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Journal articles on the topic 'Triathlons'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 1 February 2022

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1

Lenherr, Reto, Beat Knechtle, Christoph Rüst, Thomas Rosemann, and Romuald Lepers. "From Double Iron to Double Deca Iron Ultra-Triathlon - A Retrospective Data Analysis from 1985 to 2011." Physical Culture and Sport. Studies and Research 54, no. 1 (June 1, 2012): 55–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10141-012-0013-4.

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From Double Iron to Double Deca Iron Ultra-Triathlon - A Retrospective Data Analysis from 1985 to 2011Participation in ultra-endurance performance is of increasing popularity. We analyzed the historic development of the ultra-triathlon scene from 1985 to 2011 focusing on a) worldwide distribution of competition, b) participation, c) gender, and d) athlete nationality. We examined the participation trends of 3,579 athletes, involving 3,297 men (92.1%) and 300 women (7.9%), using linear regression analyses. Between 1985 and 2011, a total of 96 Double Iron ultra-triathlons (7.6km swimming, 360km cycling, and 84.4km running), 51 Triple Iron ultra-triathlons (11.6km swimming, 540km cycling, and 126.6km running), five Quadruple Iron ultra-triathlons (15.2km swimming, 720km cycling, and 168.8km running), five Quintuple Iron ultra-triathlons (19km swimming, 900km cycling, and 211km running), 11 Deca Iron ultra-triathlons (38km swimming, 1,800km cycling, and 422km running), and two Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlons (76km swimming, 3,600km cycling, and 844km running) were held. In total, 56.7% of the races were in Europe, 37.4% in North America, 5.3% in South America, and less than 1% in Asia. Europeans comprised 80% of the athletes. The number of male participants in Double (r2 = .56; P < .001) and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon (r2 = .47; P < .001) and the number of female participants in Double Iron ultra-triathlon (r2 = .66; P < .001) increased significantly. Less than 8% of the athletes total participated in an ultra-triathlon longer than a Triple Iron ultra-triathlon. Europeans won by far the most competitions in every distance. In conclusion, ultra-triathlon popularity is mainly limited to a) European and North American men and b) Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlons. Future studies need to investigate the motivation of these ultra-endurance athletes to compete in these extreme races.

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2

Knechtle, Beat, Caio Victor de Sousa, Herbert Gustavo Simões, Thomas Rosemann, and Pantelis Theodoros Nikolaidis. "Effects of the Performance Level and Race Distance on Pacing in Ultra-Triathlons." Journal of Human Kinetics 67, no. 1 (July 5, 2019): 247–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2018-0079.

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AbstractThe aim of this study was to examine the effects of the performance level and race distance on pacing in ultra-triathlons (Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca), wherein pacing is defined as the relative time (%) spent in each discipline (swimming, cycling and running). All finishers (n = 3,622) of Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons between 1985 and 2016 were analysed and classified into quartile groups (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4) with Q1 being the fastest and Q4 the slowest. Performance of all non-finishers (n = 1,000) during the same period was also examined. Triple and Quintuple triathlons (24.4%) produced the highest rate of non-finishers, and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons produced the lowest rate (18.0%) (χ2 = 12.1, p = 0.007, φC = 0.05). For the relative swimming and cycling times (%), Deca triathletes (6.7 ± 1.5% and 48.8 ± 4.9%, respectively) proved the fastest and Double (9.2 ± 1.6% and 49.6 ± 3.6%) Iron ultra-triathletes were the slowest (p < 0.008) with Q4 being the fastest group (8.3 ± 1.6% and 48.8 ± 4.3%) and Q1 the slowest one (9.5 ± 1.5% and 50.9 ± 3.0%) (p < 0.001). In running, Double triathletes were relatively the fastest (41.2 ± 4.0%) and Deca (44.5 ± 5.4%) Iron ultra-triathletes the slowest (p < 0.001) with Q1 being the fastest (39.6 ± 3.3%) and Q4 the slowest group (42.9 ± 4.7%) (p < 0.001). Based on these findings, it was concluded that the fastest ultra-triathletes spent relatively more time swimming and cycling and less time running, highlighting the importance of the role of the latter discipline for the overall ultra-triathlon performance. Furthermore, coaches and ultra-triathletes should be aware of differences in pacing between Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca Iron triathlons.

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3

Hue, Olivier, Olivier Galy, and Daniel Le Gallais. "Exercise intensity during repeated days of racing in professional triathletes." Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 31, no. 3 (June 1, 2006): 250–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/h05-035.

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The purpose of this study was to estimate the exercise intensity from the competition heart rate (HR) of professional triathletes during a multi-triathlon race. Five internationally ranked professional triathletes completed incremental cycling and running tests to assess the first and second ventilatory thresholds (i.e., VT and RCT) and the HR at VT and RCT. HR was then monitored during a 5 d multi-triathlon race: a prologue time trial (PTT, 0.2 km swim - 5 km cycle - 1.2 km run) that opened the race; short-distance triathlons (SHD; 1.3 km swim - 36 km cycle - 8.4 km run) performed on the 2nd and 5th days; and sprint-distance triathlons (SPD; 0.75 km swim - 20 km cycle - 5 km run) performed on the 3rd and 4th days. All trials except the last (i.e., the second SHD) were performed above HR corresponding to RCT. PTT elicited significantly higher mean HR than the other trials (except for the first SPD trial). In contrast, the last SHD elicited significantly lower HR than the other trials. These responses were globally similar in the 3 segments (i.e., swim, cycle, and run). This study demonstrates that the triathletes performed at very high intensity during a drafting-permitted multi-triathlon race. However, as shown for multi-day cycling distances, the HR responses depended on (i) the distance covered and (ii) group behavior.Key words: heart rate, ventilatory thresholds, swim, cycle, run.

