours are dependent upon the androgen receptor pathway, which affects cell function, growth, and behaviour through downstream androgen-regulated genes. Prostate cancer requires this activity and manipulates the AR pathway to maintain signalling. For example, mutation of the AR (to bind ligands other than androgens) or amplification/duplication of the AR allows signalling to continue in the absence of testosterone. Around 50% of prostate cancers have a gene fusion between the androgen-regulated component of the TMPRSS2 gene and a transcription factor (e.g. ETS family members ERG and ETV1). This results in aberrant androgen stimulated cell growth. Current research is using molecular knowledge to identify biomarkers, such as PCA3, and new therapies, such as enzalutamide or abiraterone acetate.
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Sherman, Mark E., Melissa A. Troester, Katherine A. Hoadley, and William F. Anderson. Morphological and Molecular Classification of Human Cancer. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190238667.003.0003.

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Accurate and reproducible classification of tumors is essential for clinical management, cancer surveillance, and studies of pathogenesis and etiology. Tumor classification has historically been based on the primary anatomic site or organ in which the tumor occurs and on its morphologic and histologic phenotype. While pathologic criteria are useful in predicting the average behavior of a group of tumors, histopathology alone cannot accurately predict the prognosis and treatment response of individual cancers. Traditional measures such as tumor stage and grade do not take into account molecular events that influence tumor aggressiveness or changes in the tumor composition during treatment. This chapter provides a primer on approaches that use pathology and molecular biology to classify and subclassify cancers. It describes the features of carcinomas, sarcomas, and malignant neoplasms of the immune system and blood, as well as various high-throughput genomic platforms that characterize the molecular profile of tumors.
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Keshav, Satish, and Palak Trivedi. Liver cancer. Edited by Patrick Davey and David Sprigings. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199568741.003.0218.

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Primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) arises from hepatocytes and is one of the commonest solid-organ malignancies in the world, particularly in the Far East and in sub-Saharan Africa. Cholangiocarcinoma arises from the biliary epithelium. The incidence is rising in the West, and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is an important risk factor (15% lifetime risk). Other forms of liver cancer include metastatic cancer, which is much more common in the West than any primary liver cancer, accounting for 90% of liver cancers and for which common primary sites are the colon, the stomach, the breasts, and the lungs; hepatoblastoma, which is an uncommon malignancy in children, originating from immature liver cell precursors; haemangiosarcomas, which are also rare, are malignant tumours arising from the blood vessels in the liver and can be very rapidly growing; and gall bladder cancer, arising from the gall bladder epithelium. Gallstones and PSC are risk factors for gall bladder cancer; in particular, PSC confers a risk >160 times that of the control population. This chapter primarily focuses on HCC.
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Heidenreich, Axel. Testis cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0092.

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Testicular germ cell tumours represent the most common solid neoplasms in the age group of 20 to 40 years. These cancers have an excellent prognosis, with a 90% long-term survival rate due to well-established, interdisciplinary guidelines for diagnosis and treatment. Independent on the clinical stage at time of diagnosis, treatment after orchidectomy is performed on an individual risk adapted approach. In clinical stage I seminoma, active surveillance is the recommended therapy and adjuvant chemotherapy with carboplatin remains an option in men not suitable for surveillance. Clinical stage IIA/B and IIC are treated by radiation therapy and by systemic chemotherapy following orchidectomy. Clinical stage I non-seminomas are either treated by active surveillance or by one cycle of adjuvant PEB chemotherapy. Clinical stages IIA-C and advanced stages of GCT are treated by 3-4 cycles of PEB chemotherapy depending on IGCCC risk profile. Relapsing cases should be treated at tertiary referral centres only.
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Faddegon, Stephen, Ephrem O. Olweny, and Jeffrey A. Cadeddu. Ablative technologies for renal cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0087.

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Nearly two-thirds of newly detected renal masses are clinical stage 1, with T1a tumours accounting for 60% of the newly detected stage 1 tumours. Guideline panels convened by the American Urological Association and the European Association of Urology recommend nephron-sparing surgery as the gold standard treatment for small renal masses, with active surveillance and thermal ablation recommended as alternative strategies in select patients. However, there is a dearth of studies directly comparing outcomes for energy-based ablation to those for traditional surgical treatments for small renal masses, and future prospective randomized trials will be invaluable in this regard. Ongoing research in renal tumour ablation targets several areas, including but not limited to achieving larger ablation sizes, decreasing morbidity, and development of novel technologies for renal tumour ablation.
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39

Glasper, Edward Alan, Gillian McEwing, and Jim Richardson, eds. Oncology. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198569572.003.0018.

