Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Training prescription in rugby union'

The purpose of this study was to find whether cross training could improve male adolescent rugby skills. Three major sports (soccer, basketball and wrestling) were selected to form the base of the cross training intervention program. Pre- and post-tests were performed with the entire rugby squad (24 participants) prior to and at the conclusion of the intervention program. After pre-testing, the participants were grouped into either the intervention (12) or the control group (12). Supervised cross training sessions were performed twice a week for 10 weeks as well as traditional rugby training twice a week for 10 weeks with the intervention group. The control group performed supervised conventional rugby training twice a week for 10 weeks. All participants (24) played in a rugby match once a week during the 10 week period of the study.

Background: An emerging trend in adolescent sport is a greater emphasis on identifying and developing talent in young athletes and improving articulation to elite adult participation. Adolescent athletes appear to be increasingly engaged in strenuous training processes thought to best serve these ends. The ability to adapt and recover from strenuous physical loading is finite and influenced by many unique factors during adolescence. Consequently, training and non-training stressors and, or, responses to stressors may exceed individual adaptation thresholds with deleterious, rather than beneficial outcomes. Undesirable consequences of training manifest in complex psychosociobiological signs and symptoms, often defined as overreaching or overtraining along the continuum of athlete adaption. For adolescents, undesirable training responses may impact normal growth and maturation, and athlete development, including participation and performance outcomes. In spite of known risks and increasing anecdotal comment on the adolescent athlete, the extent to which high loads of sports participation during adolescence are related to competitive success, serial fatigue, injury, and overtraining are profoundly under explored and knowledge to guide best practice is lacking. Aims: Within a framework of limited existing empirical evidence and in consultation with Australian Rugby Union, studies included in this thesis aimed to serially monitor participation among three levels of adolescent rugby union players to better understand factors contributing to positive performance and participation outcomes and minimising adverse effects including serial fatigue, injury, training errors, and overtraining in the context of the development of talented young athletes.;Methods: For three separate studies, 75, 106, and 118 participants were recruited from various levels of adolescent rugby involvement that included, school, sports selective school, and state representative rugby. Subjective and objective measures of training volume and intensity, game and training practices, and stress and recovery were collected longitudinally. Results: In study one, representative squad players recorded the highest weekly duration of sport and physical activity (515 REPLACE2 222 min/week), followed by the talent squad (421 REPLACE2 211 min/week) and school boy group (370 REPLACE2 135 min/week). Profiles of individual players identified as group outliers showed weekly durations of 730 REPLACE2 49 min/week for a school boy player, 792 REPLACE2 226 min/week for a representative player, and 804 REPLACE2 335 min/week for a talent squad player, including up to three games and up to eleven training sessions per week for this individual. In study two, players with the highest weekly volume of sport and physical activity during the season demonstrated more favourable recovery-stress states compared with moderate and low volume groups. Despite better psychological stress and recovery profiles of more elite, higher load players, not all participants demonstrated favourable capacities to deal with stress and recovery processes. Seven of 106 participants were in at least two of three categories of highest volume, highest stress and poorest recovery. In study three, time-motion analyses showed that compared with rugby training, rugby games were consistently characterised by more time spent jogging (14 vs. 8%), striding (3.2 vs. 1.3%), and sprinting (1.3 vs. 0.1%) (p<0.001). Players also covered greater distances (4000 REPLACE2 500 vs. 2710 REPLACE2 770 m) and performed more sprints (21.8 vs. 1) during games compared with training (p<0.001).;A major finding of this study is the disparity between physical game demands and on-field rugby training practices in adolescent players. Discussion: High-load participation demands of adolescent athletes may compromise optimal energy balance and compete with physiological, psychological, and time resources available for recovery. In team sports such as rugby, monitoring and quantifying load in individual athletes is necessary to facilitate best practice advice for player management and training prescription. It may be even more critical to monitor individual responses among adolescent athletes, in whom varied internal and external loads exist. Even in the absence of a complete understanding the impact of high volume, high stress, poor recovery participation, these markers may be precursors for more deleterious outcomes such as injury, performance decrements, and overtraining. Internal and external pressures, the transition from 'sampling' to 'specialisation', and over-exaggerated short-term performance goals may contribute to the high participation loads found in some adolescent rugby union players. Conclusion: Growth and maturation and adolescent sports' participation create complex challenges for training and developing young athletes. Accumulative training and non-training stressors with inadequate recovery may exceed individual adaptation thresholds with deleterious, rather than beneficial performance and participation outcomes. It would be advantageous to identify 'at risk' individuals and appropriately manage adolescent athletes within redefined developmental frameworks that prioritise long-term goals, are cognisant of growth and maturation, and systematically aim to prescribe loads and recovery to avoid maladaptations.

