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1
Gardner, E. A. "Some examples of water recycling in Australian urban environments: a step towards environmental sustainability." Water Supply 3, no. 4 (August 1, 2003): 21–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2003.0043.
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This paper discusses the concepts and results from two contrasting types of water recycling initiatives in Australia. The first type of initiative is a centralised scheme based on local authorities recycling sewage effluent and/or stormwater in urban areas. A new urban subdivision in Queensland (Springfield) is provided as an example of such a centralised scheme, with uses ranging from dual reticulation, to public space irrigation, to urban lakes. The importance of strong public consultation and partnership is stressed for scheme success. A second example of a centralised scheme is an upmarket subdivision in Adelaide, South Australia (Mawson Lakes), where stormwater and recycled effluent are designed to supply in excess of 70% of the community's total water requirement. Scheme success is highly probable because of the ready adoption of innovative water supply alternatives by South Australians. The other type of initiative operates at a household scale (Healthy Home) and demonstrates that reinventing old ideas using new technologies can allow urban households to become largely self reliant for their potable and non-potable water needs, at least in high rainfall coastal areas. However, the cost effectiveness of this self reliance will require a substantial change in the sharing of savings from deferred public infrastructure costs. We include for comparison an analysis by Coombes et al. for the Lower Hunter region which clearly demonstrates that adoption of water sensitive urban design features, such as rainwater tanks in new developments, is not only more cost effective than traditional infrastructure solutions, but also allows the deferral of new urban water supply dams by the order of decades. We conclude the paper with the observation that advances in incorporating externalities into water development economics, the "trickle down" effect of new distributed technologies, and the growing desire by urban communities to live within the capacity of their regional ecosystems will probably ensure that reforms in the urban water and wastewater cycles will pioneer the way to genuinely sustainable and liveable urban communities in the near future. In short, the Ecological Footprint of urban development will be substantially reduced.
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Nguyen, VQ, R. Hermus, WB McGlasson, SK Meldrum, and ME Trethowan. "Fresh market tomatoes for production on raised beds in New South Wales." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 28, no. 1 (1988): 127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9880127.
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The aim of the experiments described in this paper was to identify determinate cultivars suited to production of fresh market tomatoes on raised beds in the inland irrigation areas of the south-west area of New South Wales from January to April. Cultivars that produce high yields of first-grade medium to large fruit, and are smooth, nearly round, firm and an even bright red when ripe are required. The plants should have good leaf coverage to prevent sunburn, and jointless pedicels to facilitate harvesting. The period of maturation of the fruit should be short to permit recovery of the crop with a maximum of 3 harvests. Ten lines including Sunny, a .reference cultivar with jointed pedicels, were evaluated at Richmond in the Sydney Greater Metropolitan Area and at Leeton in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, 1984-86. The lines were trickle-irrigated and mulched with black polyethylene film except at Leeton in 1985-86 when a trickle-irrigated, no mulch treatment and a furrow-irrigated treatment were included. The experiments showed that it is possible to produce yields of 50-100 t ha-1 of first-grade fruit with trickle irrigation. No significant advantage was obtained at Leeton in 1985-86 by using polyethylene mulch; however, the mulch largely eliminated the need for hand-chipping of weeds from among the plants. The visual quality of fruit grown at Leeton was excellent but total soluble solids levels were low, ripe fruit were unexpectedly soft, and sensory scores for flavour and general acceptability were only satisfactory. Overall, 2 cultivars that have jointless pedicels, Red Chief and Delta Contender, showed promise. A jointless hybrid line, HARU 83-148, which was bred at Richmond, warrants further evaluation. Some signs of incipient field chilling of fruit were observed at Leeton in fruit harvested after the first week in April.
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Argue, John R., and David Pezzaniti. "Catchment “greening” using stormwater in Adelaide, South Australia." Water Science and Technology 39, no. 2 (January 1, 1999): 177–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1999.0116.
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The paper reviews the goals of stormwater management adopted in Adelaide and declares a focus on harvesting of stormwater to replace mains water in irrigating areas landscaped with grass, flower beds and shrubs. Four categories of catchments are recognised according to their levels of pollution production - roof runoff and “low”, “medium” and “high” pollution runoff surfaces. Four case study examples of systems involving appropriate treatment trains are described, each one delivering harvested stormwater suitable for irrigation. Two examples are given of large roof areas draining to gravel-filled trenches providing “passive” irrigation to grassed surfaces and two examples of runoff from ground-level surfaces supplying cleansed recharge to small aquifer storage/recovery schemes.
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Proust, Katrina. "Salinity in Colonial Irrigation: British India and south-eastern Australia." Australian Geographer 39, no. 2 (June 2008): 131–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00049180802056815.
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Malano, Hector M., and Michael Patto. "Automation of border irrigation in South-East Australia: an overview." Irrigation and Drainage Systems 6, no. 1 (February 1992): 9–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01102863.
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Proust, Katrina. "Ignoring the signals: irrigation salinity in New South Wales, Australia." Irrigation and Drainage 52, no. 1 (2003): 39–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ird.79.
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Aldaoud, R., W. Guppy, L. Callinan, S. F. Flett, K. A. Wratten, G. A. Murray, T. Cook, and A. McAllister. "Occurrence of Phytophthora clandestina in Trifolium subterraneum paddocks in Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 41, no. 2 (2001): 187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea00048.
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In 1995–96, a survey of soil samples from subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) paddocks was conducted across Victoria, South Australia, New South Wales and Western Australia, to determine the distribution and the prevalence of races of Phytophthora clandestina (as determined by the development of root rot on differential cultivars), and the association of its occurrence with paddock variables. In all states, there was a weak but significant association between P. clandestina detected in soil samples and subsequent root rot susceptibility of differential cultivars grown in these soil samples. Phytophthora clandestina was found in 38% of the sampled sites, with a significantly lower prevalence in South Australia (27%). There were significant positive associations between P. clandestina detection and increased soil salinity (Western Australia), early growth stages of subterranean clover (Victoria), mature subterranean clover (South Australia), recently sown subterranean clover (South Australia), paddocks with higher subterranean clover content (Victoria), where herbicides were not applied (South Australia), irrigation (New South Wales and Victoria), cattle grazing (South Australia and Victoria), early sampling dates (Victoria and New South Wales), sampling shortly after the autumn break or first irrigation (Victoria), shorter soil storage time (Victoria) and farmer’s perception of root rot being present (Victoria and New South Wales). Only 29% of P. clandestina isolates could be classified under the 5 known races. Some of the unknown races were virulent on cv. Seaton Park LF (most resistant) and others were avirulent on cv. Woogenellup (most susceptible). Race 1 was significantly less prevalent in South Australia than Victoria and race 0 was significantly less prevalent in New South Wales than in South Australia and Western Australia. This study revealed extremely wide variation in the virulence of P. clandestina. The potential importance of the results on programs to breed for resistance to root rot are discussed. in South Australia.
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Steiner, JL, RCG Smith, WS Meyer, and JA Adeney. "Water use, foliage temperature and yield of irrigated wheat in south-eastern Australia." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 36, no. 1 (1985): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9850001.