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Related physiology 596The child with cancer 598Paediatric brain tumours 600Bone tumours 602Neuroblastoma 604Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) 606Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) 608Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) 610Wilms tumour 612T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia 614Lymphoma 616Bone-marrow transplantation 618Related skills...
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40

Bower, Mark, Louise Robinson, and Sarah Cox. Endocrine and metabolic complications of advanced cancer. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656097.003.0142.

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Cancer produces endocrine and metabolic complications in two ways. Firstly, the primary tumour or its metastases may interfere with the function of endocrine glands, kidneys, or liver by invasion or obstruction. Secondly, tumours may give rise to remote effects without local spread and these actions are termed paraneoplastic manifestations of malignancy. Generally, these paraneoplastic syndromes arise from secretion by tumours of hormones, cytokines, and growth factors, but also occur when normal cells secrete products in response to the presence of tumour. This chapter reviews the pathogenesis, epidemiology, and management of the commonest paraneoplastic endocrinopathies including hypercalcaemia, Cushing’s syndrome, the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis, non-islet cell tumour hypoglycaemia, enteropancreatic hormone syndromes, Carcinoid syndrome, phaeochromocytoma, gonadotrophin secretion syndromes, prolactin and oxytocin secretion, and paraneoplastic pyrexia. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of the management of metabolic disease in the context of advanced malignancy including hyperglycaemia, thyroid dysfunction, metabolic bone disease, renal failure, liver failure, and lactic acidosis.
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41

Ball, Steve, and Sajid Kalathil. Adrenocortical cancer. Edited by James W. F. Catto. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199659579.003.0094.

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Adrenocortical cancer (ACC) is rare and associated with poor prognosis. The incidence is estimated at 0.7–2 cases per one million. Overall survival rate at five years for ACC is 37–47%. While the pathogenesis of ACC is incompletely understood, inherited predisposition syndromes are common in childhood ACC. Clinical presentation can be with symptoms and signs of hormone excess (functional tumours), mass effects, or as an incidental radiological finding. A multidisciplinary approach combining radiology, biochemistry, and tissue-based pathology is needed to establish a diagnosis to guide a surgical approach aimed at complete resection of the tumour where possible. At present, recommended first-line therapies for advanced disease are mitotane monotherapy or etopiside, doxorubicin, and cisplatin plus mitotane. Metronomic capecitabine and gemcitabine have been used as alternatives. Adjuvant radiotherapy to the tumour bed should be considered for patients considered to be at high risk of recurrence.
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42

Michaud, Dominique, David Savitz, and Lorelei Mucci. Brain Cancer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190676827.003.0024.

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cBrain tumors constitute an array of histologic types, the most common being meningioma and glioma. Unlike other cancers, both benign and malignant brain tumors are concerning for survival because of their anatomic location. Two-thirds of brain tumors are benign. The most well established risk factor is high dose ionizing radiation, based on studies of atomic bomb survivors as well as children treated for tinea capitis. In contrast, nonionizing radiation including from cellular telephones, is not a risk factor. Tobacco use does not appear to be associated with glioma or meningioma. There is fairly consistent evidence of an inverse association between allergies and asthma with risk of glioma, potentially through levels of IgE. Finally, occupational epidemiology studies suggest potential positive associations with specific exposures. The identification of modifiable risk factors for brain tumors has been challenging, due in part to the diversity of tumor subtypes.
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43

Watson, Max, Caroline Lucas, Andrew Hoy, and Jo Wells. Palliation of head and neck cancer. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199234356.003.0019.

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This chapter covers the basic epidemiology and pathology of head and neck cancer, the patient with head and neck cancer, tumour treatment, specific tumours with emphasis on advanced disease, pain, mouth problems in head and neck cancer, tracheostomy, swallowing problems, gastrostomies, speech problems, infection and fistulae, emergencies, tracheostomy tube obstruction, quality of life, body image and sexuality, and general medical problems in patients with head and neck cancer.
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44

Malkin, David. Cancer: Inherited Tumours (Focus on Cancer). Springer, 1998.