Study purpose: The objectives of the study were to measure external and internal load and recovery status of junior semi-professional rugby union players (n = 36) during the u/19 Currie Cup campaign. Methods: The monitoring period covered 280 days (July – October) and included phases divided into off-season, pre-season and competition. Twelve league matches were played during the competition phase. The variables associated with external and internal load and recovery status were summarised for each player and also compared to each other to establish relationships between these variables. Data were collected either daily (training load, subjective fatigue and recovery) or weekly (recovery heart rate) or during matches (mechanical load, physiological load and training load). Injuries were also recorded throughout the season. Results: The primary finding of this study was that the players' loads (arbitrary units; AU) (605293 AU), fatigue (4.51.3 AU) and recovery (14.12.3 AU) did not change significantly throughout the different phases of the season. Also, recovery heart remained similar throughout the different phases of the season supporting the pattern of the subjective data. There was no clear predictive relationship between training load, subjective fatigue and recovery prior to sustaining an injury (both soft tissue and musculoskeletal). Conclusion: This study questions the usefulness of a wearable device to measure training load (internal/external), particularly since the session rating of perceived effort(sRPE) is cost effective, quick and easy to implement and provides accurate information. Subjective training load and subjective fatigue did not predict injury in this cohort of players. However, these variables can be used as markers to guide training to ensure the conditioning status of the players remains similar throughout the season. In particular they enable individualised decisions to be made about each player, ensuring that load and fatigue in response to the load remain steady.

Rugby union requires high levels of strength and power in order to support the physical requirements of the game. The competitive structure of rugby union in the English premiership places limitations on the time available for players’ physical development. The aim of this thesis was to analyse the scope and magnitude of strength and power adaptation potential, whilst identifying effective training strategies to support physical development in professional rugby union players. Chapter 3 monitored lower limb strength and power during the different phases of a professional season. This study demonstrated moderate beneficial increases in all physical capacities over a full season whilst pre and mid-season training cycles represent the greatest opportunity for strength and power enhancement. Chapter 4 assessed the efficacy of complex training performed during a mid-season performance phase and found meaningful increases in selected measures of power whilst maximum strength was maintained. Chapter 5 assessed the impact of pre-conditioning exercise mode selection (cycling or weightlifting) when designing complex training interventions and reported highly individualised response patterns in measures of lower and upper body performance. Chapter 5 also demonstrated no clear support for the short-term effects of elevated free-testosterone on local and systemic muscle performance. Chapter 6 investigated the effects that manipulating work interval duration has on fast muscle activity and power during high intensity interval training (HIT). This study reported greater accumulative power responses and fast muscle activation in selected muscles when shorter work interval durations were prescribed. In summary, scope for physical development exists in professional rugby union players. Complex training may be an efficient in-season training method for power development. Hormonal response patterns represent unpredictable markers of acute and chronic improvements in local and systemic muscle performance. Finally, the endurance potential of fast muscle groups may benefit from HIT protocols designed with shorter work interval durations.

The present thesis explored various applications of training specificity with regard to elite-level rugby union football players of various ages. A novel approach to metabolic conditioning employing skill-based conditioning games was investigated with elite-level senior professional players, during the course of a preseason training period. Training responses were assessed using a submaximal intermittent shuttle test performed at weekly intervals. Significant differences post-training (p<0.01) were observed for %HRmax reached during the final test stage and recovery of HR from the end of the final stage to the end of the final 1-minute rest period. The second study examined effectiveness of a circuit format for strength training in elite senior professional players during a preseason training period. Following the circuit based strength training, deadlift and bench pull I-RM strength scores were significantly improved both in comparison to pre-tests (p<0.01) and end season scores (p<0.01). Bench press scores were also significantly improved following the training period (p<0.01), and post-test bench press scores were improved relative to end season scores, albeit to a lesser extent (p<0.05). An Olympic lift training intervention was undertaken with Junior academy-level rugby union players. The effect of the application of these lifts on mean power output measured using test apparatus that simulated the ruck clean movement featured in rugby union football was examined. The considerably greater increases of the training group on this measure (28% vs 8%) were reflected in greater statistical significance (p<0.01) relative to the improvement for the control group (p<0.05). A significant interaction effect also indicated the training groups responded significantly differently on the test measure following training. A weighted ballistic push up training mode, incorporating a prototype shoulder harness, was investigated in a group of junior academy-level rugby football players. The training group recorded significant improvements in work output measured using a concentric-only push test (p<0.05), whereas countermovement push-up test scores approached significance (P=0.063). The final study employed an overweight ball complex training intervention. Following training the elite academy professional players who served as subjects showed significant improvements (p<0.05) in right-handed and left-handed mean and peak pass velocities.