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Quantification of the relationship between evapotranspiration (Et) and yield is important for the analysis of irrigation practices. Wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Avocet) was grown at the CSIRO Centre for Irrigation Research, Griffith, N.S.W., in 1982 with treatments of no irrigation and irrigation at 40, 70, and 90% depletion of plant available soil water. Irrigation significantly affected total dry matter, grain yield, and the yield components of number of heads per m2, number of grains per head, mass of individual grains, and harvest index. Plot grain yields, varying from 1.7 to 8.3 t ha-1, were closely related to dry matter at anthesis (r = 0.94) and number of grains per m2 (r = 0.99), indicating the importance of early growth on final yield. Regression analysis showed a significant (P < 0.01) linear relationship between Et and total or grain dry matter. The relationship of Et (mm) to grain yield (Y) (t ha-1) was described by Y = -2.010 + 0.016Et. Foliage temperatures were monitored at noon and showed promise as plant stress indicators. The mean differential between foliage and air temperature from jointing to late grain fill showed a strong negative linear relationship to grain numbers per unit soil area (r2 = 0.88) and to final yield (r2 = 0.86).
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Cock, GJ. "Moisture characteristics of irrigated Mallee soils in South Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 25, no. 1 (1985): 209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9850209.
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The soil moisture characteristics of undisturbed samples of Mallee soils, taken from typical profiles of the Riverland district neat Berri in South Australia, were determined. Samples were grouped according to texture and bulk density and, for each group, the moisture storage between matric potentials was derived. Over the usual range of soil moisture tensions (-0 to 40kPa) these showed only small variation between soil groups since, while moisture storage at field capacity and at wilting point does vary with texture; 50 to 60 mm/m is available between field capacity (-7 kPa) and the re-irrigation point (-30 to 40kPa) in all soils.
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Lattimore, MAE. "Pastures in temperate rice rotations of south-eastern Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 34, no. 7 (1994): 959. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9940959.
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Legume-based pastures have long been an integral part of rice growing in the southern New South Wales irrigation areas and still offer potential to improve the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of the temperate rice-cropping system.This paper reviews both historical and current aspects of pastures in temperate rice rotations in southern New South Wales and highlights the importance of pastures in sustaining this cropping system as environmental pressures increase. Topics discussed include pasture species and rotations, their role in improving soil fertility and sustainability, the value of pastures in weed control, and their management for maximum profitability.
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Sissons, Mike, Ben Ovenden, Dante Adorada, and Andrew Milgate. "Durum wheat quality in high-input irrigation systems in south-eastern Australia." Crop and Pasture Science 65, no. 5 (2014): 411. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp13431.
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To extend the production base of durum wheat in Australia, field trials were conducted on seven registered durum varieties across four seasons and six sites in locations where irrigation was supplied during crop growth. The purpose was to determine if the quality of the grain produced met the requirements for good milling and pasta-making quality and to understand the genotype, environment and their interaction in affecting yield and technological quality of the grain and derived pasta. High grain yields and grain protein were obtained, producing large grain weights, low screenings and low percentage of hard vitreous kernels. Yellow colour of semolina and pasta was reduced marginally but dough and other pasta technological characteristics were similar to typical dryland durum production, with some exceptions. Varieties were identified with potential for production under irrigation.
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Elder, R. J., W. N. B. Macleod, K. L. Bell, J. A. Tyas, and R. L. Gillespie. "Growth, yield and phenology of 2 hybrid papayas (Carica papaya L.) as influenced by method of water application." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, no. 5 (2000): 739. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea98140.
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Highly variable, outcrossed papaya lines irrigated with overhead sprinklers were grown at Yarwun (151.3˚E, 23.75˚S) in Queensland, Australia. The inherent variability made scientifically based comparative studies impractical. The advent of uniform hybrid papaya lines allowed the testing of 2 of these hybrids under 3 irrigation methods, 2 of which had the potential to greatly reduce water use compared with overhead sprinklers. Yields of 92 t/ha.year were achieved by both papaya Hybrids 29 and 1E. Water application method did not influence yield. About 26% of plants were lost due to the phytoplasma diseases dieback, yellow crinkle and mosaic over the life of the trial. Downward yield fluctuations were related to poor fruit set in winter when pollinators (Family Sphingidae) were not present and growth was slow due to hot dry periods affecting fruit set. The resultant fruit (about 6 months later) were small and reduced in number. Irrigation with overhead sprinklers using saline water (1400–4000 S/cm) damaged leaves and reduced growth of plants. Winter spot was most severe in July, August and September, in Hybrid 29 with overhead irrigation. Height of plants 13 weeks after planting was greater under trickle irrigation due to less damage from the saline water supply than in the overhead sprinkler treatment. Hybrid 29 set fruit at 94.3 cm above ground compared with 117.6 cm for Hybrid 1E.
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Floyd, R. B., R. J. Arnold, G. S. Farrell, and R. A. Farrow. "Genetic variation in growth ofEucalyptus grandisgrown under irrigation in south-eastern Australia." Australian Forestry 66, no. 3 (January 2003): 184–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00049158.2003.10674910.
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Muyen, Zahida, Graham A. Moore, and Roger J. Wrigley. "Soil salinity and sodicity effects of wastewater irrigation in South East Australia." Agricultural Water Management 99, no. 1 (November 2011): 33–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2011.07.021.
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Lisson, S. N., and N. J. Mendham. "Agronomic studies of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) in south-eastern Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 40, no. 8 (2000): 1101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea00059.
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This paper reports on field agronomy studies into flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) conducted in Tasmania, Australia from 1994 to 1997. These studies investigated the performance of selected cultivars, and responses to sowing date, plant density and irrigation. The work formed part of a feasibility study assessing the potential of fibre hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) and flax as sources of fibre for the Australian newsprint industry. Two cultivar evaluation trials were conducted at the University of Tasmania Farm, Cambridge, in Tasmania’s south-east. One of these included 7 European and Australian flax cultivars, and the other, 4 mucilage linseed cultivars. The European flax cultivars yielded significantly more stem and bark fibre than the Australian flax cultivars. Of the former group, Ariane (841 g/m 2 ) and Marina (883 g/m 2 ) performed the best in terms of stem yield production, while Viking had comparable bark yields to these 2 cultivars. With the exception of cv. Kreola (543 g/m 2 ), which produced comparable stem yields to the Australian flax cultivars, the linseed cultivars were short and produced relatively low stem yields. Interestingly, seed yields (149–194 g/m 2 ) were not superior to those for the flax cultivars (156–218 g/m 2 ). While offering little dual-purpose seed/fibre potential, they may supply a future niche market for seed production. Three other trials were conducted to investigate the response of flax to seeding rate and sowing date, and the interactions between seeding rate, sowing date and irrigation availability. Autumn sowings of flax gave higher yields of both stem and seed compared with winter and spring sowings. Reasonable stem and seed yields were achieved from dryland cropping of flax. However, good results from such rainfed crops in Tasmania will depend on autumn sowing and good rainfall during winter and spring seasons. There were clear yield benefits from irrigation between early November and January, when the amount and distribution of rainfall was poor. The selection of an optimum seeding rate will depend on the sowing date and involve a compromise between maximising yield and minimising potential losses from lodging. The decreased occurrence of lodging with winter and spring sowings in this study, suggests that later sowings can accommodate higher seeding rates.
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Schrale, G., R. Boardman, and M. J. Blaskett. "Investigating Land Based Disposal of Bolivar Reclaimed Water, South Australia." Water Science and Technology 27, no. 1 (January 1, 1993): 87–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1993.0022.
