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Books on the topic 'Transcranial direct current stimulation'

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Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 24 January 2023

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1

Brunoni, André R., Michael A. Nitsche, and Colleen K. Loo, eds. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76136-3.

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2

Brunoni, André, Michael Nitsche, and Colleen Loo, eds. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33967-2.

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3

Knotkova, Helena, Michael A. Nitsche, Marom Bikson, and Adam J. Woods, eds. Practical Guide to Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95948-1.

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4

International Symposium on Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (2nd 2003 Göttingen, Germany). Transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation: Proceedings of the 2nd International Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) Symposium, Göttingen, Germany, 11-14 June 2003. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2003.

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5

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation, Proceedings of the 2nd International Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) Symposium. Elsevier, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1567-424x(09)x7005-4.

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6

Nitsche, Michael A., Andrea Antal, David Liebetanz, Nicolas Lang, Frithjof Tergau, and Walter Paulus. Neuroplasticity induced by transcranial direct current stimulation. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0017.

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This article explores the use of brain stimulation as a tool of neuroplasticity. Recent studies have shown that brain stimulation with weak direct currents is a technique used to generate prolonged modifications of cortical excitability and activity. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) generates modulations of excitability. The efficacy of electric brain stimulation is defined by the combination of strength of current, size of stimulated area, and stimulation duration. The two main fields of clinical application on tDCS are: the exploration of pathological alterations of neuroplasticity in neurological and psychiatric diseases, and the evaluation of a possible clinical benefit of tDCS in these diseases. Further studies are needed to explore this area if prolonged, repetitive, or stronger stimulation protocols, for which safety has to be assured, could evolve into clinically more relevant improvement. This article reinforces the fact that brain stimulation with weak direct currents could evolve as a promising tool in neuroplasticity research.
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7

Knotkova, Helena, Michael A. Nitsche, Marom Bikson, and Adam J. Woods. Practical Guide to Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: Principles, Procedures and Applications. Springer, 2019.

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8

Rogers, Lionel. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: Emerging Uses, Safety and Neurobiological Effects. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2016.

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9

Nitsche, Michael A., André Brunoni, and Colleen Loo. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Clinical Principles and Management. Springer International Publishing AG, 2021.

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10

Brunoni, André, Michael Nitsche, and Colleen Loo. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Clinical Principles and Management. Springer, 2016.

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11

Brunoni, André, Michael Nitsche, and Colleen Loo. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Clinical Principles and Management. Springer, 2018.

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12

Brunoni, André, Michael Nitsche, and Colleen Loo. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Clinical Principles and Management. Springer London, Limited, 2016.

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13

Rotenberg, Alexander, Alvaro Pascual-Leone, and Alan D. Legatt. Transcranial Electrical and Magnetic Stimulation. Edited by Donald L. Schomer and Fernando H. Lopes da Silva. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190228484.003.0028.

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Noninvasive magnetic and electrical stimulation of cerebral cortex is an evolving field. The most widely used variant, transcranial electrical stimulation (TES), is routinely used for intraoperative monitoring. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are emerging as clinical and experimental tools. TMS has gained wide acceptance in extraoperative functional cortical mapping. TES and TMS rely on pulsatile stimulation with electrical current intensities sufficient to trigger action potentials within the stimulated cortical volume. tDCS, in contrast, is based on neuromodulatory effects of very-low-amplitude direct current conducted through the scalp. tDCS and TMS, particularly when applied in repetitive trains, can modulate cortical excitability for prolonged periods and thus are either in active clinical use or in advanced stages of clinical trials for common neurological and psychiatric disorders such as major depression and epilepsy. This chapter summarizes physiologic principles of transcranial stimulation and clinical applications of these techniques.
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14

Priori, Alberto, Andre R. Brunoni, Felipe Fregni, Paulo S. Boggio, and Roberta Ferrucci, eds. The frontiers of clinical research on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in Neuropsychiatry. Frontiers Media SA, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/978-2-88919-287-8.

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15

Chrysikou, Evangelia G., Marian E. Berryhill, Marom Bikson, and H. Branch Coslett, eds. Revisiting the Effectiveness of Transcranial Direct Current Brain Stimulation for Cognition: Evidence, Challenges, and Open Questions. Frontiers Media SA, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/978-2-88945-325-2.