Thesis (M Sport Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Stress and recovery plays an important role in the performance of semi-professional rugby players. Physiological and psychological markers have been established as reliable indicators of the recovery-stress state in athletes. Monitoring changes in the recovery-stress state enables the coaching staff to adapt training sessions to enhance performance. The aim of this study was to monitor changes in stress and recovery states among U-20 rugby union players during a training year. Relationships regarding monitoring variables and differences in stress and recovery between playing positions were examined. 55 Players between the ages of 18 and 20 were monitored for 27 weeks, over a training year. The training year was divided into 5 training phases: Developing phase (week 1 – 7), Transitional phase (week 8 - 11), Early Competition phase (week 12 - 17), Performance phase (week 18 – 24), and High Performance phase (week 25 - 27). Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) for sessions were reported on a daily basis. The Heart-rate Interval Monitoring System (HIMS) test was run every week. The Stellenbosch Mood Scale (STEMS) and Self-Report questionnaires were completed on a weekly basis, and the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire (RESTQ-76-Sport) was completed once a month. Backline players physically recovered better and faster than the forwards throughout the training year, while the forwards exhibited better psychological coping methods. The backline players had significant higher scores for the Depression (p = 0.03), Anger (p = 0.009), and Confusion (p = 0.01) scales of the STEMS. The Total Mood Disturbance scores were also significantly higher (p = 0.03) for the backline players than the forwards during the Performance phase. The backline players experienced increased stress and decreased feelings of well-being during the competitive phases when compared to the forwards. The backline players had better physical recovery than the forwards after the high intensity and high volume Developing phase. Correlations were evident between the HIMS test and the RESTQ-76-Sport questionnaire. Additional correlations were found between training load, as well as training monotony and training strain, and scales of the RESTQ-76-Sport and STEMS questionnaires. Lack of psychological skills-training might also have resulted in the players not knowing how to properly handle stressful situations and how to regulate their stress and recovery states. The lack of an educational system regarding recovery strategies, and the reinforcement thereof, especially during the Developing phases might play a role in the later increased fatigue and injury rates among the players.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Stres en herstel speel 'n groot rol in die prestasie van semi-professionele rugby spelers. Fisiologiese en sielkundige merkers is vasgestel as betroubare aanwysers ten opsigte van die stress-herstel toestand van atlete. Die monitoring van veranderinge in hierdie toestand kan die afrigtings-personeel help om die oefensessies aan te pas om optimale prestasie te verseker. Die doel van hierdie navorsingstudie was om veranderinge in stres en herstel toestande in O/20 rugby unie spelers, oor 'n oefenjaar, te moniteer. Verhoudinge in monitering veranderlikes en moontlike verskille in die stress en herstel toestand tussen die voorspelers en agterspelers is ondersoek. 55 Spelers tussen die ouderdomme van 18 en 20 is vir 27 weke, oor 'n oefenjaar, gemonitor. Die oefenjaar was onderverdeel in vyf oefenfases nl. die Ontwikkelingsfase (week 1 – 7), die Oorskakelingsfase (week 8 – 11), die Vroeë Kompetisiefase (week 12 – 17), die Prestasiefase (week 18 – 25), en laastens die Hoë Prestasiefase (week 25 – 27). Spelers het daagliks hul “Rate of Perceived Exertion‟s” aangedui vir elke oefensessie. Die “Heart-rate Interval System” toets (HIMS) was een keer 'n week gehardloop. Die “Stellenbosch Mood States” (STEMS) en Selfrapporteringsvraelyste was op 'n weeklikse basis ingevul en die “Recovery-Stress Questionnaire-Sport” (RESTQ-76-Sport) was een keer 'n maand ingevul. Agterspelers het deur die jaar fisies beter en vinniger as die voorspeler herstel, terwyl die voorspelers beter sielkundige beheer getoon het. Die agterlyn se tellings vir die Depressie (p = 0.03), Woede (p = 0.009), en Vervanging (p = 0.01) skale van die STEMS was betekenisvol hoër as die telling van die voorspelers. Die Totale Gemoedsversteuringstellings was ook betekenisvol hoër vir die agterlyn as die voorspelers tydens die Prestasiefase (p = 0.03). Die agterspelers het toenemende stres tydens die kompetitisie fases ervaar, sowel as 'n afname in die gevoel van Welsyn. Die agterlyn het beter fisiese herstel na die hoë intensiteit en hoë volume Ontwikkelingsfase as die voorspelers getoon. Korrelasies is gevind tussen die HIMS en die RESTQ-76-Sport. Verdere korrelasies is ook tussen “training load”, sowel as “training monotony” en “training strain”, en sekere skale van die RESTQ-76-Sport en STEMS vraelyste gevind. Die tekort aan sielkundige tegniek-ontwikkeling kon bydrae tot die spelers se verwardheid rondom die hantering van stresvolle situasies en hoe om hul stres en herstel toestande te reguleer. Die afwesigheid van „n opvoedkundige sisteem rondom herstel strategieë, en die toepassing daarvan, veral tydens die Ontwikkelingsfases, mag moontlik 'n rol speel in latere toenames in vermoeienis en getal beserings onder die spelers.