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The Bolivar Sewage Treatment Works (STW) processes the urban and industrial sewage from the northern and eastern suburbs of Adelaide. The treatment capacity is equivalent to the sewage production of 1.1 million people. The disposal of more than 40 000 ML of reclaimed water into the sea has caused a progressive degradation of about 950 ha of seagrass beds which threatens the sustainability of the fisheries and marine ecosystems of Gulf St. Vincent. The current practice will no longer be viable to achieve compliance with the SA Marine Environment Protection Act, 1990. A Inter-Departmental Working Party recommmended that the Bolivar reclaimed water be disposed by irrigation of suitable land on the coastal plains north of Adelaide. They proposed the construction of two pipelines: a 12 km long pipeline to extend the distribution of reclaimed water in the most intense portion of the 3 500 hectares of irrigated horticulture on the Northern Adelaide Plains, and a second, 18 km long pipeline to deliver the remainder to a more northerly site for irrigation of an estimated 4 000 hectares of hardwood plantations. The paper summarizes the findings as they relate to public health, environmental, technical and financial aspects of land based disposal. Land based disposal would completely eliminate the marine degradation and also arrest the over-use of the NAP underground water resources for horticulture. The total net costs over thirty years for land based disposal are about $ 21.8 million. The ‘horticultural' pipeline of the land based disposal scheme is expected to be commercially viable. A shortfall in revenue from the afforestation component is expected and may need to be considered as an environmental cost of ceasing marine disposal.
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Williams, BG, and JK Ward. "The chemistry of shallow groundwaters in the Murrumbidgee irrigation area, New South Wales." Soil Research 25, no. 3 (1987): 251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9870251.
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The chemistry of shallow groundwaters in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area of New South Wales, Australia, is examined in terms of the degree of saturation with calcium minerals. Many water samples were found to be saturated with calcite, especially when brought into equilibrium with atmospheric CO2 pressures; gypsum saturation was found more frequently from regions having waters of high ionic strength. A thermodynamic chemical model is used to describe the effects on water 'quality', for irrigation purposes, if the groundwaters are to be reused in mixtures with irrigation supply water. A tentative classification in terms of salinity and sodium hazard is presented and a simple relationship between both hazards has been derived. A potential exists for using between 25% and 95% groundwater in mixtures with supply water for irrigation, depending on the initial salt concentration.
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Cornish, PS, and VQ Nguyen. "Use of high soil solution electrical conductivity to improve the quality of fresh market tomatoes from coastal New South Wales." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 29, no. 6 (1989): 893. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9890893.
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High electrical conductivity (EC) in the soil solution or hydroponic medium is thought to increase the concentration of total soluble solids (TSS) and thereby improve the flavour of tomato fruit. We used trickle irrigation in 2 field experiments (1988, 1989) to apply KC1 at rates up to 4.4 t/ha to tomatoes to raise soil solution EC and examine the effects on TSS and other components of fruit quality, as well as yield. The KCl was subject to leaching in both years and EC varied widely despite regular additions of KCl. Where a high EC was achieved in 1988 (3.9 mS/cm) there was no effect on fruit firmness or TSS, but titratable acids (TA) increased from 7.25 to 8.0 m.e./100 mL. In 1989, high EC (>7mS/cm) resulted in a small increase in TSS (0.3%) in 1 of 6 harvests but significant (P<0.05) increases in TA in 4 harvests. Yield was unaffected (P>0.05). We conclude that irrigation with salinised water is unlikely to be an effective means of raising the TSS of tomatoes grown on freely draining soils in the high rainfall environment of coastal New South Wales.
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O'Neill, C. J., E. Humphreys, J. Louis, and A. Katupitiya. "Maize productivity in southern New South Wales under furrow and pressurised irrigation." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, no. 3 (2008): 285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea06093.
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Irrigation farmers in the Murray–Darling Basin of Australia are under considerable pressure to reduce the amount of water they use for irrigation, while sustaining production and profitability. Changing from surface to pressurised irrigation systems may provide some or all of these outcomes; however, little is known about the performance of alternative irrigation methods for broadacre annual crops in this region. Therefore, a demonstration site for comparing furrow, subsurface drip and sprinkler irrigation was established on a representative clay soil in the Coleambally Irrigation Area, NSW. The performance of maize (Zea mays L.) under the three irrigation systems was compared during the 2004–05 season. Subsurface drip irrigated maize out-performed sprinkler and furrow irrigated maize in terms of grain yield (drip 11.8 t/ha, sprinkler 10.5 t/ha, furrow 10.1 t/ha at 14% moisture), net irrigation water application (drip 5.1 ML/ha, sprinkler 6.2 ML/ha, furrow 5.3 ML/ha), net irrigation water productivity (drip 2.3 t/ML, sprinkler 1.7 t/ML, furrow 1.9 t/ML) and total water productivity (drip 1.7 t/ML, sprinkler 1.4 t/ML, furrow 1.3 t/ML). Thus, subsurface drip irrigation saved ~30% of the total amount of water (irrigation, rain, soil water) needed to produce the same quantity of grain using furrow irrigation, while sprinkler irrigation saved ~8% of the water used. The higher net irrigation with sprinkler irrigation was largely due to the lower soil water content in the sprinkler block at the time of sowing. An EM31 survey indicated considerable spatial soil variability within each irrigation block, and all irrigation systems had spatially variable water distribution. Yield variability was very high within all irrigation systems, and appeared to be more strongly associated with irrigation variability than soil variability. All irrigation blocks had large patches of early senescence and poor cob fill, which appeared to be due to nitrogen and/or water deficit stress. We expect that crop performance under all irrigation systems can be improved by improving irrigation, soil and N management.
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McLaughlin, M. J., N. A. Maier, R. L.Correll, M. K. Smart, L. A. Sparrow, and A. McKay. "Prediction of cadmium concentrations in potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum L.) by pre-plant soil and irrigation water analyses." Soil Research 37, no. 1 (1999): 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/s98031.
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Potato tubers can accumulate high concentrations of cadmium (Cd) in edible portions, so that techniques to determine high risk Cd environments are required by growers. The use of combined soil and irrigation water analyses prior to crop planting was investigated as a means to predict risks of Cd accumulation in tubers. Soils and irrigation waters were analysed at 134 sites in the major potato production areas in Western Australia, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and New South Wales. Irrigation waters were analysed for electrical conductivity (EC), major cations, and anions. Cadmium was extracted from soil using aqua regia (1 : 3 HNO3: HCl), EDTA (ethylenediamine-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetate), DTPA (diethylene-triamine-pentaacetate), 0·01 M CaCl2, 0·01 M Ca(NO3)2, 0·1 M CaCl2, and 1·0 M NH4NO3. The preferred test procedure was validated in a subsequent sampling and analysis program at 39 sites. Irrigation water quality (EC or Cl concentration), measured prior to planting, explained the greatest variation in tuber Cd concentrations. Of the soil test procedures, only Cd extracted by 0·01 M CaCl2 significantly improved the predictive capacity of water EC. These 2 measures explained >55% of the variance in tuber Cd concentrations. The data set were transformed to generate a probability curve for exceeding Cd concentrations of either 0·05 or 0·1 mg/kg fresh weight, the latter being the current maximum permitted concentration (MPC) in Australia for potato tubers. The probability of producing potato tubers exceeding 0·05 and 0·1 mg/kg fresh weight was >50% once irrigation water EC increased above 1·4 and 3·0 dS/m, respectively. Using the relationships developed, growers should be able to quantify Cd risks by a simple test of irrigation water EC prior to planting and, if further precision is needed, also determine CaCl2-extractable Cd in soil.