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4

Teległów, Aneta, Jakub Marchewka, Łukasz Tota, Bartłomiej Ptaszek, Wanda Pilch, Tomasz Pałka, Dariusz Mucha, Jadwiga Kubica, Paulina Aleksander-Szymanowicz, and Anna Marchewka. "Changes in the Morphological, Rheological, and Biochemical Blood Indicators in Triathletes." Folia Biologica 68, no. 3 (September 30, 2020): 107–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3409/fb_68-3.13.

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The aim of this study was to assess how the influence of intense physical effort changes the morphological, rheological, and biochemical blood indicators in triathletes. The study group comprised 10 triathletes aged 30-45 years, members of the Active Side of Life Association (Kraków, Poland). Venous blood was collected from the study participants twice, before and after the DiablakBeskid Extreme Triathlon 2016 (the Carpathians, Poland), and once from the control group for analysis of the selected blood indicators. Statistically significant changes were observed in the study group before and after the triathlon in morphological blood indicators, in the elongation index at the shear stress of 0.30 and 0.58 Pa, in levels of electrolytes, creatinine (mmol/l), serum protein parameters, and high-sensitivity troponin (ng/l). No such differences were reported for the remaining parameters. In turn, when comparing the study group before the triathlon with the control group, statistically significant differences were recorded in MCHC (g/dl), in the elongation index at the shear stress of 0.30 and 0.58 Pa, and Cl– (mmol/l) levels. No such differences were reported for the remaining parameters. Blood haematological and biochemical indicators in individuals that participate in triathlons characterize the actual range and direction of effort-related changes well and allow for the diagnosis of transient adaptive effects. Rheological parameters, involving the evaluation of erythrocyte deformability and aggregation, are useful for monitoring the particularly undesirable, short- and long-term effects of practicing extreme sports such as triathlons.

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5

Hendy, Helen M., and Bonnie J. Boyer. "Specificity in the Relationship between Training and Performance in Triathlons." Perceptual and Motor Skills 81, no. 3_suppl (December 1995): 1231–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pms.1995.81.3f.1231.

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The present study examines whether swim, cycle, and run performance during a triathlon are predicted best by training in the same sport, as suggested by the theory of specificity for the relationship between sport training and performance. Using behavioral measures of training (pace, mileage, workouts), multiple regression analyses of questionnaire responses from 624 triathletes (443 men, 181 women) showed pace of training in the same sport to be the best predictor of swim and run performance for both sprint and endurance triathlons. No clear patterns were seen for cycle performance. Thus, specificity in the relationship between training and performance appears supported, especially for sports that rely more on the body (swim, run) and less on equipment (cycle).

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6

Millour, Geoffrey, Loic Janson, Sebastien Duc, Frederic Puel, and William Bertucci. "Effect of cycling shoe cleat position on biomechanical and physiological responses during cycling and subsequent running parts of a simulated Sprint triathlon: a pilot study." Journal of Science and Cycling 9, no. 1 (June 30, 2020): 57–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.28985/0620.jsc.02.

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Proper cleat adjustment improves cycling performance and prevents knee injuries. Recommendations have included positioning the first metatarsal head above the pedal spindle or slightly forward, but mid-foot cleat positions could be more appropriate in triathlons at constant load for their impact on the subsequent running performance. We evaluated the impact of antero-posterior cleat position on biomechanical and physiological variables during the cycling and running parts of a simulated Sprint triathlon. Seven participants performed two 32-min cycling tests including 8 sets of 3 min 30 s intervals performed at just below the power output at the first ventilatory threshold interspersed with 30 s sprints at > 100% of the maximal aerobic power. The cycling exercises were immediately followed by a maximal running performance of 20 min. The tests were performed with a 5-mm backward (BCP) and a 5-mm forward (FCP) first metatarsal cleat position. The BCP decreased the energetic cost during running (5.9%; p = 0.04; effect size [ES] = 0.92) despite no significant performance change in the cycling or the subsequent running tests. Moreover, the BCP resulted in a lower soleus recruitment during sub-maximal intensity (7.0%; p < 0.05; ES = 1.23) and of the gastrocnemius medialis (25.0%; ES = 1.00; p < 0.05) and tibialis anterior (11.9%; ES = 1.51) during the subsequent running. However, we observed much higher recruitment of the soleus (8.8%; ES = 1.36), vastus lateralis (10.1%; ES = 1.37), biceps femoris (12.0%; ES = 1.45), tibialis anterior (16.4%; ES = 3.35), and overall lower limb (11%; ES = 0.92) during sprints with the BCP. Therefore, the BCP could be more suitable in triathlons by being more economical for subsequent running despite the greater muscle activity during the cycling sprints, which form an important part of the cycling portion of Sprint triathlons.

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7

O??TOOLE, MARY L. "Training for ultraendurance triathlons." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 21, Supplement (October 1989): S214???S218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198910001-00015.

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8

Wainer, Howard, and Richard D. De Veaux. "Resizing Triathlons for Fairness." CHANCE 7, no. 1 (January 1994): 20–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09332480.1994.10542407.

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9

Wainer, Howard, and Richard D. De Veaux. "RESIZING TRIATHLONS FOR FAIRNESS." ETS Research Report Series 1994, no. 1 (June 1994): i—12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.2333-8504.1994.tb01588.x.

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10

McMurray, Robert, David K. Williams, and Claudio L. Battaglini. "The Timing of Fluid Intake during an Olympic Distance Triathlon." International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 16, no. 6 (December 2006): 611–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.16.6.611.

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Seven highly trained male triathletes, aged 18 to 35 years, were tested during two simulated Olympic distance triathlons to determine whether run performance was enhanced when consuming 177 ml of water at 8, 16, 24, and 32 kilometers (Early Trials) compared to consumption at 10, 20, 30, and 40 kilometers (Late Trials), during the cycling segment of the triathlon. Swim times for 1500 m were similar between trials; 40-km cycling times were ~10 s faster during the Late trials; however, 10-km run times were faster during the Early Trials (P < 0.02). No significant differences between run trials were found for the rating of perceived exertion, oxygen uptake, heart rate, and change in urine specific gravity. It was concluded that the consumption of fluids earlier in the cycle phase of the Olympic distance triathlon benefits the run and overall performance time.