Thesis (MEd)--Stellenbosch University, 2011.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of the study was to compare the effectiveness of an aquatic- and landbased plyometric programme upon selected, sport-specific performance variables in adolescent male, rugby union players. A group of 52 rugby players (age: 16.3 ± 0.8 years, height: 176 ± 6.9 cm and body mass: 76.1 ± 11.9 kg) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: aquatic group (n=18), land group (n=17), and a control group (n=17). Prior to and after the sevenweeks of training, the power, agility and speed of participants were assessed by means of Fitrodyne repeated countermovement jumps, the Sergeant vertical jump, the Illinois agility test, a standing broad jump, and a 10- and 40- metre sprint. All three groups maintained their summer extra-curricular sport commitments during the intervention period. When the three groups were analysed, no significant differences were found between the groups with regard to all tested performance variables. With regard to withingroup changes, the aquatic group improved significantly (p<0.05) in the Illinois agility test, performed to the right. The land group showed significant (p<0.05) improvements in peak concentric power during Fitrodyne repeated countermovement jumps. All groups reflected highly significant (p<0.01) improvements in the Sergeant vertical jump. None of the groups displayed any improvements in sprint speed. The control was the only group to improve significantly in the standing broad jump (p<0.05). Land-based plyometric training might be a functionally superior training modality for athletes, although aquatic plyometrics could also offer an effective training modality for performance enhancement in power-based sports such as rugby union football. Aquatic-based plyometrics should not completely replace land-based plyometrics, as it might not adequately develop the specific neuromuscular patterns or functional needs of explosive sports.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om die effektiwiteit van ‘n water- en landgebaseerde pliometriese program met mekaar te vergelyk in terme van geselekteerde, sportspesifieke uitvoeringsveranderlikes in manlike adolessente rugbyspelers. ‘n Groep van 52 rugbyspelers (ouderdom: 16.3 ± 0.8 jaar, lengte: 176 ± 6.9 cm en liggaamsmassa: 76.1 ± 11.9 kg) is lukraak in een van drie groepe ingedeel: watergroep (n=18), landgroep (n=17), en ‘n kontrolegroep (n=17). Voor en na die sewe-weke oefenprogram, is spelers se plofkrag, ratsheid en spoed getoets deur middel van Fitrodyne herhaalde spronge, Sergeant vertikale sprong, Illinois ratsheidstoets, staande verspring, en ‘n 10- en 40-m spoedtoets. Al drie groepe het vir die duur van die intervensieperiode met hulle somersport aangegaan. Na analise van die drie groepe se data, is daar geen statisties betekenisvolle verskille tussen die groepe ten opsigte van die prestasieveranderlikes gevind nie. Die waterpliometriese groep se prestasie in die Illinois ratsheidstoets na regs het statisties beduidend (p<0.05) verbeter. Die landgroep het betekenisvolle (p<0.05) verbetering in die piek konsentriese plofkrag met die Fitrodyne herhaalde spronge getoon. Aldrie groepe het betekenisvolle (p<0.01) verbetering getoon in die Sergeant vertikale sprong. Geen groep se spoed het verbeter nie. Slegs die kontrolegroep se staande verspring het statisties betekenisvol verbeter. Land-gebaseerde pliometriese oefening kan moontlik, vanuit ‘n funksionele oogpunt, ‘n beter oefenmodaliteit vir atlete wees. Watergebaseerde pliometriese oefening kan egter ook ‘n oefenmodaliteit vir sport wat plofkrag vereis, soos rugby, wees. Watergebaseerde pliometriese oefening behoort nie land-gebaseerde pliometriese oefening te vervang nie, omdat dit moontlik nie aan die spesifieke neuromuskulêre patrone en funksionele behoeftes van eksplosiewe sport voldoen nie.

Sprinting speed is a highly valued physical ability in rugby. There is little research examining sprinting biomechanics in rugby players and it is unclear the extent that sprinting speed and sprint momentum can even be improved in highly trained rugby players and how different speed and strength training methods might help improve it. This thesis consists of 6 studies that examine the sprinting biomechanics of elite rugby players, how strength and power training might improve sprinting speed and the potential for elite rugby players to make further improvement in their sprinting speed and sprint momentum. Key biomechanical factors were that as a player transitions from a standing start to maximal velocity; they do so without an appreciable change in stride rate but with a substantial increase in stride length. Stride rate remains the same because ground contact time and flight time are inversely proportional with each other as they accelerate from a standing start to maximal velocity. Faster players were found to have lower ground contact times and longer stride lengths for both acceleration and maximal velocity. Sprinting with a rugby ball in one hand did not seem to negatively affect international players in either acceleration phases or maximal velocity phases. Mass was found to have a negative relationship with acceleration and maximal sprinting velocity. Sprint momentum, on the other hand, was found to have a strong positive relationship with body mass. Body mass and height were found to be higher in successful teams at the 2007 and 2011 Rugby World Cups when compared with less successful teams. Senior international players were found to have much greater sprint momentum and body mass, but not sprinting speed, when compared to junior players. Collectively, all of these results point out that sprint momentum is a highly important physical quality. Sprinting speed is an important outcome of training programs but improving sprint momentum by increasing body mass is probably more important. The senior and junior athletes that were tracked for two years were able to effectively improve their sprinting speed and sprint momentum over a two year period which suggests that these are trainable qualities. Strength and power were found to be important discriminators between fast and slow players. Faster players showed greater results in power clean, front squat, broad jump and triple broad jump. The relationships between these exercises and acceleration were similar for both the slow and fast groups but these exercises had much stronger correlations with maximal sprinting velocity in the slow group then with the fast group. The differences in these relationships seemed to be explained by ground contact time. The group of highly trained players that were tracked over a one year period did not show positive improvement in sprinting speed from increasing the different strength qualities. An 8 day hypergravity condition for international players was ineffective in producing profound changes in sprinting speed. These results suggest that sprinting speed is a trainable quality but there is a limited capacity for strength training to improve it once these qualities have been reasonably well developed in an elite population.