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CARR, M. K. V., and C. M. MENZEL. "THE WATER RELATIONS AND IRRIGATION REQUIREMENTS OF LYCHEE (LITCHI CHINENSIS SONN.): A REVIEW." Experimental Agriculture 50, no. 4 (December 13, 2013): 481–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0014479713000653.
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SUMMARYThe results of research into the water relations and irrigation requirements of lychee are collated and reviewed. The stages of plant development are summarised, with an emphasis on factors influencing the flowering process. This is followed by reviews of plant water relations, water requirements, water productivity and, finally, irrigation systems. The lychee tree is native to the rainforests of southern China and northern Vietnam, and the main centres of production remain close to this area. In contrast, much of the research on the water relations of this crop has been conducted in South Africa, Australia and Israel where the tree is relatively new. Vegetative growth occurs in a series of flushes. Terminal inflorescences are borne on current shoot growth under cool (<15 °C), dry conditions. Trees generally do not produce fruit in the tropics at altitudes below 300 m. Poor and erratic flowering results in low and irregular fruit yields. Drought can enhance flowering in locations with dry winters. Roots can extract water from depths greater than 2 m. Diurnal trends in stomatal conductance closely match those of leaf water status. Both variables mirror changes in the saturation deficit of the air. Very little research on crop water requirements has been reported. Crop responses to irrigation are complex. In areas with low rainfall after harvest, a moderate water deficit before floral initiation can increase flowering and yield. In contrast, fruit set and yield can be reduced by a severe water deficit after flowering, and the risk of fruit splitting increased. Water productivity has not been quantified. Supplementary irrigation in South-east Asia is limited by topography and competition for water from the summer rice crop, but irrigation is practised in Israel, South Africa, Australia and some other places. Research is needed to determine the benefits of irrigation in different growing areas.
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Cammarano, Davide, José Payero, Bruno Basso, Paul Wilkens, and Peter Grace. "Agronomic and economic evaluation of irrigation strategies on cotton lint yield in Australia." Crop and Pasture Science 63, no. 7 (2012): 647. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp12024.
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Cotton is one of the most important irrigated crops in subtropical Australia. In recent years, cotton production has been severely affected by the worst drought in recorded history, with the 2007–08 growing season recording the lowest average cotton yield in 30 years. The use of a crop simulation model to simulate the long-term temporal distribution of cotton yields under different levels of irrigation and the marginal value for each unit of water applied is important in determining the economic feasibility of current irrigation practices. The objectives of this study were to: (i) evaluate the CROPGRO-Cotton simulation model for studying crop growth under deficit irrigation scenarios across ten locations in New South Wales (NSW) and Queensland (Qld); (ii) evaluate agronomic and economic responses to water inputs across the ten locations; and (iii) determine the economically optimal irrigation level. The CROPGRO-Cotton simulation model was evaluated using 2 years of experimental data collected at Kingsthorpe, Qld The model was further evaluated using data from nine locations between northern NSW and southern Qld. Long-term simulations were based on the prevalent furrow-irrigation practice of refilling the soil profile when the plant-available soil water content is <50%. The model closely estimated lint yield for all locations evaluated. Our results showed that the amounts of water needed to maximise profit and maximise yield are different, which has economic and environmental implications. Irrigation needed to maximise profits varied with both agronomic and economic factors, which can be quite variable with season and location. Therefore, better tools and information that consider the agronomic and economic implications of irrigation decisions need to be developed and made available to growers.
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Jayasuriya, R. T. "Modelling the economic impact of environmental flows for regulated rivers in New South Wales, Australia." Water Science and Technology 48, no. 7 (October 1, 2003): 157–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2003.0436.
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The management of water resources across Australia is undergoing fundamental reform in line with the priorities identified by the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) in 1994. This includes reforms to the specification of property rights, the way the resource is shared between the environment, irrigators and other users, charges for water use and the operational management of the river systems. In New South Wales (NSW), a series of water sharing plans (WSPs) is being developed for each water source in the State including regulated rivers, unregulated rivers and groundwater aquifers. These plans, which are the mechanisms by which COAG reforms are being implemented, are being developed by community-based water management committees (WMCs). The role of the WMCs is to develop a plan that achieves a balance between environmental, economic and social outcomes. NSW Agriculture has assisted a number of WMCs by quantifying the economic impact of proposed WSP options on the irrigation community. This paper outlines the approach taken by NSW Agriculture to quantifying economic impacts on irrigators in regulated catchments and provides results of case studies in the Lachlan River Catchment which is heavily developed for irrigation.
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Dracup, Miles, Mark A. Reader, and Jairo A. Palta. "Variation in yield of narrow-leafed lupin caused by terminal drought." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 49, no. 5 (1998): 799. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/a97151.
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Narrow-leafed lupin is a rain-fed crop in southern Australia whose yields are limited by the amount and distribution of rainfall. Drought terminates the growing season, and the timing and intensity of development of this (terminal) drought is a likely cause of much yield variability. We investigated this yield variability by manipulating terminal drought with trickle irrigation. Despite comparatively high crop dry mass of nearly 9 t/ha in the absence of irrigation, seed yield was only 1·2 t/ha with a harvest index of only 14%. Delaying the terminal drought and thus prolonging the period for crop ripening raised crop dry mass by 18-42%, with large increases in harvest index and seed yields, which rose by 45-75% and 95-135%, respectively. Pod set started 110 days after sowing (DAS) but appreciable pod filling did not start until 140 DAS, by which time, in the unirrigated treatment, only about 15% of the plant-available soil water remained, leaf diffusive conductance had fallen by 75%, and leaf water potential was -1·7 MPa. Leaf senescence and abscission had already begun; in the control treatment only 25% of the green area remained at 150 DAS, when net vegetative growth ceased and appreciable seed filling began. During irrigation, plant-available soil water was maintained at 35-70% of that at field capacity, with correspondingly better plant water relations. Pod and seed filling started at the same times as in the unirrigated control, and vegetative growth ceased at the same time. However, green area declined more slowly and reproductive growth continued for longer and at a faster rate. Yields were highly correlated with the number of productive pods (and seeds) at maturity, which in turn was associated with pod survival rather than pod set. Irrigation increased the number of surviving pods and seeds, both of which sometimes aborted at comparatively late stages of filling. Average seed weights were stable across treatments, except where there was a period of drought before irrigation, in which case seeds were heavier, compensating for prior loss of pods. It is argued that a better ideotype for the Mediterranean environment of southern Australia would switch to reproductive growth earlier, before severe water deficit develops, and with less overlap between vegetative and reproductive growth.
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Weatherley, A. J., B. F. Quin, K. B. Dassanayake, and J. S. Rowarth. "Runoff losses from irrigated dairy pastures treated with phosphorus fertilisers of differing solubility in south-eastern Australia." Soil Research 49, no. 7 (2011): 633. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr11156.