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11

Farkas, Gary M. "Exposure and Response Prevention in the Treatment of an Okeanophobic Triathlete." Sport Psychologist 3, no. 3 (September 1989): 189–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.3.3.189.

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An in vivo exposure and response prevention procedure consisting of seven treatment and generalization sessions was used to aid a 50-year-old woman with a lifelong fear and avoidance of swimming in the ocean. Subsequent to treatment, the subject, already a competent pool swimmer and an accomplished athlete, swam in the ocean, reduced her swim time by over 50%, and placed second in her age group while competing in a major triathlon. A 1-year follow-up indicated that she was still swimming in the ocean and participating in triathlons. The athlete/sport psychologist relationship is discussed in reference to the athlete’s compliance with treatment recommendations.

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12

Margaritis, Irène. "Facteurs Limitants de la Performance en Triathlon." Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 21, no. 1 (February 1, 1996): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/h96-001.

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Triathlon is a multievent sport (swimming, cycling, running). Long duration triathlons can induce physiological stress that can be modulated by environmental conditions. Certain factors promote performance, others limit it. A minimal level of maximal oxygen uptake is required, but it does not always determine the performance. For triathletes, the low hematocrit values do not reflect anemia and therefore do not limit performance. The appearance of clinical signs of dehydratation and of digestive impairment may limit performance. The performance in swimming does not play the most important role in triathlon performance, but the physiological conditions in which the first transition is made can limit performance in the two following events; this is also the case for the second transition. Triathlon races cause muscle damage whose signs persist several days. Given the hormonal responses and the indices of muscle damage, it appears necessary to rest at least 5 days to avoid overtraining. It is difficult to define precisely how much one should train for each of the three events. However, it can be concluded that triathlon training has to be taken as a whole. Key words: training, endurance, recovery, triathlete

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13

DOUGLAS, W., and B. HILLER. "Dehydration and hyponatremia during triathlons." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 21, Supplement (October 1989): S222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198910001-00017.

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14

LAIRD, ROBERT H. "Medical care at ultraendurance triathlons." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 21, Supplement (October 1989): S222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198910001-00018.

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15

Dolinar, Joanne. "Triathlons—Not Just for Ironmen." Physician and Sportsmedicine 18, no. 10 (October 1990): 120–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00913847.1990.11710161.

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16

Hiller, W. Douglas B., Mary L. O'Toole, Eric E. Fortess, Robert H. Laird, Peter C. Imbert, and T. David Sisk. "Medical and physiological considerations in triathlons." American Journal of Sports Medicine 15, no. 2 (March 1987): 164–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/036354658701500212.

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17

Whyte, G. P., K. George, P. Gates, S. Lumley, S. Sharma, K. Prasad, and W. J. McKenna. "CARDIAC FATIGUE FOLLOWING ULTRA - ENDURANCE TRIATHLONS." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 31, Supplement (May 1999): S393. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199905001-02016.

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18

Brown, Candace. "THE INTERSECT OF SOCIAL DETERMINANTS, MOTIVATION, AND BLACK WOMEN TRIATHLETES." Innovation in Aging 3, Supplement_1 (November 2019): S591. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igz038.2192.

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Abstract Social determinants of health are often adjacent to negative impacts on physical health due to the association of a sedentary lifestyle. Yet, knowledge is limited regarding how motivation to exercise, through sport, may relate to social determinants. This study aimed to understand the intersect of social determinants of Black women who exercise, by participating in triathlons, using the novel Motivations for Triathletes Interview Guide (MOTIG). The Organismic Integration Theory guided an assessment of social determinants among (N = 12) Black women from nine scales within the MOTIG. The subtheme ‘physical awareness’ supported Health Orientation while ‘social support’, ‘camaraderie’ and ‘family’, all supported the Affiliation scale. Results indicate that Black women who exercise through triathlon are motivated because certain social determinants are positively addressed. Future interventions directed toward sedentary women should consider how to positively reinforce individual and social determinants to increase motivation to exercise.

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19

JANCIN, BRUCE. "More Sudden Deaths in Triathlons Than Marathons." Internal Medicine News 42, no. 10 (May 2009): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1097-8690(09)70351-8.

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20

de Milander, L., M. Kun, A. September, M. Schwellnus, T. Noakes, and M. Collins. "AVPR2 Gene and Weight Changes During Triathlons." International Journal of Sports Medicine 33, no. 01 (November 3, 2011): 67–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1285865.

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21

McGawley, Kerry, Oliver Shannon, and James Betts. "Ingesting a high-dose carbohydrate solution during the cycle section of a simulated Olympic-distance triathlon improves subsequent run performance." Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 37, no. 4 (August 2012): 664–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/h2012-040.

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The well-established ergogenic benefit of ingesting carbohydrates during single-discipline endurance sports has only been tested once within an Olympic-distance (OD) triathlon. The aim of the present study was to compare the effect of ingesting a 2:1 maltodextrin/fructose solution with a placebo on simulated OD triathlon performance. Six male and 4 female amateur triathletes (age, 25 ± 7 years; body mass, 66.8 ± 9.2 kg; peak oxygen uptake, 4.2 ± 0.6 L·min–1) completed a 1500-m swim time-trial and an incremental cycle test to determine peak oxygen uptake before performing 2 simulated OD triathlons. The swim and cycle sections of the main trials were of fixed intensities, while the run section was completed as a time-trial. Two minutes prior to completing every quarter of the cycle participants consumed 202 ± 20 mL of either a solution containing 1.2 g·min–1 of maltodextrin plus 0.6 g·min–1 of fructose at 14.4% concentration (CHO) or a sugar-free, fruit-flavored drink (PLA). The time-trial was 4.0% ± 1.3% faster during the CHO versus PLA trial, with run times of 38:43 ± 1:10 min:s and 40:22 ± 1:18 min:s, respectively (p = 0.010). Blood glucose concentrations were higher in the CHO versus PLA trial (p < 0.001), while perceived stomach upset did not differ between trials (p = 0.555). The current findings show that a 2:1 maltodextrin/fructose solution (1.8 g·min–1 at 14.4%) ingested throughout the cycle section of a simulated OD triathlon enhances subsequent 10-km run performance in triathletes.