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16

Brunoni, Andre Russowsky, Bernardo de Sampaio Pereira Júnior, and Izio Klein. Neuromodulatory approaches for bipolar disorder: current evidences and future perspectives. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198748625.003.0028.

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Bipolar disorder is a prevalent condition, with few therapeutic options and a high degree of refractoriness. This justifies the development of novel non-pharmacological treatment strategies, such as the non-invasive techniques of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), as well as the invasive techniques of deep brain stimulation (DBS) and vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). In this chapter, we provide a summary of the development of the techniques as well as the studies carried out with patients with bipolar disorder. Although many promising results regarding the efficacy of theses techniques were described, the total number of studies is still low, highlighting the need of further studies in larger samples as to provide a definite picture regarding the use of clinical neuromodulation in bipolar disorder.
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17

Gad, Heba, Daniel Bateman, and Paul E. Holtzheimer. Neurostimulation Therapies, Side Effects, Risks, and Benefits. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199374656.003.0016.

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Neurostimulation therapies are an alternative for non-responders to pharmacological or psychotherapy management, as well as when first-line treatments are contraindicated for treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders in the elderly. Brain stimulation treatments for neuropsychiatric disorders include the following FDA approved treatments for major depressive disorder: electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which remains one of the most effective therapies for several neuropsychiatric disorders; repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS); and vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). Deep brain stimulation (DBS);magnetic seizure therapy (MST); transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS); and direct cortical stimulation (DCS) are not currently FDA approved. These techniques are reviewed in this chapter with special attention to their application in older adults. Medicolegal issues of informed consent and substituted decisions for procedures are also discussed.
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18

Hao, Joy, Rae Lynne Kinler, Eliezer Soto, Helena Knotkova, and Ricardo A. Cruciani. Neurostimulation in pain management. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199656097.003.0099.

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Neurostimulation describes an array of interventions that involve targeted stimulation of peripheral nerve, spinal cord, or the brain. Although few high-quality studies of neurostimulation techniques have been done and the techniques are seldom used in the management of pain related to serious illness, a better understanding of the available treatments and the emergence of newer technologies may increase access and use in the future. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is considered to be safe and may be used as an adjunct to pharmacotherapy in the routine management of chronic pain. Concerns about electrode placement near tumour masses continue, however, despite reassuring data, and for now, this approach should be used cautiously in those with metastatic disease. The recent advent of non-invasive central nervous system neurostimulation therapies-transcranial direct current stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation-offers promising new treatments for pain.
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19

Ilmoniemi, Risto J., and Jari Karhu. TMS and electroencephalography: methods and current advances. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0037.

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Electroencephalography (EEG) combined with transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) provides detailed real-time information about the state of the cortex. EEG requires only two to four electrodes and can be a part of most TMS studies. When used with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) based targeting and conductor modelling, the TMS-EEG combination is a sophisticated brain-mapping tool. This article explains the mechanisms of TMS-evoked EEG. It describes the technique of recording TMS evoked EEG and the possible challenges for the same. Furthermore, it describes possible solutions to these challenges. By varying the TMS intensities, interstimulus intervals, induced current direction, and cortical targets, a rich spectrum of functional information can be obtained. Cortical excitability and connectivity can be studied directly by combining TMS with EEG or other brain-imaging methods, not only in motor, but also nonmotor, areas.
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20

Hallett, Mark, and Alfredo Berardelli. Movement Disorders. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0044.

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This article focuses on the potential therapeutic uses of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in movement disorders. The brain can be stimulated with low levels of direct electrical current, called direct current polarization (tDCS). High-frequency repetitive TMS might increase brain excitability and be used for therapy in Parkinson's disease. Single sessions with TMS, however, have not proven to be very effective. Treatment with tDCS has been performed in some open studies with some success, but these results need confirmation. Physiological findings in dystonia reveal a decrease in intracortical inhibition. There have been a few studies of patients with Tourette's syndrome with mixed results. To date, clinical results with TMS in movement disorders have been mixed, and more work will be needed to clarify the potential clinical role of TMS.
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21

Wassermann, Eric M. Direct current brain polarization. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0007.