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In response to increasing concern about environmental quality, water authorities in many countries are imposing legislation limiting phosphorus (P) concentrations in water, which is having an impact on farming practice. This experiment investigated the agronomic effects and runoff losses associated with different forms of P fertiliser applied to an irrigated dairy pasture (soils were Vertic Calcic Red Chromosols; average Olsen P, 50 mg P/kg) in north-central Victoria, Australia. Single superphosphate (SSP), a sulfurised diammonium phosphate, or partially acidulated phosphate rock was surface-applied at 50 kg P/ha in March 2005 to a border-check, flood-irrigated dairy pasture (ryegrass–white clover) ten days before a scheduled irrigation. Dissolved reactive P (DRP) and total P (TP) were measured in runoff from whole bays on one replicate and from microplots on all three replicates for a period of 9 weeks. In all runoff events and all treatments, concentrations of DRP and TP in runoff greatly exceeded water quality guidelines for acceptable limits (0.045 mg P/L). The SSP resulted in significantly higher concentrations of P in runoff than the less water-soluble fertilisers. Even after the fifth irrigation, runoff from all fertilisers still exceeded the control. These results suggest that: (i) P fertilisers should not be applied in high-risk situations as insurance against yield loss; (ii) the current recommendation of withholding irrigation for 3 days after fertiliser application is insufficient to prevent potentially significant losses occurring; and (iii) runoff losses were dependent on the type of fertiliser applied, with a smaller proportion of P applied as sulfurised DAP lost in runoff.
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Blunden, B. G., and B. Indraratna. "Evaluation of surface and groundwater management strategies for drained sulfidic soil using numerical simulation models." Soil Research 38, no. 3 (2000): 569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr99018.
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The effective management of acid sulfate soils is a major issue for many coastal regions in Australia. Simulations were conducted to evaluate 4 different water management strategies that could be applied to agricultural land on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia, to minimise acid generation from acid sulfate soils. The water management strategies are compared with the existing extensively drained situation which generates and discharges large quantities of acidic pyrite oxidation products. The 4 water management strategies include elevated drain water levels using a weir, 25 mm irrigation on a 7- or 14-day cycle, and elevated drain water levels with irrigation. All of these strategies were designed to minimise the generation of acid by reducing the transport of oxygen to the sulfidic soil. Simulations were conducted for weather and site conditions experienced during a 12-month period starting in July 1997. Model simulations showed that maintenance of elevated drain water levels using a weir in the drain significantly reduced the amount of acid generated by 75% and 57%, at 10 and 90 m distance from the drain, respectively, by comparison with the existing drained state. The addition of 25 mm irrigation on a 14-day cycle to the weir simulation reduced the oxidation of pyrite by a further 1–2%. Application of irrigation only on a 7-day cycle also reduced the acid generated by 89% and 94% at 10 and 90 m distance from the drain, respectively, by comparison with the existing drained state. Irrigation on a 14-day cycle was not as successful in reducing pyrite oxidation as either the 7-day irrigation or weir strategies. Evaluation of the 4 water management options showed that significant improvements can be made with respect to the amount of acid generated by relatively simple and cost-effective land management practices.
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Reader, M. A., M. Dracup, and C. A. Atkins. "Transient high temperatures during seed growth in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) II. Injuriously high pod temperatures are likely in Western Australia." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 48, no. 8 (1997): 1179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/a97043.
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Studies under controlled environment conditions indicate that transient high temperatures (34-38˚C) during grain filling can significantly reduce weight per seed in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.). This study has shown that on average, lupin pods reach temperatures about 3-5˚C higher than the maximum daily air temperature during seed filling under field cropping conditions. These differences do not appear to be markedly influenced by the amount of radiation intercepted by the canopy, stage of pod development, or position of the pods in the canopy, but fluctuate more as a result of differences in radiation intensity, wind speed, and water availability. Trickle irrigation reduced the difference between pod and air temperature by about 2˚C. Lupin species with larger pods (L. cosentinii and L. atlanticus) reached higher maximum daily temperatures than those of L. angustifolius. Long-term meteorological data indicate that air temperatures during seed filling of lupins in Western Australia are likely to exceed 30˚ C and will occasionally exceed 35˚ C. In lupin-growing areas of Western Australia, pod temperatures exceeding 33-35˚ C can be expected about 1 year in every 3, and more rarely (about 1 in 10 years), pod temperatures exceeding 38-40˚ C can be expected. These transient high temperatures are likely to increase significantly the year to year variation in yields of lupin grain.
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Davis, Karyn M., Patricia I. Dixon, and John H. Harris. "Allozyme and mitochondrial DNA analysis of carp, Cyprinus carpio L., from south-eastern Australia." Marine and Freshwater Research 50, no. 3 (1999): 253. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mf97256.
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Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) were introduced to Australia on at least three occasions over the past 100 years. These introductions were to the Prospect Reservoir, Sydney (1907), the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, New South Wales (NSW) (1940s), and to Boolarra, Victoria (1960). Koi, a colourful variety of carp, have been introduced to several areas as well. Carp are now widely spread throughout south-eastern Australia. This study aimed to investigate genetic variation of carp in south-eastern Australia. Carp from several localities were examined at seven polymorphic allozyme loci and with three restriction enzymes detecting polymorphic sites in mitochondrial DNA. Three composite mtDNA haplotypes were found. Haplotype 1 was spread throughout the study area, occurring in 72% of all individuals examined. Haplotype 2 was localized to south-western NSW and occurred in 4% of individuals. Haplotype 3 was found in the Australian Capital Territory and Tasmania and accounted for 24% of individuals. Little genetic variation within and among carp populations was observed in the mitochondrial DNA data. The allozyme data showed greater variation within populations than did the mitochondrial DNA data.
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Rogers, M. E., A. R. Lawson, and K. B. Kelly. "Lucerne yield, water productivity and persistence under variable and restricted irrigation strategies." Crop and Pasture Science 67, no. 5 (2016): 563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp15159.
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Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) has the potential to be grown widely under water-limiting conditions in the dairy region of northern Victoria and southern New South Wales, Australia, possibly because of its greater water productivity and because irrigation management of lucerne can be more flexible compared with other forage species. A large-scale field experiment was conducted at Tatura in northern Victoria, over 5 years to determine the effects of limiting (deficit) and non-limiting irrigation management on the dry matter (DM) production, water productivity (irrigation and total water productivity) and stand density (or persistence) of lucerne. Nine irrigation treatments were imposed that included full irrigation, partial irrigation and no irrigation in either a single, or over consecutive, irrigation seasons. In the fifth year of the experiment, all plots received the full irrigation treatment to examine plant recovery from the previous irrigation treatments. In any one year, there was a linear relationship between DM production and total water supply (irrigation plus rainfall plus changes in soil water) such that DM production decreased as the total water supply – due to deficit irrigation – decreased. Over the 5 years, annual DM production ranged from 1.4 to 17.7 t DM ha–1 with the highest production occurring in plots that received full irrigation. Irrigation water productivity was inversely related to the amount of water used and was higher in the treatments that had only been partially irrigated for that year compared with the treatments that had been fully watered for that year. Total water productivity values were significantly lower only in the treatments that had not been irrigated for that year, and there was little difference between the treatments that were only partially watered during the year and the fully watered treatments (range 9.1–12.2 kg DM ha–1 mm–1 for Year 4). There was no significant reduction in plant density or plant persistence in those plots where deficit irrigation had been imposed. However, the high irrigation regime and poor drainage in the fully irrigated border-check plots significantly reduced plant density and allowed weed infestation in the fifth year of the experiment. These results suggest that, although lucerne DM production is directly related to total water use and may be significantly reduced in the irrigation regions of south-eastern Australia in seasons when water is restricted, the lucerne stand is able to fully recover once a full irrigation regime is resumed. This makes lucerne an ideal forage species for situations when water is limiting.