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22

Knechtle, Beat, Tiago M. Barbosa, and Pantelis Theo Nikolaidis. "The age-related changes and sex difference in master swimming performance." Movement & Sport Sciences - Science & Motricité, no. 104 (2019): 29–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/sm/2019020.

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Master athletes have been widely used to examine the age-induced decline of human performance. However, so far very limited reviews are available consolidating the age-related differences in master swimming performance. The aim of the present review was to summarize existing knowledge about the age-related changes in three modalities of swimming performance (i.e., pool-swimming, open-water swimming and swim split in triathlons of different distances). In addition, the paradigm of freestyle swimming records from 50 to 1500 m was used to examine age-related differences and sex difference in performance for age groups 25–29 to 100–104 years. For this example of master freestyle swimmers, the sex difference was smaller in the longer events and increased significantly after the age of ∼70 years. In summary, master athletes competing in swimming as single discipline (i.e., pool-swimming and open-water) and in triathlon (i.e., swim split as first discipline) improved their performances across calendar years. The age-related performance decline in swimming seems to be specific to the discipline, the sex and the length of the swimming event.

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23

Harris, Kevin M., Lawrence Creswell, Taylor Thomas, Tammy Haas, Monica Tung, Erin Isaacson, Ross Garberich, and Barry Maron. "FATALITIES IN UNITED STATES TRIATHLONS: AN EXPANDED PROFILE." Journal of the American College of Cardiology 67, no. 13 (April 2016): 1632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0735-1097(16)31633-3.

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24

Furst, David M., Thomas Ferr, and Nancy Megginson. "Motivation of Disabled Athletes to Participate in Triathlons." Psychological Reports 72, no. 2 (April 1993): 403–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1993.72.2.403.

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25 competitors in the Fifth National Triathlon for the Physically Challenged responded to a questionnaire regarding their previous and current exercise and participation in sports. Analysis showed that the majority had been active before the onset of disability and that the encouragement and motivation provided by other physically disabled individuals was the consistent factor in their own initial rehabilitation and subsequent participation in sports.

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25

Evans, Stuart A., Daniel A. James, David Rowlands, and James B. Lee. "The Effect of Cleat Position on Running Using Acceleration-Derived Data in the Context of Triathlons." Sensors 21, no. 17 (September 2, 2021): 5899. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21175899.

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Appropriate cycling cleat adjustment could improve triathlon performance in both cycling and running. Prior recommendations regarding cleat adjustment have comprised aligning the first metatarsal head above the pedal spindle or somewhat forward. However, contemporary research has questioned this approach in triathlons due to the need to run immediately after cycling. Subsequently, moving the pedal cleat posteriorly could be more appropriate. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a triaxial accelerometer to determine acceleration magnitudes of the trunk in outdoor cycling in two different bicycle cleat positions and the consequential impact on trunk acceleration during running. Seven recreational triathletes performed a 20 km cycle and a 5 km run using their own triathlon bicycle complete with aerodynamic bars and gearing. Interpretation of data was evaluated based on cadence changes whilst triathletes cycled in an aerodynamic position in two cleat positions immediately followed by a self-paced overground run. The evaluation of accelerometer-derived data within a characteristic overground setting suggests a significant increase in total trunk acceleration magnitude during cycling with a posterior cleat with significant increases to longitudinal acceleration (p = 0.04) despite a small effect (d = 0.2) to the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Cycling with a posterior cleat significantly reduced longitudinal trunk acceleration in running and overall acceleration magnitudes (p < 0.0001) with a large effect size (d = 0.9) and a significant reduction in RPE (p = 0.02). In addition, running after cycling in a posterior cleat was faster compared to running after cycling in a standard cleat location. Practically, the magnitude of trunk acceleration during cycling in a posterior cleat position as well as running after posterior cleat cycling differed from that when cycling in the fore-aft position followed by running. Therefore, the notion that running varies after cycling is not merely an individual athlete’s perception, but a valid observation that can be modified when cleat position is altered. Training specifically with a posterior cleat in cycling might improve running performance when trunk accelerations are analysed.

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26

Potgieter, Sunita, Hattie H. Wright, and Carine Smith. "Caffeine Improves Triathlon Performance: A Field Study in Males and Females." International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 28, no. 3 (May 1, 2018): 228–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0165.

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The ergogenic effect of caffeine on endurance exercise is commonly accepted. We aimed to elucidate realistically the effect of caffeine on triathlon event performance using a field study design, while allowing investigation into potential mechanisms at play. A double-blind, randomized, crossover field trial was conducted. Twenty-six triathletes (14 males and 12 females; mean ± SD: age = 37.8 ± 10.6 years, habitual caffeine intake = 413 ± 505 mg/day, percentage body fat = 14.5 ± 7.2%, and training/week = 12.8 ± 4.5 hr) participated in this study. Microencapsulated caffeine (6 mg/kg body weight) was supplemented 60 min pretrial. Performance data included time to completion, rating of perceived exertion, and profile of mood states. Blood samples taken before, during, and postrace were analyzed for cortisol, testosterone, and full blood count. Capillary blood lactate concentrations were assessed prerace, during transitions, and 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 min after triathlons. Caffeine supplementation resulted in a 3.7% reduction in swim time (33.5 ± 7.0 vs. 34.8 ± 8.1 min, p < .05) and a 1.3% reduction in time to completion (149.6 ± 19.8 vs. 151.5 ± 18.6 min, p < .05) for the whole group. Gender differences and individual responses are also presented. Caffeine did not alter the rating of perceived exertion significantly, but better performance after caffeine supplementation suggests a central effect resulting in greater overall exercise intensity at the same rating of perceived exertion. Caffeine supplementation was associated with higher postexercise cortisol levels (665 ± 200 vs. 543 ± 169 nmol/L, p < .0001) and facilitated greater peak blood lactate accumulation (analysis of variance main effect, p < .05). We recommend that triathlon athletes with relatively low habitual caffeine intake may ingest 6 mg/kg body weight caffeine, 45–60 min before the start of Olympic-distance triathlon to improve their performance.