Includes bibliographical references.
Background: The tackle in rugby union is a dynamic and high impact contact situation that occurs frequently during matches and exposes players to high risk of injury and muscle damage. The inability to tackle will result in opposition players gaining territory and possibly scoring points. Indeed, the ability to effectively engage in tackle contact has been associated with team success. While the risk of injury may always be present during these physical contests between the ball-carrier and tackler, coaching of proper techniques and skills may reduce the risk of injury, and at the same time improve performance. With that said, little is known about the knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of rugby union coaches towards coaching the tackle. Therefore the aim of this study was to assess coaches’ knowledge, attitudes and behaviours towards coaching the tackle. Methods: The top 8 rugby-playing schools (Premier A Division) in the Western Province Rugby Union participated in the study (representing 100% of the entire population of top-level junior schools in the region). A questionnaire was used to assess coaches’ knowledge, attitude and reported behaviour. Tackle training behaviour was also observed over a period of 4 weeks at the start of the season. Results: Sixty-two percent of coaches rated proper tackle technique to reduce the risk of injury as very important and 75% of coaches rated proper tackle technique as very important for improving performance. The tackle was practiced in 16% (n=15) of the total practice sessions (n=96). Coaches did not emphasise safety during the tackle sessions. Tackle training was over-reported by 75% (n=5) of coaches during the 4-week observational period. Discussion/Conclusion: Majority of coaches are aware of the high risk of injury associated with the tackle. Most coaches believe that tackle technique can improve tackle performance and safety during the tackle event. Coaches develop new 2 methods mostly through resources such as coaching colleagues and watching televised and live rugby matches. During the observed training period however, only 15 tackle training sessions were observed. It may be important to identify how much tackle training should occur during the pre-season and competition phase of the season to adequately prepare players for competition without increasing the risk of injury. The latest research on ways to reduce the risk of injury and improve performance in the tackle should also be disseminated through the appropriate channels that coaches are known to use. Tackle training guidelines should be based on scientific evidence, and these guidelines should outline how coaches need to design their training to meet their team requirements. Further research should identify which coaching behaviours can be used to effectively train tackle safety and tackle performance during training sessions. Keywords: Rugby union, tackling, coaching, injury prevention, attitude, knowledge, behaviour

It is widely accepted that lower body muscular force and power capabilities are of significant importance to many athletic tasks. Thus the assessment and training of these qualities are a key focus in both sports science and strength and conditioning practice. The purpose of this thesis was firstly to investigate previously discussed but poorly researched methods of assessing force and power characteristics of the lower limb particularly focusing on the analysis of the force-time and power-time curves during the rebound jump squat, and secondly, to investigate the effectiveness of cluster loading, an alternative resistance training paradigm, in training for lower body explosive performance. In Chapters 3 to 6 assessment issues were investigated and the studies in Chapters 7 and 8 address questions relating to resistance training using cluster loading.

Background: Rugby union is a high-intensity, intermittent sport, characterised by numerous contact events, such as rucks, mauls, scrums, and tackles. Specifically, the tackle is the most common action to occur during a rugby game. Subsequently, the tackle (tackler and ballcarrier) is responsible for the highest number of total injuries during a season. The most effective tackle technique is associated with a lower risk of injury than poorly executed tackles. Considering the prevalence of tackles, their propensity to cause injury, and the link between safety and proper tackle technique, a tool for assessing individual tackling and ball-carrying technique would be useful for rugby union researchers and practitioners. In particular, the assessment of tackling and ball-carrying technique would aid in monitoring adaptations to training, evaluating training programs and the prescription of training, assessing player qualities, and predicting performance and identifying future talent. Objectives: The primary objectives of this study were 1) to determine if undergoing videobased training would improve the agreement, reliability, and accuracy of raters using a subjective-rating measure to assess contact technique in rugby union, and 2) to establish if a self-selected viewing pace resulted in improved agreement, reliability, and criterion-validity over a real-time pace. Methods: Data were collected from 30 participants, with no prior experience in rugby union, who were randomly divided into training and non-training groups. After completing the training or non-training visits, all participants conducted tackling and ball-carrying technique assessments in 4 subsequent visits. Participants viewed video footage of players tackling and carrying the ball into contact during a full contact rugby drill on a laptop computer. Participants assessed tackling and ball-carrying technique using the standardised list of technical criteria. Technical proficiency scores were calculated out of 12 for tackling technique and out of 10 for ball-carrying technique, respectively. Agreement and reliability of the assessments were measured using the proportion of observed agreement (Po) and Kappa statistics (K). Criterion validity (accuracy) was measured using the proportion of observed agreement (Po) by comparing the raters’ assessments to a criterion. Between groups comparisons for technical proficiency scores and accuracy were done with hypothesis testing and effect sizes. Results: Over the real-time and self-selected paces, the training group produced 61-73% (K=0.24-0.38, Fair) and 63-73% (K=0.12-0.17, Poor) inter-rater agreement for tackling and ball-carrying technique, respectively. The non-training group produced 61-72% (K=0.26-0.38, Fair) and 59-71% (K=0.15-0.19, Poor) inter-rater agreement for tackling and ball-carrying technique, respectively. Including both real-time and self-selected paces, the within session intra-rater agreement for the training group ranged from 71-84% (K=0.43-0.65, Moderate-Substantial) and 74-83% (K=0.39-0.48, Moderate) for tackling and ball-carrying technique assessment, respectively. Then, the intra-rater agreement for the non-training group ranged from 68-83% (K=0.40-0.62, Fair-Moderate) and 67-84% (K=0.31-0.55, Fair-Moderate) for tackling and ball-carrying technique assessment, respectively. In terms of between session reliability, over the real-time and self-selected paces, the training group achieved intra-rater reliability that ranged from 74-83% (K=0.50-0.62, Moderate-Substantial) and 72-82% (K=0.35- 0.45, Fair-Moderate) for tackling and ball-carrying technique assessment, respectively. The non-training group achieved intra-rater reliability ranging from 72-82% (K=0.46-0.59, Moderate) and 69-81% (K=0.33-0.48, Fair-Moderate) for tackling and ball-carrying technique assessment, respectively. The technical proficiency scores between the groups displayed variation, and in some cases it was statistically significant. Compared to the criterion scores, the training group produced observed agreement of 68% and 67% for real-time pace and 74% and 72% for self-selected pace on tackling and ball-carrying technique assessment, respectively. The non-training group produced observed agreement of 66% and 67% for realtime pace and 74% and 73% for self-selected pace on tackling and ball-carrying technique assessment, respectively. Conclusion: Whether trained or untrained, the individual should be able to produce the same results if the footage is assessed within the same viewing period (agreement) or over two separate viewings (reliability). The tool is accurate for both groups when assessing at real- time or self-selected paces, with the latter being more accurate. However, it would appear that the tool is insufficiently robust when it comes to agreement between different raters. Future research should explore the inter-rater dynamics of assessing tackling and ball-carrying technique.