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The transcranial application of weak direct current (DC) to the brain is an effective neuromodulation technique that has had more than a century of experimental and therapeutic use. Focal DC brain polarization is now undergoing renewed interest, because of the wide acceptance of TMS as a research tool and candidate treatment for brain disorders. The effects of static electrical fields on cortical neurons in vivo have been known since the advent of intracellular recording. These effects are highly selective for neurons oriented longitudinally in the plane of the electric field. DC can enhance cognitive processes occurring in the treated area. The earliest clinical application of DC polarization was in the field of mood disorders. However, due to lack of temporal and spatial resolution, this technique does not appear particularly useful for exploring neurophysiological mechanisms.
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22

Di Lazzaro, Vicenzo. Transcranial stimulation measures explored by epidural spinal cord recordings. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0014.

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In response to a single-electrical stimulus to the motor cortex an electrode placed in the medullary pyramid or on the dorsolateral surface of the cervical spinal cord records a series of high-frequency waves. This has been shown by various studies conducted on animals. Recording from the surface of the spinal cord during spinal cord surgery has provided evidence for the action of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) on the human motor cortex. However, the interpretation of this data has been limited. This article explains both types of transcranial stimulation (magnetic or electrical) the direct recording of which shows that transcranial stimulation can evoke several different kinds of descending activities. The output also depends upon the representation of the motor cortex being stimulated.
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23

Clark, Caroline, Jeffrey Cole, Christine Winter, and Geoffrey Grammer. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190205959.003.0005.

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Symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often fail to resolve with psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, or integrative medicine treatments. Given these limitations, there is a continued push to discover treatment methods utilizing novel mechanisms of action. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) offers a non-invasive and safe method of brain stimulation that modulates neuronal activity in a focal area to achieve excitation or inhibition, and may have utility for patients suffering from PTSD, although, to date, evidence of efficacy is limited. The TMS treatment can be varied to suit the needs of the patient by altering the selection of the specific treatment parameters, such as pulse frequency or stimulation intensity. The weight of evidence to date supports treatment of either the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex or the medical prefrontal cortex. Coupling treatment with script based exposure therapies may also assist with potentiation of the extinction response. Ultimately, stimulation parameters may be related to secondary downstream effects, and thus current targets may indirectly reverse the underlying neuronal pathophysiology. Given that PTSD is a complex illness with a poorly understood pathophysiology, it often exists with other psychiatric comorbidities or TBI. As such, TMS could be an effective part of a comprehensive treatment program.
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24

Deletis, Vedran, Francesco Sala, and Sedat Ulkatan. Transcranial electrical stimulation and intraoperative neurophysiology of the corticospinal tract. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0008.

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Transcranial electrical stimulation is a well-recognized method for corticospinal tract (CT) activation. This article explains the use of TES during surgery and highlights the physiology of the motor-evoked potentials (MEPs). It describes the techniques and methods for brain stimulation and recording of responses. There are two factors that determine the depth of the current penetrating the brain, they are: choice of electrode montage for stimulation over the scalp and the intensity of stimulation. D-wave collision technique is a newly developed technique that allows mapping intraoperatively and finding the anatomical position of the CT within the surgically exposed spinal cord. Different mechanisms may be involved in the pathophysiology of postoperative paresis in brain and spinal cord surgeries so that different MEP monitoring criteria can be used to avoid irreversible damage and accurately predict the prognosis.
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25

Epstein, Charles M. TMS stimulation coils. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0004.

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The simplest transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) coil is a circular one. The induced current is maximum near the outer edge of the coil while the magnetic field is the maximum under the center of the coil. TMS coils have good penetration to the cerebral cortex. They are commonly placed at the cranial vertex, where they can stimulate both hemispheres simultaneously. The main drawback of circular coils is their lack of focality. Several complex designs for multiloop coils have been proposed to increase the focality or improve the penetration to deep brain structures. This article describes factors of TMS coil design such as mechanical forces and coil lead wires, cooling systems, materials of construction of coil windings, etc. To reduce the risk of lethal electrical shock the entire high-voltage power system, including the lead wires and stimulation coil, must be isolated from earth ground.
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26

Hurlbert, R. John. An evaluation of direct current stimulation in the normal and injured rodent spinal cord. 1993.

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27

Sommer, Martin, and Walter Paulus. TMS waveform and current direction. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0002.