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27

Askin, Debbie Fraser. "An Invitation to Push Yourself." Neonatal Network 27, no. 2 (March 2008): 73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0730-0832.27.2.73.

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RUNNING A MARATHON IS ALL ABOUT PUSHING THE human body farther than its meant to go: Beyond the point where glycogen is available, beyond the point where muscles cease complaining and just plain cramp up. Doing a Google search on “pushing yourself” yields all kinds of references to running, training, triathlons, just about any type of physical training imaginable.

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28

Ho, Reginald T., and Karen Glanz. "Sudden Death During Triathlons: The Heart of the Swim." Annals of Internal Medicine 167, no. 8 (September 19, 2017): 589. http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/m17-2031.

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29

Saunders, Colleen J., Liesl de Milander, Tamara Hew-Butler, Stavroulla L. Xenophontos, Marios A. Cariolou, Lakis C. Anastassiades, Timothy D. Noakes, and Malcolm Collins. "Dipsogenic genes associated with weight changes during Ironman Triathlons." Human Molecular Genetics 15, no. 20 (September 1, 2006): 2980–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddl240.

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30

Seifarth, Sebastian, Pavel Dietz, Alexander C. Disch, Martin Engelhardt, and Stefan Zwingenberger. "The Prevalence of Legal Performance-Enhancing Substance Use and Potential Cognitive and or Physical Doping in German Recreational Triathletes, Assessed via the Randomised Response Technique." Sports 7, no. 12 (November 26, 2019): 241. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports7120241.

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This study investigated the use of performance-enhancing substances in recreational triathletes who were competing in German races at distances ranging from super-sprint to long-distance, as per the International Triathlon Union. The use of legal drugs and over-the-counter supplements over the previous year, painkillers over the previous 3 months, and the potential three-month prevalence of physical doping and or cognitive doping in this group were assessed via an anonymous questionnaire. The Randomised Response Technique (RRT) was implemented for sensitive questions regarding “prescription drugs […] for the purpose of performance enhancement […] only available at a pharmacy or on the black market”. The survey did not directly state the word “doping,” but included examples of substances that could later be classed as physical and or cognitive doping. The subjects were not required to detail what they were taking. Overall, 1953 completed questionnaires were received from 3134 registered starters at six regional events—themselves involving 17 separate races—in 2017. Of the respondents, 31.8% and 11.3% admitted to the use of dietary supplements, and of painkillers during the previous three months, respectively. Potential physical doping and cognitive doping over the preceding year were reported by 7.0% (Confidence Interval CI: 4.2–9.8) and 9.4% (CI: 6.6–12.3) of triathletes. Gender, age, experience in endurance sports, and number of weekly triathlon training hours were linked to potential physical or cognitive doping. Given the potentially relevant side effects of painkiller use and physical and or cognitive doping, we recommend that educational and preventative measures for them be implemented within amateur triathlons.

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de Milander, Liesl, Dan J. Stein, and Malcolm Collins. "The interleukin-6, serotonin transporter, and monoamine oxidase A genes and endurance performance during the South African Ironman Triathlon." Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 34, no. 5 (October 2009): 858–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/h09-083.

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Previous studies have identified an association of genetic variants believed to alter physiological and biochemical processes locally within the skeletal muscle and therefore performance in the Ironman triathlon. There is growing evidence that the serotonergic system and circulating interleukin (IL)-6 levels are also involved in mediating endurance capacity. Investigators have demonstrated that recombinant human IL-6 administration and serotonergic neurotransmission manipulation, with 5-hydroxytryptamine transporter (5-HTT) and monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) inhibitors, prior to exercise, can alter running performance, consistent with a central governor hypothesis. The aim of this study was to investigate possible associations of functional polymorphisms within the IL-6 , 5-HTT , and MAO-A genes with endurance performance of Ironman triathletes. Four hundred sixty-eight male Caucasian triathletes who completed the 2000 and (or) 2001 South African Ironman Triathlon and 200 healthy Caucasian male controls were genotyped for the –174 IL-6 G/C, 5-HTT 40 base pair (bp) insertion–deletion and 30 bp variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) MAO-A gene polymorphisms. There were no significant differences in the relative genotype distributions within the IL-6 (p = 0.636), 5-HTT (p = 0.659), and MOA-A (p = 0.227) polymorphisms when the fastest-fnishing, middle-finishing, and slowest-finishing triathletes, as well as the control groups, were compared. There were no direct associations between the IL-6 –174 G/C, 5-HTT 44 bp insertion–deletion, and MAO-A 30 bp VNTR gene polymorphisms and endurance performance in the 2000 and (or) 2001 South African Ironman Triathlons. The neurogenetic basis of the central governor requires further investigation.

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Hausswirth, Christophe, and Didier Leh??naff. "Physiological Demands of Running During Long Distance Runs and Triathlons." Sports Medicine 31, no. 9 (2001): 679–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131090-00004.

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Aoyagi, Atsushi, Keisuke Ishikura, and Yoshiharu Nabekura. "Exercise Intensity during Olympic-Distance Triathlon in Well-Trained Age-Group Athletes: An Observational Study." Sports 9, no. 2 (January 21, 2021): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports9020018.