Includes bibliographical references
Background: The influence of professionalism has filtered down to junior levels in rugby union. The increased demands on junior professional rugby players has an impact on their fitness characteristics, training load, match load and injury profiles. Although many studies have been conducted on senior rugby union players, not much is known about junior players as they make the transition into the senior ranks. The aim of this study was to describe the training/match load during the pre-season and competitive in-season in a squad of under 19 academy rugby players and then to relate this to the injuries (contact and non-contact) sustained during the different phases of the season. A secondary aim was to measure the physical ability of the players through the season. Methods: Injury and training data from players in the Western Province under 19 Currie Cup squad (n=34) were recorded on a daily basis throughout the rugby season (42 weeks). The training load was represented by the time (minutes) spend in each activity associated with training, conditioning and match play. The players also underwent measurements of body mass, stature, body fat percentage, upper body muscular endurance (pull ups), and muscular strength (1RM bench press), sprint times (10m and 40m) and anaerobic capacity (5 meter shuttle run). All tests were conducted in January and June, which coincided with the beginning of pre-season and the beginning of the competition phase respectively. Results: Over the season 71 injuries were recorded, comprising 17 pre-season injuries, 18 pre-competition injuries and 36 competition phase injuries. There was no difference between the occurrence of contact and non-contact injuries during the different phases of the season. Although there was no significant difference between the injury rates during the different phases of the season, there was a significant difference between the injury rates in training (4.4/1000 player hours) and matches (74.1/1000 player hours). The most common body parts injured were thighs, hip/groin, ankles and shoulders, with injuries to the hand/finger and knee being the most severe. Muscles and ligaments were the structures that got injured the most. The average duration of days to return-to-play after an injury was 17 days. There were significant changes in the physical characteristics of the players in the six months between the test batteries. In addition to getting taller, players generally improved their fitness characteristics with significant improvements occurring in the bench press (8%), pull ups (113%), vertical jump (13%) and the 5 meter shuttle run (6%). Conclusion: The training load of the junior professional rugby players is similar to the load of senior professional rugby players. This represents a sudden increase compared to the previous year when the players were at school. A long-term research project with a database of rugby schools will assist in bridging the gap between the demands of junior rugby and junior professional rugby. Players joining a professional academy system after school need physical, emotional and tactical fast tracking as they are competing in a highly competitive environment for senior professional contracts. This accounts for the relatively high rate of injury throughout the season. Players need to be carefully monitored and managed during the season to detect symptoms reflecting poor adaptation to the training load.

Includes abstract.~Includes bibliographical references.
Rugby Union is a popular international team sport characterised by frequent high impact bodily collisions known as the tackle. This aspect of the game exposes players to muscle damage and a high risk of injury. Tackle-related injuries account for up to 61% of all injuries during a rugby match. Furthermore, players’ ability to win the tackle contest has an influence on the outcome of the match. Given the nature and frequency of the tackle situation, tackle contact skills are a prerequisite for participation in rugby union. However, coaching and training drills prescribed to train the tackle to date are largely based on anecdotal evidence. To develop effective tackle training strategies (i.e. technical skills training, physical conditioning, training drills, and equipment) that will produce a successful outcome and reduce the risk of injury for both the ball-carrier and tackler, studying the tackle in real match situations is warranted. Therefore, in accordance with this goal the purpose of this thesis was to; (i) assess the current attitudes and behaviours of players during training and match play, and (ii) study the tackle and defensive strategies in real match situations.