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This article introduces the difference between biphasic and monophasic transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Waveform and current direction determine the effectiveness of TMS in humans. The alternating use of mono and biphasic pulses as conditioning or test pulse has so far not been possible. Since pulses of different waveform or orientation cannot be applied through the same coil at an interval in the millisecond range, using two different coils could be a feasible approach. This article brings in the concept of repetitive TMS (rTMS). Although clinical relevance is lacking, there is plenty of interesting data available for rTMS. Both pulse configuration and current direction affect the modulation of corticospinal excitability induced by rTMS. The effects during rTMS may differ from those outlasting rTMS. Further studies are needed to confirm the histological and physiological basis for these differences, and to clarify their clinical relevance.
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28

Siebner, Hartwig R., Martin Peller, and Lucy Lee. TMS and positron emission tomography: methods and current advances. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0035.

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This article provides an overview of how transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and positron emission tomography (PET) can be combined. It explains the methodology concerning the combination of TMS with PET and discusses the applications of this combination to study human brain function. TMS represents a nonphysiological means of producing or modulating neuronal activity in the human brain. PET imaging can make an important contribution to the understanding of the mechanisms of action of repetitive TMS and has the potential to determine neural correlates of compensatory plasticity in both healthy subjects and disease states. By using different sources of information, the TMS-PET approach provides insight into the neurophysiological effects of TMS on human brain function. The future use of TMS is to improve the understanding of how the nonphysiological mode of brain stimulation interacts with ‘normal’ activity in the human brain.
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29

Fehlings, Michael George. An evaluation of calcium channel blockade and direct current stimulation for promoting recovery after acute experimental spinal cord injury. 1989.

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30

Bestmann, Sven, Christian C. Ruff, Jon Driver, and Felix Blankenburg. Concurrent TMS and functional magnetic resonance imaging: methods and current advances. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0036.

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation is used for a wide range of applications in cognitive, clinical, and neuroscience. However, the precise physiological mechanisms by which TMS influences brain function are only partially understood. Combining TMS with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provides a more complete picture of the neural underpinnings of TMS effects. This article gives an overview of methodology and technical aspects concerned with combining TMS with fMRI. Furthermore, it explains the challenges involved with the combination of TMS with fMRI and proposes solutions to the same. It also focuses on recent applications of concurrent TMS-fMRI. Combining TMS with fMRI may allow a new noninvasive probe technique for the human brain. TMS-fMRI can be used to compare TMS-evoked effective connectivity in health and disease. It can potentially be used to investigate connectivity changes during different states, with different degrees of involvement for interconnected brain regions during different tasks.
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31

Glannon, Walter. Psychiatric Neuroethics II. Edited by John Z. Sadler, K. W. M. Fulford, and Werdie (C W. ). van Staden. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198732372.013.31.

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I discuss ethical issues relating to interventions other than intracranial surgery and psychopharmacology for psychiatric disorders. I question the distinction between “invasive” and “non-invasive” techniques applying electrical stimulation to the brain, arguing that this should be replaced by a distinction between more and less invasive techniques. I discuss electroconvulsive therapy (ECT); it can be a relatively safe and effective treatment for some patients with depression. I consider transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial current stimulation (tCS); the classification of these techniques as non-invasive may lead to underestimation of their risks. I discuss how placebos can justifiably be prescribed non-deceptively and even deceptively in clinical settings. An analysis of neurofeedback as the neuromodulating technique most likely to promote autonomy/control for some conditions follows. Finally, I examine biomarkers identified through genetic screening and neuroimaging; they might contribute to more accurate prediction and diagnosis, more effective treatment, and possibly prevention of psychiatric disorders.
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32

Herring, Christina. Neuromodulation in Psychiatric Disorders. Edited by Anthony J. Bazzan and Daniel A. Monti. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190690557.003.0013.

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Quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG) is the transformation of the EEG by spectral analysis in which the amount of electrical activity at a particular frequency is determined and compared against a normative data base. EEG findings are specific for different psychiatric problems and help reveal brain abnormalities associated with psychological symptoms. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a system of delivering multiple pulses within a short time period that induce changes that outlast the stimulation period. Operant conditioning involves providing a reward to increase the probability of a certain behavior. Neurofeedback involves recording, analyzing, and presenting results of qEEG analyses in near real-time to patients in order to promote changes in brain electrical activity. This chapter reviews how neuromodulation works both clinically and from a neurophysiological perspective. This chapter also reviews current clinical data on the use of neuromodulation approaches for improving mental health and well-being.
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33

Leigh, R. John, and David S. Zee. The Neurology of Eye Movements. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199969289.001.0001.