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The aim of this study was to examine the exercise intensity during the swimming, cycling, and running legs of nondraft legal, Olympic-distance triathlons in well-trained, age-group triathletes. Seventeen male triathletes completed incremental swimming, cycling, and running tests to exhaustion. Heart rate (HR) and workload corresponding to aerobic and anaerobic thresholds, maximal workloads, and maximal HR (HRmax) in each exercise mode were analyzed. HR and workload were monitored throughout the race. The intensity distributions in three HR zones for each discipline and five workload zones in cycling and running were quantified. The subjects were then assigned to a fast or slow group based on the total race time (range, 2 h 07 min–2 h 41 min). The mean percentages of HRmax in the swimming, cycling, and running legs were 89.8% ± 3.7%, 91.1% ± 4.4%, and 90.7% ± 5.1%, respectively, for all participants. The mean percentage of HRmax and intensity distributions during the swimming and cycling legs were similar between groups. In the running leg, the faster group spent relatively more time above HR at anaerobic threshold (AnT) and between workload at AnT and maximal workload. In conclusion, well-trained male triathletes performed at very high intensity throughout a nondraft legal, Olympic-distance triathlon race, and sustaining higher intensity during running might play a role in the success of these athletes.

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Medema, G. J., I. A. van Asperen, J. M. Klokman-Houweling, A. Nooitgedagt, M. J. W. van de Laar, and A. H. Havelaar. "The relationship between health effects in triathletes and microbiological quality of freshwater." Water Science and Technology 31, no. 5-6 (March 1, 1995): 19–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1995.0549.

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This pilot study was carried out to determine the relationship between microbiological water quality parameters and the occurrence of health complaints among triathletes. Data were collected at an Olympic distance triathlon (n=314) and a run-bike-run (n=81; controls for exposure to fresh water). At the time of the triathlon, the concentrations of Escherichia coli , thermotolerant coliforms, faecal streptococci, entero- and reoviruses, F-specific RNA phages, Salmonella, Campylobacter, Aeromonas, Plesiomonas shigelloides, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus were examined over the swimming course. Information on the occurrence of health complaints during the competition and in the week thereafter was collected through a written questionnaire. The results show that triathletes and run-bike-runners are comparable with respect to factors other than water exposure (age, sex, training history, physical stress, lower intestinal health complaints during the competition) that may influence the occurrence of health complaints in the week after the competition. Triathletes and run-bike-runners reported gastro-intestinal (7.7% vs 2.5%), respiratory (5.5% vs 3.7%), skin/mucosal (2.6% vs 1.2%), general (3.5% vs 1.2%) and total symptoms (14.8% vs 7.4%) in the week after the event. The health risks for triathletes for all symptom groups are not significantly higher than for run-bike-runners. The geometric mean concentration of faecal indicator bacteria is relatively low: E. coli 170/100 ml; faecal streptococci 13/100 ml, enteroviruses were present at concentrations of 0.1/l. The group of triathletes was homogeneusly and relatively intensely exposed to water; they all swam in the same body of water at the same time and 75% reported to have swallowed freshwater. It was concluded that this study design is suitable to study the relationship between health complaints and microbiological water quality. In the summers of 1993 and 1994, a study will be carried out concerning several run-bike-runs and triathlons in freshwaters of different quality.

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Hill, Eddie, Tamara Morgan, and Brittany Hooper. "Hosting Triathlons on a College Campus: Perceived Health Outcomes and Satisfaction." Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership 10, no. 3 (2018): 256–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.18666/jorel-2018-v10-i3-9045.

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McIntosh, Taylor, Eddie Hill, and Tamara Morgan. "Hosting Triathlons on a College Campus: Perceived Health Outcomes and Values." Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership 11, no. 3 (2019): 262–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.18666/jorel-2019-v11-i3-9918.

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37

Knechtle, B., P. Knechtle, and R. Lepers. "Participation and performance trends in ultra-triathlons from 1985 to 2009." Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 21, no. 6 (July 6, 2010): e82-e90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01160.x.

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38

Domingo, R., E. Sturrock, and M. Collins. "ACE Activity and Endurance Performance during the South African Ironman Triathlons." International Journal of Sports Medicine 34, no. 05 (October 22, 2012): 402–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1323820.

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Olcina, Guillermo, Miguel Perez-Sousa, Juan Escobar-Alvarez, and Rafael Timón. "Effects of Cycling on Subsequent Running Performance, Stride Length, and Muscle Oxygen Saturation in Triathletes." Sports 7, no. 5 (May 16, 2019): 115. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports7050115.

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Running performance is a determinant factor for victory in Sprint and Olympic distance triathlon. Previous cycling may impair running performance in triathlons, so brick training becomes an important part of training. Wearable technology that is used by triathletes can offer several metrics for optimising training in real-time. The aim of this study was to analyse the effect of previous cycling on subsequent running performance in a field test, while using kinematics metrics and SmO2 provided by wearable devices that are potentially used by triathletes. Ten trained triathletes participated in a randomised crossover study, performing two trial sessions that were separated by seven days: the isolated run trial (IRT) and the bike-run trial (BRT). Running kinematics, physiological outcomes, and perceptual parameters were assessed before and after each running test. The running distance was significantly lower in the BRT when compared to the IRT, with a decrease in stride length of 0.1 m (p = 0.00) and higher %SmO2 (p = 0.00) in spite of the maximal intensity of exercise. No effects were reported in vertical oscillation, ground contact time, running cadence, and average heart rate. These findings may only be relevant to ‘moderate level’ triathletes, but not to ‘elite’ ones. Triathletes might monitor their %SmO2 and stride length during brick training and then compare it with isolated running to evaluate performance changes. Using wearable technology (near-infrared spectroscopy, accelerometry) for specific brick training may be a good option for triathletes.

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Villavicencio, Alan T., Theresa D. Hernández, Sigita Burneikiene, and Jeff Thramann. "Neck pain in multisport athletes." Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine 7, no. 4 (October 2007): 408–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/spi-07/10/408.