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45

Dean, Michael, and Karobi Moitra. Biology of Neoplasia. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190238667.003.0002.

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The term “cancer” encompasses a large heterogeneous group of diseases that involve uncontrolled cell growth, division, and survival, culminating in local invasion and/or distant metastases. Cancer is fundamentally a genetic disease at the cellular level. Tumors occur because clones of abnormal cells acquire multiple lesions in DNA, nearly always involving mutations, chromosomal rearrangements, and extensive alteration of the epigenome. Up to 10% of cancers also involve inherited germline mutations that are moderately to highly penetrant. Cancers begin as localized growths or premalignant lesions that may regress or disappear spontaneously, or progress to a malignant primary tumor. The somatic changes that drive abnormal growth involve activating mutations of specific oncogenes, inactivation of tumor suppressor genes, and/or disruption of epigenetic controls. The latter can result from methylation or the modification of histones and other proteins that affect the remodeling of chromosomes. Numerous non-inherited factors can cause cancer by accelerating these events.
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46

Moerdler, Scott, and Xingxing Zang. PD-1/PDL-1 Inhibitors as Immunotherapy for Ovarian Cancer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190248208.003.0010.

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Programmed death 1 (PD-1), a member of the B7-CD28 immunoglobulin superfamily, and its ligands PD-L1/PD-L2 inhibit T-cell activation. They also play a key role in the tumor microenvironment, allowing for cancer immune escape. PD-1 is induced on a variety of immune cells, including tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), while PD-L1 is found on many types of solid tumors including ovarian cancer and some TILs. The use of immunocheckpoint inhibitors like anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 therapies has been shown to reactivate the immune system to attack tumor cells. Ovarian cancers have been shown to be responsive to anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 therapies, though immunocheckpoint inhibitors are not enough. Current research is evaluating combination therapies to improve response rates.
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47

Velez, Ana Maria Abreu. Inflammatory Markers, Oncogenes, Tumor Suppressor Cell Cycle Regulators in Skin Growths, Pre-Skin Tumors and Skin Tumors. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2016.

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48

Ajithkumar, Thankamma, Ann Barrett, Helen Hatcher, and Natalie Cook. CNS tumours. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199235636.003.0005.

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Tumours of the CNS are characterized by a remarkable diversity of pathological type and behaviour. Although rare, they affect people of all ages and hence have a disproportionate influence on the number of years of life lost to cancer. With few exceptions there is a marked consistency of incidence worldwide. Some types of brain tumour are increasing in incidence and, after many years of therapeutic stagnation, there have recently been some important improvements in treatment and outcome. For both of these reasons the subdiscipline of neuro-oncology is of increasing relevance in cancer medicine....
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49

Connor, Thomas, and Patrick H. Maxwell. Molecular basis of renal tumour syndromes. Edited by Neil Turner. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199592548.003.0328.

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Kidney cancer is among the most common adult malignancy. It accounts for over 3% of all new cases of cancer diagnosed in men and around 2% of all cancers in women in the United Kingdom. In the United States, 1 in 75 people will develop renal cancer in their lifetime and approximately one-third will have metastatic disease at presentation. Kidney cancer has a notoriously poor response to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, but treatment has evolved significantly in the past 10 years. Key to these recent developments in therapy has been a revolution in our understanding of the molecular basis of the renal tumour syndromes which are described in this chapter. Two to three per cent of cases of renal cancer are recognized as due to these syndromes, but they are likely to be recurrent, and to occur in other family members. Seven genes are currently implicated in these syndromes.
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50

Preusser, Matthias, Gabriele Schackert, and Brigitta G. Baumert. Metastatic brain tumours. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199651870.003.0019.

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Brain metastasis is a common clinical challenge in cancer patients, particularly those with lung cancer, breast cancer, and melanoma. The prognosis is poor, with median overall survival times measured in months for most patient populations. Established treatments include neurosurgical resection, radiotherapy (including stereotactic radiosurgery and stereotactic radiotherapy, whole-brain radiotherapy, and new radiation techniques), and supportive care measures. Recently, more and more targeted therapies such as EGFR inhibitors, HER2 antagonists, BRAF inhibitors, ALK inhibitors, and immune checkpoint inhibitors are demonstrating some efficacy in brain metastasis patients and should be considered in the clinical setting.
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