Background: Rugby Union is an international sport characterized by bouts of short duration, high intensity exercise in which players frequently collide into one another while running at high speeds. Players are commonly required to engage in phases of play involving contact such as tackling, rucking, mauling and scrumming. These phases of play require certain physical qualities, including strength, aerobic power, speed and explosive power. Perhaps, the growth and professionalization of the game has resulted in more emphasis being placed on the physical preparation of the players. Physical preparation of players not only happens at elite senior levels, but has also filtered down into the junior ranks, where it is common for school teams to be trained by professional strength and conditioning coaches. The rules of the game have changed, which have influenced the physical demands. For example, ball-in-play time has increased, players are covering more distance per game, making more tackles and engaging in more scrums. It is therefore important to identify the various physical characteristics that are required to be successful at a particular level of rugby union. The socioeconomic status and ethnicity of the player in association with the physical characteristics can determine the success of an adolescent rugby player. Objective: To determine the association between body mass and stature (referred to as physical characteristics for this study), race, socioeconomic status, and weight training (referred to as non-physical characteristics for this study) on the chances of success among U16 provincial rugby union players. In particular, size, socioeconomic status and ethnicity of players in the U16 national training squad were compared to players who represented their provinces but did not get selected for the national squad. Methods: Data were collected for each player who attended the Coca Cola National Grant Khomo week from 2010 to 2013. Players participating in this tournament had already undergone a process of selection trials to be selected to represent their province at U16 level. The national squad players were chosen based on performances at the Coca Cola National Grant Khomo week. The characteristics of the players selected for the national squad vs. players who did not get selected for the squad from 2010 to 2013 were compared using an ANOVA and the magnitude of the differences were quantified using effects sizes. Results: White players are heavier (ES = 0.59) and taller (ES = 0.8 2) than black players as well as heavier (ES = 0.8 7) and taller (ES = 0.8 2) than coloured players over the four-year period from 2010 to 2013. Players selected into the National squad were on average heavier (ES = 0.5 0) and taller (ES = 0.4 0) than those players not selected into the National squad. White players were the heaviest and tallest of the race groups selected into the National squad (p < 0.0000 2). Players with a high socioeconomic status were heavier (ES = 0.3 0), taller (ES = 0.4 0), and had more playing experience (ES = 0.3 0), than players from a low socioeconomic status background. Grouping according to socioeconomic status did not differentiate between race groups and selection for the national squad. Conclusion: This study showed that the taller and heavier players were more likely to get selected for the national U 16 squad. Since size was also associated with socioeconomic status, the players with a high socioeconomic status had an advantage over players with a low socioeconomic status. These findings have implications for transforming the game to ensure that the representative teams reflect the composition of the South African population.

L'objectif principal de la thèse est de comprendre comment se construit la politique sportive d'une fédération sportive nationale. Le cas de la Fédération Française de Rugby (FFR) est étudié sous la forme d'une Recherche-Intervention, cette organisation ayant souhaité engager des réflexions autour de sa politique sportive, un objet qu'il a fallu appréhender et conceptualiser dans le cadre d'une fédération nationale. Cet objet est envisagé comme un processus de co-construction, entre des acteurs fédéraux (siège) et territoriaux (structures décentralisées et déconcentrées). Pour étudier ce processus et notamment les logiques d'acteurs, nous avons mobilisé la théorie de la traduction (Akrich et al., 2006), associée au concept de rapport de prescription (Oiry, 2012). La théorie de la traduction évoque la notion d'actants, pour désigner ces acteurs et prendre en considération des éléments de l'organisation dits « non-humains » (actants non-humains), qui ont aussi une influence et un impact sur ce processus. Notre problématique centrale est ainsi formulée comme suit : quelles sont les dynamiques actantielles à l'oeuvre dans la co-construction d'une politique sportive fédérale ? L'idée générale, au travers de notre cadre d'analyse, est d'exprimer comment ces acteurs, par le biais de leurs visions et de leurs perceptions (leurs traductions) et leurs collaborations/confrontations (leurs rapports de prescription), vont coconstruire la politique sportive fédérale en question. Cette thèse ambitionne d'appréhender à la fois l'intégration de cette politique dans l'organisation fédérale, et la formation d'un réseau d'acteurs qui, parallèlement, se configure et se stabilise
The main purpose of this thesis is to understand how a national association sport policy is elaborated. The case of the French Rugby Union (FFR) is studied as part of an intervention-research, as this organisation initiated some reflections around its sport policy, an object that we had both to apprehend and conceptualise. This object is considered as a co-construction process, between national and regional actors. In order to study this, we mobilise the Actor-Network Theory (Akrich et al., 2006), associated with the concept of prescriptive relation (Oiry, 2012). The Actor-Network Theory (also known as the sociology of translation) highlights the presence of both human and non-human actors which can have an impact on this process. In this way, our research question is: what are the actors' dynamics during the co-construction process of the federal sport policy? The general idea, throughout our framework, is to express how the (human) actors, thanks to their representations (their translation) and their collaboration / confrontation (their prescriptive relation) are going to co-construct the federal sport policy. The aim of this thesis is to apprehend both the integration of this sport policy into the federal organisation (the FFR) and the creation of an actor-network, which, simultaneously, is configuring and stabilising itself