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Object The sport of triathlon is very physically demanding and has experienced rapid growth in recent years. The number of triathletes seen for spine disorders at neurosurgery clinics is increasing. Neck pain and overuse injuries have not been adequately studied in multisport athletes. The authors undertook an epidemiological study to establish the lifetime incidence of neck pain and the prevalence of possible discogenic pain, and to identify risk factors among triathletes in the Boulder, Colorado area. Methods An online questionnaire was developed to collect information about physical characteristics, training habits, athletic status, number of races completed, and neck pain among triathletes. The incidence of possible cervical discogenic pain was defined according to the duration of symptoms for the most recent pain episode. Results One hundred and sixty-four athletes responded to the questionnaire. The lifetime incidence of neck pain was 47.6% (78 athletes), with 15.4% possibly being of discogenic origin based on the duration of symptoms. Approximately 64% of responding athletes reported that their neck pain was sports related. Although the number of previous triathlons was not predictive of neck pain, total years in the sport (p = 0.029) and number of previous sports-related injuries (p < 0.0001) were. Conclusions Two major risk factors for long-term spinal problems in triathletes are sports-related injuries and overuse. This report is one of the first comprehensive studies of neck pain and overuse injury in multisport athletes.

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Smyth, Barry. "Recommender Systems: A Healthy Obsession." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 33 (July 17, 2019): 9790–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v33i01.33019790.

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We propose endurance sports as a rich and novel domain for recommender systems and machine learning research. As sports like marathon running, triathlons, and mountain biking become more and more popular among recreational athletes, there exists a growing opportunity to develop solutions to a number of interesting prediction, classification, and recommendation challenges, to better support the complex training and competition needs of athletes. Such solutions have the potential to improve the health and well-being of large populations of users, by promoting and optimising exercise as part of a productive and healthy lifestyle.

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Turris, Sheila A., Adam Lund, Ron R. Bowles, Michael Camporese, and Tom Green. "Patient Presentations and Medical Logistics at Full and Half Ironman Distance Triathlons." Current Sports Medicine Reports 16, no. 3 (2017): 137–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/jsr.0000000000000367.

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COLLINS, MALCOLM, STAVROULLA L. XENOPHONTOS, MARIOS A. CARIOLOU, GAONYADIWE G. MOKONE, DALE E. HUDSON, LAKIS ANASTASIADES, and TIMOTHY D. NOAKES. "The ACE Gene and Endurance Performance during the South African Ironman Triathlons." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 36, no. 8 (August 2004): 1314–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000135779.41475.42.

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Maxcy, Joel, Pamela Wicker, and Joachim Prinz. "Happiness as a Reward for Torture: Is Participation in a Long-Distance Triathlon a Rational Choice?" Journal of Sports Economics 20, no. 2 (February 18, 2018): 177–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1527002518758144.

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This study applies prospect theory to an assessment of actual behavior. Loss aversion, reference dependence, and diminishing sensitivity are conceptualized through survey respondents’ perceptions of physical and mental torture during training for and competition in long-distance triathlons. Regression results show that frequent thoughts of giving up during the race negatively affect happiness after the race, while mental torture during training and race is negatively associated with happiness in the weeks after the race. Satisfaction with race outcome positively affects happiness, suggesting that achieving individual goals is more important than absolute performance in terms of finishing times and ranks.

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O'Connell, Kevin, Michael Posthumus, and Malcolm Collins. "Collagen gene interactions and endurance running performance." South African Journal of Sports Medicine 26, no. 1 (March 20, 2014): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3108/2014/v26i1a404.

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Background. Although variants within genes that encode protein components of several biological systems have been associated with athletic performance, limited studies have investigated the collagen genes that encode the structural components of connective tissues.Objective. To investigate the association of variants within collagen genes with endurance performance in South African (SA) Ironman triathletes.Methods. A total of 661 white, male participants were recruited from four SA Ironman triathlon events for this genetic case-control association study. All participants were genotyped for COL3A1 rs1800255 (G/A) and COL12A1 rs970547 (A/G).Results. No independent associations were identified between COL3A1 rs1800255 and COL12A1 rs970547 and overall finishing time or time to complete any of the individual components (3.8 km swim, 180 km bike or 42.2 km run) of the 226 km event. The major G+A-inferred pseudo-haplotype, constructed from COL3A1 rs1800255 and COL12A1 rs970547, was, however, significantly (p=0.010 and p=0.027) overrepresented in the fast run tertile (58.7%) compared with the middle (53.5%) and slow (49.5%) run tertiles, respectively. The major G+T+A-inferred pseudo-haplotype, constructed from COL3A1 rs1800255, COL5A1 rs12722 (T/C) and COL12A1 rs970547, was again significantly (p=0.022) over-represented in the fast run tertile (35.2%) compared with the slow run tertile (28.9%).Conclusion. Our main novel finding was that the COL3A1 rs1800255 and COL12A1 rs970547 variants interacted to modulate endurance running performance in the four SA Ironman triathlons investigated. In addition, the interaction between these variants and COL5A1 rs12722 appeared to modulate endurance running performance.

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Knechtle, B., J. L. Andonie, O. Fraire Salas, P. Knechtle, and G. Kohler. "Der Einfluss von zehn aufeinander folgenden Langdistanz-Triathlons auf Körperfett und Muskelmasse – World Challenge Deca Iron 2006." Praxis 97, no. 16 (August 1, 2008): 885–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1024/1661-8157.97.16.885.

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In der vorliegenden Arbeit haben wir die Veränderung der Körpermasse bei 8 erfolgreichen Ultratriathleten bei einem Mehretappen-Triathlon untersucht. Während 10 aufeinander folgenden Tagen haben die Athleten je einen Langdistanz-Triathlon über die Ironman-Distanz von 3.8 km Schwimmen, 180 km Radfahren und 42.2 km Laufen absolviert. Vor und nach dem Rennen wurden Körpergewicht, Hautfaltendicke und Umfänge der Extremitäten gemessen, um daraus die Skelettmuskelmasse sowie den prozentualen Anteil an Körperfett zu berechnen. Gleichzeitig wurde mit einer bioelektrischen Impedanzanalyse (BIA) die fettfreie Körpermasse, der prozentuale Anteil an Körperfett sowie das Körperwasser bestimmt. Das Körpergewicht zeigte nach dem Wettkampf keine signifikante Abnahme (p > 0.05), während die berechnete Skelettmuskelmasse signifikant (p < 0.05) um 1.1 kg und die berechnete Fettmasse signifikant (p < 0.05) um 0.9 kg abnahmen.