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Thomson, L. J. "Influence of reduced irrigation on beneficial invertebrates in vineyards." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, no. 10 (2006): 1389. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea05139.
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An important aspect of increasing the sustainability of agricultural production in dry continents such as Australia is decreasing water use. In this study full irrigation is compared with partial rootzone drying, a method that uses targeted controlled watering to reduce water use while maintaining production in vineyards. The impact of the 2 irrigation methods on invertebrates with potential to influence productivity (pests, predators, parasitoids and soil macroinvertebrates) in a vineyard in south-eastern Australia is also investigated. Invertebrates were sampled at ground level and in the canopy using 3 methods: pitfall traps and 2 types of sticky trap. Earthworms were sampled by hand sorting soil. Initial sorting of the collections was to the order level. The implementation of partial rootzone drying throughout the growing season (December–March) over 2 consecutive years had little effect on the invertebrate orders analysed. Only 2 generalist predator orders (Araneae and Coleoptera) and earthworms (Haplotaxida) were significantly affected under conditions of water stress. These data suggest that reduction of irrigation of the magnitude required for partial rootzone drying has limited consequences for natural enemies of vineyard pests and soil macroinvertebrates in the short term.
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Walker, Glen R., Avril C. Horne, Quan J. Wang, and Rob Rendell. "Assessing the Impact of Irrigation Efficiency Projects on Return Flows in the South-Eastern Murray–Darling Basin, Australia." Water 13, no. 10 (May 14, 2021): 1366. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13101366.
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Improving irrigation efficiency (IE) is an approach used globally to help meet competing demands for water and facilitate reallocation of water between sectors. In the Murray–Darling Basin in Australia, the Australian government has invested heavily in IE projects to recover water for the environment. However, this approach has been seriously questioned, out of concerns that improved IE would reduce irrigation return flows to rivers and therefore offset water recovery. In this study, we use a water balance model to assess the impact of the IE projects on return flows and highlight sensitivities and uncertainties. The model enables the impact on return flows to be assessed on specific IE projects and regional characteristics. Overall, reductions in return flows are estimated to be less than 20% of the total proposed IE savings. The history of IE in the southern MDB has meant that most of the current reductions are in ground return flows. Our estimate is much lower than two previous studies, mainly due to different assumptions being used on groundwater connectivity between irrigation areas and major streams. While the IE projects significantly reduce seepage to groundwater (with off-farm and on-farm projects reducing seepage by 19% and 53% of total savings respectively), not all seepage reductions will translate to a reduction in ground return flows to rivers. A lower estimate is consistent with existing monitoring and groundwater modeling studies. In this paper, the study results are discussed in a broader context of impacts of IE projects on volumes and salinity of streams and groundwater resources.
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Matthiessen, J. N., and L. Hayles. "Egg to adult survival of the bush fly, Musca vetustissima Walker (Diptera: Muscidae), in irrigated pastures when flood-caused mortality is prevented." Bulletin of Entomological Research 76, no. 1 (March 1986): 59–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300015273.
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AbstractSurvival of Musca vetustissima Walker from egg to adult in nutritious cattle dung from pasture irrigated during the dry south-western Australian summer was measured in the field. When drowning was prevented by placing dung on a low embankment, survival was high for only the first two months of the fly season, which included the first month of the five-month irrigation period. Substantial emergence of wild M. vetustissima adults from naturally- infested dung occurred only around that time. Survival was so low during the last four months of irrigation, even in the absence of mortality caused by drowning, that irrigated pasture areas in south-western Australia are unlikely to have significantly greater potential for breeding of M. vetustissima than non-irrigated pastures during most of the summer.
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Taylor, AJ, and VL Marble. "Lucerne irrigation and soil water use during bloom and seed set on a red-brown earth in south-eastern Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 26, no. 5 (1986): 577. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9860577.
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Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) cv. WL45 1, grown on a shallow red-brown earth, was subjected to different irrigation frequencies during bloom to determine the effect on seed yield. The highest yield of 1105 kg ha-1 was produced when the crop was irrigated at an accumulated Epan of 75 mm between irrigations. Yields declined to 528 kg ha-1 as the interval between irrigations increased and the total amount of water applied during bloom was reduced as a consequence. Seed yield was positively correlated with total top growth, number of stems, number of racemes with pods and number of seeds per pod. Neither individual seed weight nor number of pods per raceme was influenced by the irrigation treatments. Soil water extraction by the crop was confined mainly to the 0-1.2 m depth. However, highest seed yields were produced when soil water extraction was confined to the 0-0.6 m depth by regular irrigation. About 16% of the available water in the 0.6-1.2 m depth and 89% of the available water in the 1.2-1.8 m depth could not be extracted by the crop. Failure to extract water from the lower subsoil was attributed to soil physical restrictions and lack of adequate root density.
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Buisine, F., and D. Oemcke. "Seasonal influence of waste stabilisation pond effluent on DAF/F (dissolved air flotation/filtration) process operation." Water Science and Technology 48, no. 2 (July 1, 2003): 357–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2003.0141.
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The Bolivar wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), North of Adelaide, South Australia encompasses the largest waste stabilisation pond (WSP) system in the Southern hemisphere. The wastewater effluent will ultimately be fully reused for agriculture irrigation. A dissolved air flotation/filtration (DAF/F) plant was installed for tertiary treatment downstream of the stabilisation lagoons for supply to the irrigation scheme. Chemical treatment in the form of coagulation and flocculation is required to assist the separation process. The DAF/F plant operation is highly dependent on the raw water algal population. Seasonal variations seem to be the main abiotic factors affecting the algal population growth. Significant doses of chemical can be required to respond to rapid changes of water quality. United Water International is currently assessing the appropriate chemical treatment for short term response, and is also working with Flinders University of South Australia on determining ways to manage the lagoons and to control the water quality feeding the DAF/F plant in the long term. This paper outlines the effect of seasonal variations of WSP effluent quality on the DAF/F process operation, the findings for an adapted chemical treatment, and the eventual possibilities for lagoon management.
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Stevens, D. P., M. J. McLaughlin, and M. K. Smart. "Effects of long-term irrigation with reclaimed water on soils of the Northern Adelaide Plains, South Australia." Soil Research 41, no. 5 (2003): 933. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr02049.
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On a small scale, reclaimed water (RCW) use has been practised on the Northern Adelaide Plains (NAP) horticultural districts for more than 28 years. The RCW has had approximately 1.7 times the salinity and twice the sodium absorption ratio (SAR) of bore water commonly used for irrigation in the district. Recently, a large-scale reclamation scheme has been commissioned which could eventually supply approximately 30 GL of RCW to over 250 growers on the NAP. This study compared historical water quality and time of use data with physico-chemical properties of soil cores taken from sites where reclaimed (RCW-irrigated) or bore water had been used for irrigation, or sites that had not been irrigated (virgin). The aim was to determine if current farming practices irrigating with RCW could, now or in the future, lead to a decrease in yields through detrimental increases in soil salinity, sodicity, and boron (B) concentrations, and to determine if these changes were significantly different from bore-irrigated or virgin sites. Data suggested that changes in soil salinity and B concentration from RCW use would not decrease yields. However, changes in soil SAR had the potential to restrict drainage and consequently increase salinity; although a more functional critical SAR value for the NAP soils needs to be defined to assess this potential. These findings suggest that farming methods, in the 1967–95 period, did not address the physico-chemical changes associated with the use of more sodic RCW. Considering the future scale of RCW use, the SAR of the irrigation water may need to be decreased and/or appropriate farming methods developed and practised with the use of RCW to protect these soils for future horticultural activities. A low cost soil test, using a simple 1 : 5 soil : water extract was compared with accepted soil extracts (for assessing detrimental physico-chemical soil changes) and is proposed as a grower management tool to assist in monitoring the physico-chemical changes of the NAP soils.