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Background: Resistance training is an integral component of rugby union training. Moreover, resistance training comprises a foundational element of the long-term physical development of adolescent rugby union players, particularly within talent development programs. However, few studies have attempted to determine the most effective resistance training programs for adolescent populations. Higher level rugby union players have greater height, body mass, muscle strength and power, and speed than lower level players. Assessments of body size and physical performance are regularly used to evaluate an individual’s ability to succeed at higher playing levels, however an individual’s maturity status plays an important role in the development of both physical size and physical performance characteristics. Thus, assessments of body size and physical performance during adolescence need to consider the role of biological maturation in the development and enhancement of physical and performance characteristics. Currently evidence gaps exist for identifying the most effective progression of resistance training programs in adolescent rugby union players, determining their maturity status and the influence maturity status has on physical characteristics in this population. Objectives: This thesis presents a series of studies that were conducted to address the gaps in the evidence base. Given the integral nature of resistance training in rugby union training programs, the primary aims of this thesis were to firstly evaluate the effects of 12 weeks of resistance training following two different progression models on muscular strength in adolescent rugby players and to secondly determine the maturation status and influence of maturation on physical performance in two talent development programs of adolescent rugby union players. This thesis presents a series of studies investigating the two primary aims and four secondary aims, which are briefly described below in the sequence they are presented in the main body of the thesis.

Aerobic fitness and repeated high-intensity efforts have been shown to be a determinant in the performance of team sports, especially in the ability to finish a match, to cover a distance, to repeat and recover between sprints and explosive movements (e.g. accelerations, changes of direction; COD) and to reduce the deterioration in some technical skill. Due to this, coaches must appropriately develop these capacities to adequately prepare athletes for match-play demands. High-intensity interval training is considered an effective and time efficient means to optimise individual physiological adaptation. However, the best processes which examine these qualities (physical testing protocols), prescribe training and monitor the response of this training requires attention, particularly in team sport athletes that possess heterogenous physical attributes. Therefore, this thesis aimed to examine a valid and reliable approach to assess the training outcome as well as prescribe and monitor the training process in rugby league athletes.

Plyometrics is primarily used by coaches and sport scientists to improve explosive power among athletes who participate in dynamic, high intensity type of sports. One of the plyometric-related training methods that has received attention in recent years, is loaded or resistance (resistive) jump training. Limited research does, however, exist with regard to the benefits and use of this training method as well as in conjunction with other training methods, especially among team sport participants. It is against this background that the research objectives of this study were firstly, to examine the effects of a 4-week combined rugby-conditioning and resisted jump training program compared to a combined rugby-conditioning and normal jump training program, on selected physical, motor ability and anthropometric components of university-level rugby players. The second objective was to examine the acute effects of a resisted compared to a normal jump training session on selected physical and motor ability components of university-level rugby players. Thirty rugby players (age: 19.60 ± 0.79 years) from the first and second u/19 and u/21 rugby teams of a university in South Africa were randomly selected to participate in the first part of study. For the second part of the study thirty senior rugby players (1st and 2nd senior teams) (age: 21.78 ± 1.86 years) of the Rugby Institute at a university in South Africa were randomly selected to participate in the study. For both studies the thirty players were in turn randomly divided into two groups of fifteen players each. One group formed the experimental and the other group the control group. The first objective was tested by subjecting the players to a 4-week combined sport-specific and resisted plyometric training program (experimental group) or a combined sport-specific and normal plyometric training program to investigate the adaptations of body composition, lower body flexibility, explosive leg power, speed, agility and leg strength. After a 10-week period (“wash-out period”) during which subjects continued with their normal rugby-conditioning program, the same testing procedures as before, were executed by following a crossover design. In order to test the second objective of the study players’ body weight and height were firstly measured after which they were subjected to a thorough warm-up, followed by the execution of the flexibility;Vertical Jump Test (VJT); 5-, 10- and 20 m speed tests; the Illinois Agility Run Test (IART) and the 6RM (repetition maximum) Smith Machine Squat Test (6RM-SMST). The experimental group was subject to the resisted jump training session on the Vertimax whereas the control group executed the same exercises on the floor. Directly after the training session each of the players again completed the test battery. After the first week, a crossover design was implemented. Although the overall study (independent t-test and main effect ANOVA) results of the first study suggested that the experimental group experienced more positive changes, especially with regard to the body fat, skeletal mass and somatotype-related anthropometric and flexibility-related measurements, only relaxed upper-arm girth, ectomorphy, left Active-straight-leg-raise-test and the left Modified Thomas Quadriceps Test values showed significant differences (p < 0.05) when the two groups of players were compared. Although the experimental group demonstrated significantly better average scores in the majority of the last-mentioned components, this group experienced a significantly higher reduction in relaxed upper-arm girth due to the conditioning program than the control group. The main effect ANOVA results of the acute study showed that no significant differences were obtained for any of the measured components between an acute resisted and normal jump training session. To conclude, the study revealed that a 4-week combined rugby-conditioning and resisted jump training program (experimental group) did not benefit university-level rugby players significantly more with regard to selected physical, motor ability and anthropometric components than a combined rugby-conditioning and normal jump training program (control group). Furthermore, despite the fact that the acute resisted and normal jump training exercises met all the requirements to produce post-activation potentiation, the study results showed that these exercise sessions did not lead to any significant acute changes in the physical and motor ability components of university-level rugby players.
MA (Sport Science), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014