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This new edition comprises a modern synthesis of the anatomical, physiological, and pharmacological substrate for eye movements, including current views on the reflexive and voluntary control of gaze. This synthesis is based on electrophysiological and inactivation studies in macaque, and behavioural studies in humans that incorporate functional imaging and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in normals, and clinicopathological studies in patients with neurological, visual, or vestibular disorders. Sophisticated experimental paradigms have been applied to both species to explore aspects of cognition, memory, volition, and reward. This large body of research has demonstrated the power of eye movements as experimental tools. The second part of this online resource applies this synthesis to the clinical and laboratory evaluation of patients with abnormal eye movements due to a broad range of disorders - from muscular dystrophy, and genetic disorders, to dementia, including visual and vestibular conditions.
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34

Rusconi, Elena, and Carlo Umiltà. Mathematics and TMS. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0033.

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This article introduces the relationship between mathematical cognition and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). The mental number line is located in the parietal lobe. Studies employing TMS have explored issues related to the mental number line. This article reviews the studies centered on the magnitude code. The results show that even though the parietal activation is nearly always present in both hemispheres, it is often asymmetric, being greater in the right hemisphere when quantification of nonverbal and nonsymbolic material is required. Neuropsychological studies confirm the relation between the magnitude code and the parietal lobe. The extent to which number-related processes are number specific, and the extent to which they overlap with other aspects of spatial or magnitude representation, is currently a burgeoning area of research. Current work is aimed to disrupt numerical processes and observe concomitant changes in brain activation.
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35

Marques, Tiago Reis, and Shitij Kapur. Novel Approaches for Treating Psychotic Disorders. Edited by Dennis S. Charney, Eric J. Nestler, Pamela Sklar, and Joseph D. Buxbaum. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190681425.003.0021.

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Current antipsychotic medications have been the mainstay in the treatment of schizophrenia since chlorpromazine was introduced in 1952. However, all antipsychotics share the same mechanism of action, which involves a blockade of the dopamine D2-receptor. This chapter covers recent attempts to develop new treatments for psychotic disorders. These include new approaches to the delivery of existing antipsychotic medications and the most recent and promising mechanisms of action that are distinct from existing antipsychotics. Some of the new mechanisms of action include drugs targeting the glutamatergic system, the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, the phosphodiesterase 10A enzyme, or the muscarinic and serotoninergic system. Finally, we have reviewed a number of alternative nonpharmacological pathways, such as avatar therapy, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, or cognitive remediation. The chapter ends by discussing some of the major challenges facing the development of new treatments for psychotic disorders.
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36

Greenberg, Benjamin, and Sarah H. Lisanby. TMS in the study and treatment of anxiety disorders. Edited by Charles M. Epstein, Eric M. Wassermann, and Ulf Ziemann. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568926.013.0043.

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A few studies of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) as an anxiety disorder treatment have been reported. In treatment studies, the focal application of TMS in the treatment of anxiety disorders has been guided by the present understanding of the neurocircuitry underlying these disorders. This article reviews the current state of the literature on the uses of TMS in the study and treatment of anxiety disorders, and discusses the implications for understanding their patho-etiology. Investigation of the possible therapeutic effects of repetitive TMS in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or any anxiety disorder remains at a preliminary stage. There have been promising initial observations in OCD, which require systematic testing in controlled studies. As far as PTSD is concerned, the available data suggest that additional TMS work is required. The observations need to be replicated in controlled settings to determine whether this approach will have value in treating anxiety disorders.
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37

Electric treatment of hemorrhoids. San Diego, California, USA: Rick A. Shacket, 1989.

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38

Fox, Kieran C. R. Neural Origins of Self-Generated Thought. Edited by Kalina Christoff and Kieran C. R. Fox. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190464745.013.1.

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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has begun to narrow down the neural correlates of self-generated forms of thought, with current evidence pointing toward central roles for the default, frontoparietal, and visual networks. Recent work has linked the arising of thoughts more specifically to default network activity, but the limited temporal resolution of fMRI has precluded more detailed conclusions about where in the brain self-created mental content is generated and how this is achieved. This chapter argues that the unparalleled spatiotemporal resolution of intracranial electrophysiology (iEEG) in human epilepsy patients can begin to provide answers to questions about the specific neural origins of self-generated thought. The chapter reviews the extensive body of literature from iEEG studies over the past few decades and shows that many studies involving passive recording or direct electrical stimulation throughout the brain point to the medial temporal lobe as a key site of thought-generation.
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