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Maheshwari, B. L., and T. A. McMahon. "Performance Evaluation of Border Irrigation Models for South-East Australia: Part 1, Advance and Recession Characteristics." Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 54, no. 1 (January 1993): 67–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jaer.1993.1005.
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Wright, G. C., C. J. Smith, and M. R. Woodroofe. "The effect of irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer on rapeseed (Brassica napes) production in South-Eastern Australia." Irrigation Science 9, no. 1 (February 1988): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00292139.
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Smith, C. J., G. C. Wright, and M. R. Woodroofe. "The effect of irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer on rapeseed (Brassica napus) production in South-Eastern Australia." Irrigation Science 9, no. 1 (February 1988): 15–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00292140.
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Chiew, FHS, and TA Mcmahon. "Groundwater recharge from rainfall and irrigation in the campaspe river basin." Soil Research 29, no. 5 (1991): 651. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9910651.
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Reliable estimates of groundwater recharge are required for effective evaluation of management options for salinity control and high water-tables in the Riverine Plain of south-eastern Australia. This paper provides a brief description of the integrated surface and groundwater modelling approach used to estimate regional recharge rates and presents the recharge rates estimated for the Campaspe River Basin. The integrated model is a powerful management tool as it can predict the relationship between rainfall, irrigation, recharge and rises in the water-table levels. The model predicted that approximately 15% of irrigation water recharges the shallow aquifer. Approximately 6% of rainfall contributes to recharge in the irrigated areas while 4 to 5% of rainfall becomes recharge in the dryland areas. Rainfall makes a greater contribution in the irrigation areas compared to the dryland areas because irrigation predisposes the soil to recharge from rainfall. The water-table levels in the irrigation areas are currently rising at approximately 0.14 m yr-1. This rate of rise will increase faster than the increase in irrigation applications.
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Langworthy, Adam D., Richard P. Rawnsley, Mark J. Freeman, Ross Corkrey, Keith G. Pembleton, Matthew T. Harrison, Peter A. Lane, and David A. Henry. "Effect of stubble height and irrigation management on the growth, botanical composition and persistence of perennial ryegrass, tall fescue and chicory swards in cool-temperate Tasmania." Crop and Pasture Science 70, no. 2 (2019): 169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp18311.
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The profitability of dairying in south-eastern Australia can be improved by increasing pasture production during summer–autumn, when growth rates for the existing perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) feedbase are low. A study undertaken in cool-temperate north-west Tasmania examined the effect of stubble height and irrigation management on swards of perennial ryegrass, continental (summer-active) tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and chicory (Cichorium intybus L.). Irrigation treatments included full irrigation (~20mm applied at every 20mm precipitation deficit), deficit irrigation (~20mm applied at alternate full-irrigation events) and rainfed (no irrigation). All species achieved greater summer–autumn yields when repeatedly defoliated to stubble heights of 35 or 55mm than when defoliated to 115mm, irrespective of irrigation treatment. Swards were managed under a common defoliation schedule of nine defoliation events in 12 months. Under full irrigation, second-year tall fescue achieved a greater summer–autumn yield than perennial ryegrass (by 10%, or 0.7 t DM ha–1), highlighting the potential role of tall fescue in north-west Tasmania. This was further demonstrated by the high marginal irrigation water-use index values (1.6–2.7 t DM ML–1) of tall fescue. By contrast, summer–autumn growth achieved by chicory was less than or equal to perennial ryegrass.
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Pagay, Vinay, and Catherine M. Kidman. "Evaluating Remotely-Sensed Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) Water Stress Responses Across a Viticultural Region." Agronomy 9, no. 11 (October 25, 2019): 682. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9110682.
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The evolving spatial and temporal knowledge about vineyard performance through the use of remote sensing offers new perspectives for vine water status studies. This paper describes the application of aerial thermal imaging to evaluate vine water status to improve irrigation scheduling decisions, water use efficiency, and overall winegrape quality in the Coonawarra viticultural region of South Australia. Airborne infrared images were acquired during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons in the region of Coonawarra, South Australia. Several thermal indices of crop water status (CWSI, Ig, (Tc-Ta)) were calculated that correlated with conventional soil and vine water status measures (Ψpd, Ψs, gs). CWSI and Ig could discriminate between the two cultivars used in this study, Cabernet Sauvignon (CAS) and Shiraz (SHI), as did the conventional water stress measures. The relationship between conventional vine water status measures appeared stronger with CWSI in the warmer and drier season (2016) compared to the cooler and wetter season (2017), where Ig and (Tc-Ta) showed stronger correlations. The study identified CWSI, Ig and (Tc-Ta) to be reliable indicators of vine water status under a variety of environmental conditions. This is the first study to report on high resolution vine water status at a regional scale in Australia using a combination of remote and direct sensing methods. This methodology is promising for aerial surveillance of vine water status across multiple blocks and cultivars to inform irrigation scheduling.
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Beecher, H. G., B. W. Dunn, J. A. Thompson, E. Humphreys, S. K. Mathews, and J. Timsina. "Effect of raised beds, irrigation and nitrogen management on growth, water use and yield of rice in south-eastern Australia." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 46, no. 10 (2006): 1363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea04136.
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To remain economically and environmentally sustainable, Australian rice growers need to be able to readily respond to market opportunities and increase cropping system productivity and water productivity. Water availability is decreasing whereas its price is increasing. Alternative irrigation layouts and water management approaches could contribute to reduced water use and increased irrigation efficiency. This paper reports results for the first crop (rice) in a cropping system experiment to compare permanent raised bed and conventional layouts on a transitional red-brown earth at Coleambally, New South Wales. The performance of conventional ponded rice grown on a flat layout was compared with rice grown on 1.84-m wide, raised beds with furrow and subsurface drip irrigation. In addition, deep and shallow ponded water depth treatments (15 and 5 cm water depth over the beds) were imposed on the rice on beds during the reproductive period. A range of nitrogen (N) fertiliser rates (0–180 kg N/ha) was applied to all treatments. The traditional flat flooded treatment (Flat) achieved the highest grain yield of 12.7 t/ha, followed by the deep (Bed 15) and shallow (Bed 5) ponded beds (10.2 and 10.1 t/ha, respectively). The furrow (Furrow) irrigated bed treatment yielded 9.4 t/ha and the furrow/drip (Furr/Drip) treatment yielded the lowest grain yield (8.3 t/ha). Grain yield from all bed treatments was reduced owing to the wide furrows (0.8 m between edge rows on adjacent beds), which were not planted to rice. Rice crop water use was significantly different between the layout–irrigation treatments. The Flat, Bed 5 and Bed 15 treatments had similar input (irrigation + rainfall – surface drainage) water use (mean of 18.3 ML/ha). The water use for the Furrow treatment was 17.2 ML/ha and for the Furr/Drip treatment, 15.1 ML/ha. Input WP of the Flat treatment (0.68 t/ML) was higher than the raised bed treatments, which were all similar (mean 0.55 t/ML). This single season experiment shows that high yielding rice crops can be successfully grown on raised beds, but when beds are ponded after panicle initiation, there is no water saving compared with rice grown on a conventional flat layout. Preliminary recommendations for the growing of rice on raised beds are that the crop be grown as a flooded crop in a bankless channel layout. This assists with weed control and allows flooding for cold temperature protection, which is necessary with current varieties. Until we find effective herbicides and other methods of weed control and N application that do not require ponding, there is little scope for saving water while maintaining yield on suitable rice soil through the use of beds.