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Villavicencio, Alan T., Sigita Burneikienë, Theresa D. Hernández, and Jeff Thramann. "Back and neck pain in triathletes." Neurosurgical Focus 21, no. 4 (October 2006): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/foc.2006.21.4.8.

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Object As the sport of triathlon has continued to grow, increasing numbers of triathletes have presented in the neurosurgery clinics with various spinal disorders. This epidemiological study was undertaken to establish the lifetime incidence of neck and back pain, to gauge the prevalence of discogenic pain, and to identify risk factors among triathletes in the Boulder, Colorado, area. Methods A live online questionnaire was developed that was used to collect information about physical characteristics, training habits, athletic status, number of races completed, and back pain among triathletes. The incidence of cervical and/or lumbar discogenic back pain was defined according to the duration of symptoms for the most recent pain episode. The lifetime incidence of low-back pain was 67.8%, with 23.7% of cases possibly being discogenic in origin. The number of triathlons in which the respondents had participated and the presence of previous sports-related injuries were predictive of low-back pain (p = 0.02 and p < 0.00001, respectively). The lifetime incidence of neck pain was 48.3%, with 21.4% of cases being consistent with intervertebral disc involvement. The number of previous sports-related injuries was predictive of neck pain (p < 0.00001), and a strong tendency toward neck pain was observed for athletes with more total years of participation in sports (p = 0.06). Conclusions The two main risk factors for long-term spinal problems include sports-related injuries and overuse. The study results definitely support the influence of both mechanisms for low-back pain. Neck pain was associated with an injury event, and a strong (although not statistically significant) tendency toward neck pain was observed in respondents with overuse injuries.

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Saunders, C. J., A. V. September, S. L. Xenophontos, M. A. Cariolou, L. C. Anastassiades, T. D. Noakes, and M. Collins. "No Association of the ACTN3 Gene R577X Polymorphism with Endurance Performance in Ironman Triathlons." Annals of Human Genetics 71, no. 6 (November 2007): 777–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1809.2006.00385.x.

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Medema, G. J., I. A. van Asperen, and A. H. Havelaar. "Assessment of the exposure of swimmers to microbiological contaminants in fresh waters." Water Science and Technology 35, no. 11-12 (June 1, 1997): 157–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0727.

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As part of a prospective cohort study among triathletes to determine a relationship between the microbiological quality of fresh bathing water and the risk of acquiring an intestinal infection, the exposure of the triathletes to microbiological contaminants was assessed. Waters were collected at seven triathlons (swimming course 1–1.5km) held in the summer of 1993 and 1994 to have a range of water qualities. All were influenced by sewage effluents, most also by agricultural run-off. Samples were collected several weeks before the event to establish a sampling programme (1993) and during the actual exposure of the triathletes (1993 and 1994) and examined for thermotolerant coliforms alone (samples preceding the event) and for E. coli, faecal enterococci, Staphylococcus aureus, F-specific RNAphages, enteroviruses (1993 and 1994) and for thermophilic Campylobacter, Salmonella, Aeromonas, Plesiomonas shigelloides and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1993). The samples taken in the weeks before the exposure showed significant differences in thermotolerant coliform concentration between locations, depths and times. Also during swimmer exposure, significant differences occurred in microorganism levels at the different sampling points over the swimming course. As the triathletes swam as a group, they were exposed to approximately the same water at the same time. The geometric mean concentration was used to characterise each site. In the epidemiological study, the risk of an intestinal infection correlated with the concentration of thermotolerant coliforms and E. coli but not with the other parameters. The geometric mean concentration of thermotolerant coliforms at the triathlons ranged from 11–330/100mL and 54–1,200/100mL E. coli. Ranking of the seven sites by faecal pollution level, based on the geometric mean concentration of a faecal indicator, resulted in a different ranking for each indicator. At the fresh water sites studied, only the ratio between the geometric mean density of E. coli and thermotolerant coliforms was constant. The ratio between the other parameters related to faecal pollution (faecal enterococci, F-specific RNA phages, enteroviruses) varied considerably. Water quality standards relating to faecal pollution can only be based on parameters that show a significant correlation with risk of intestinal illness.

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Sousa, Caio Victor, Rinaldo Wellerson Pereira, Thomas Rosemann, Pantelis T. Nikolaidis, and Beat Knechtle. "Self-Selected Pacing During a World Record Attempt in 40 Ironman-Distance Triathlons in 40 Days." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 7 (April 1, 2020): 2390. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072390.

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The present case study analyzed performance, pacing, and potential predictors in a self-paced world record attempt of a professional triathlete to finish 40 Ironman-distance triathlons within 40 days. Split times (i.e., swimming, cycling, running) and overall times, body weight, daily highest temperature, wind speed, energy expenditure, mean heart rate, and sleeping time were recorded. Non-linear regressions were applied to investigate changes in split and overall times across days. Multivariate regression analyses were performed to test which variables showed the greatest influence on the dependent variables cycling, running and overall time. The athlete completed the 40×Ironman distances in a total time of 444:22 h:min. He spent 50:26 h:min in swimming, 245:37 h:min in cycling, 137:17 h:min in running and 11:02 h:min in transition times. Swimming and cycling times became slower across days, whereas running times got faster until the 20th day and, thereafter, became slower until the 40th day. Overall times got slower until the 15th day, became faster to 31st, and started then to get slower until the end. Wind speed, previous day’s race time and average heart race during cycling were significant independent variables influencing cycling time. Body weight and average heart rate during running were significant independent variables influencing running performance. Cycling performance, running performance, and body weight were significant independent variables influencing overall time. In summary, running time was influenced by body weight, cycling by wind speed, and overall time by both running and cycling performances.

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