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Aravena-Román, Max, Roxana Beaz-Hidalgo, Timothy J. J. Inglis, Thomas V. Riley, Antonio J. Martínez-Murcia, Barbara J. Chang, and Maria Jose Figueras. "Aeromonas australiensis sp. nov., isolated from irrigation water." International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 63, Pt_6 (June 1, 2013): 2270–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/ijs.0.040162-0.
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A Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacillus, designated strain 266T, was isolated from an irrigation water system in the south-west of Western Australia. Analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequence confirmed that strain 266T belonged to the genus Aeromonas , with the nearest species being Aeromonas fluvialis (99.6 % similarity to the type strain, with 6 nucleotide differences) followed by Aeromonas veronii and Aeromonas allosaccharophila (both 99.5 %). Analysis of gyrB and rpoD sequences suggested that strain 266T formed a phylogenetic line independent of other species in the genus. This was confirmed using the concatenated sequences of six housekeeping genes (gyrB, rpoD, recA, dnaJ, gyrA and dnaX) that also indicated that A. veronii and A. allosaccharophila were the nearest relatives. DNA–DNA reassociation experiments and phenotypic analysis further supported the conclusion that strain 266T represents a novel species, for which the name Aeromonas australiensis sp. nov. is proposed, with type strain 266T ( = CECT 8023T = LMG 2670T).
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O'Donnell, Erin L., Dustin E. Garrick, and Avril C. Horne. "Reallocation through irrigation modernization: The ‘once-in-a-hundred-year’ opportunity of the North-South Pipeline, Australia." Water Security 6 (March 2019): 100028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasec.2019.100028.
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Northey, J. E., E. W. Christen, J. E. Ayars, and J. Jankowski. "Occurrence and measurement of salinity stratification in shallow groundwater in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, south-eastern Australia." Agricultural Water Management 81, no. 1-2 (March 2006): 23–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.04.003.
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Maheshwari, B. L., and T. A. McMahon. "Performance Evaluation of Border Irrigation Models for South-East Australia: Part 2, Overall Suitability for Field Applications." Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 54, no. 2 (February 1993): 127–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jaer.1993.1008.
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Powell, J. W., J. M. Welsh, and R. Farquharson. "Investment analysis of solar energy in a hybrid diesel irrigation pumping system in New South Wales, Australia." Journal of Cleaner Production 224 (July 2019): 444–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.071.
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De Villiers, M., V. Hattingh, D. J. Kriticos, S. Brunel, J. F. Vayssières, A. Sinzogan, M. K. Billah, et al. "The potential distribution of Bactrocera dorsalis: considering phenology and irrigation patterns." Bulletin of Entomological Research 106, no. 1 (October 21, 2015): 19–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485315000693.
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AbstractA species in the Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) complex was detected in Kenya during 2003 and classified as Bactrocera invadens Drew, Tsuruta & White. Having spread rapidly throughout Africa, it threatens agriculture due to crop damage and loss of market access. In a recent revision of the B. dorsalis complex, B. invadens was incorporated into the species B. dorsalis. The potential distribution of B. dorsalis has been previously modelled. However, previous models were based on presence data and did not incorporate information on the seasonal phenology of B. dorsalis, nor on the possible influence that irrigation may have on its distribution. Methyl eugenol-baited traps were used to collect B. dorsalis in Africa. Seasonal phenology data, measured as fly abundance throughout the year, was related to each location's climate to infer climatic growth response parameters. These functions were used along with African distribution records and development studies to fit the niche model for B. dorsalis, using independent global distribution records outside Africa for model validation. Areas at greatest risk of invasion by B. dorsalis are South and Central America, Mexico, southernmost USA, parts of the Mediterranean coast, parts of Southern and Eastern Australia and New Zealand's North Island. Under irrigation, most of Africa and Australia appear climatically suitable.
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Meyer, WS, FX Dunin, RCG Smith, GSG Shell, and NS White. "Characterizing water use by irrigated wheat at Griffith, New South Wales." Soil Research 25, no. 4 (1987): 499. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9870499.
Full textAbstract:
Wheat is being grown increasingly in the irrigated areas of south-east Australia. Its profitability depends on high yields, which in turn, are highly dependent on accurate water management. This combination, together with the increasing need for greater water use efficiency to minimize accessions to rising water-tables, calls for effective irrigation scheduling. To achieve this, accurate estimates of crop water use and upward fluxes of water into the root zone from shallow water-tables are required. A weighing lysimeter, installed in 1984, measured hourly evaporation (Ea) from a wheat crop which enabled the accuracy of water use estimates to be assessed. Daily potential evaporation (Ep) was calculated from a combination equation previously calibrated over lucerne, while previously developed crop coefficients for wheat were used to convert Ep to estimated Ea. Daily Ea was the major component in a water balance model for irrigated wheat. The model was quite efficient (r2 = 0.911, but with a bias of -8.8%, which indicated that Ea values were generally underestimated. The underestimate was due primarily to the wind function used in the calculation of Ep, and alternative functions for both daily and hourly calculations were derived. The 1984 lysimeter data also showed that change in soil water content was accurately measured with the field-calibrated neutron probe. Comparisons of measured and estimated water use from field experiments in 1981 and 1982 indicated that upward flux from a water-table between 1 a5 and 2.1 m below the soil surface may be up to 30% of daily Ea. This upward flux will need to be taken into account if irrigation scheduling is to promote efficient use of irrigation water.
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Bonnell, Andrew G. "Transnational Socialists? German Social Democrats in Australia before 1914." Itinerario 37, no. 1 (April 2013): 101–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115313000284.
Full textAbstract:
Emigration from the German states was a mass phenomenon in the “long” nineteenth century. Much of this migration was of course labour migration, and German workers were very much on the move during the nineteenth century: in addition to the traditional Wanderschaft (travels) of journeymen, the century saw increasing internal migration within and between German-speaking lands, migration from rural areas to cities, and the participation of working people in emigration to destinations outside Europe. Over five million Germans left the German states from 1820 to 1914, with a large majority choosing the United States as their destination, especially in the earliest waves of migration. By comparison with the mass migration to North America, the flow of German migrants to the British colonies in Australia (which federated to form a single Commonwealth in 1901) was a relative trickle, but the numbers were still significant in the Australian context, with Germans counted as the second-largest national group among European settlers after the “British-born” (which included the Irish) in the nineteenth century, albeit a long way behind the British. After the influx of Old Lutheran religious dissidents from Prussia to South Australia in the late 1830s, there was a wave of German emigrants in the 1840s and 1850s, driven by the “push” factor of agrarian and economic crisis in the German states in the 1840s followed by the attraction of the Australian gold rushes and other opportunities, such as land-ownership incentives. While the majority of German settlers were economic migrants, this latter period also saw the arrival in the Australian colonies of a few “Forty-Eighters,” radicals and liberals who had been active in the political upheavals of 1848–9, some of whom became active in politics and the press in Australia. The 1891 census counted over 45,000 German-born residents in the Australian colonies.