Journal articles on the topic 'Tourism – Canada – Marketing'

The study deals with wine tourism in two countries namely Canada and Slovakia, and the discussion is focused on answering the question of how important wineries are for tourism by arranging wine tours with wine tasting and visits to cultural attractions. A case study has been used as a research method in both countries, focusing on wine tourism and cultural tourism. The information for this study was gathered through secondary research, a study visit, and teaching at Waterloo University in Canada. In Slovakia, both primary and secondary research results were gathered. Organizing events in tourist destinations can increase the destination’s significance and improve the competitiveness of tourism destinations. It is important to mention that during this event periods, the consumers' preferences change and it may influence their choice of destinations and tourism products. The ageing population and their interest in travel destinations that offer wine tasting, culinary products, and culture are other factors contributing to the growth of wine tourism and cultural tourism. It also affects where marketing and branding ideas are placed in tourist destinations.

The Netherlands Board of Tourism (NBT) promotes tourism to and within Holland. Its objectives are to increase international tourist receipts and to stimulate employment. As a knowledge and research center and as a marketing and promotion organization, NBT acts as a broker between supply and demand. This enables NBT to be a pioneer in developing and executing policy visions and marketing strategies, for and with the tourism sector. In this framework NBT stimulates product development and intelligent bundling of parties and interests. NBT is an organization with some 165 employees. It has its main office located in Leidschendam, near The Hague, and NBT has another 12 offices in Europe, the US, Canada, and Japan. Based on intensive research and eye-catching marketing and promotional activities carried out in close cooperation with strategic and other partners, the NBT works to call the public's attention to “Holland” as a destination for vacationers.

Existing literature on the commodification of punishment has yet to examine small penal history museums or related issues of tourism marketing, networking, and souvenirs. Bringing this literature into conversation with tourism studies, we examine how penal history sites attempt to attract visitors and generate revenue to sustain their operations. Drawing on findings from a 5-year qualitative study of penal history museums across Canada, we argue tourism operators use three strategies for the marketing of commodified punishment: authenticity, historical specificity, and exclusiveness. Our findings also indicate that networking between these sites is underdeveloped and that the souvenirs sold to visitors are an important source of museum funding. Overall, we show that the concepts of marketing, networking, and souvenirs can comprise a key conceptual framework for examining consumption in small tourism enterprises in Canada and internationally. Our findings also raise questions about how to theorize and investigate museum management, solvency, and profitability in the penal and dark tourism sector.

Purpose This paper aims to provide a backdrop to the Worldwide Hospitality Themes (WHATT) theme issue (volume 9, issue 4) on aspects of the hospitality and tourism industry of Canada. Design/methodology/approach Canadian hospitality and tourism educators and their counterparts in the industry have collaborated periodically to discuss the challenges they face and to find practical solutions. Outcomes of ten key initiatives in Canada during the past 15 years that brought leaders of the hospitality and tourism industry and academia together to create 50 academic papers are summarized. Findings This paper provides key information on Canada, its people, its economic conditions and the challenges of the five sectors of the tourism industry in Canada. By introducing the main challenges faced by each sector, this paper provides a foundation for the other articles that follow in this WHATT theme issue. Practical implications Canadian tourism is losing ground, tourism marketing budgets are significantly reducing and there is a labour shortage crisis which are identified as key challenges requiring urgent attention. In conclusion, the authors suggest practical solutions. Originality/value Readers who are interested in the Canadian hospitality and tourism industry will find this paper to be of interest.

This article presents an autoethnographical account of my foray into Spanish immersion education in Costa Rica as a professor of multilingual education at a university in Canada. This language-learning journey was inspired by curiosity about the growing trend for Internet marketing of second-language learning as a form of tourism, which I label edu-tourism. I map the course of my edu-tourism experience, contemplating second-language learning in a local context, describing professionalism in private language teaching institutes, comparing pedagogical practice across various Spanish-as-a-second-language teachers, and documenting my experiential sociopragmatic acquisition of textbook Spanish.

The article summarizes the arguments and counterarguments in the scientific discussion on place marketing. The study's main purpose is to understand the nature and features of existing research on marketing areas to determine the direction of future research for both scientists and practitioners. Systematization of literature sources and approaches to solving the problem of marketing areas suggests that many studies in this area require a synthesis of existing research. The urgency of solving this scientific problem is that although the use of marketing in public administration has intensified in recent years, there are many problems in this area. The research of place marketing was carried out in the following logical sequence: determination of the impact of the authors, journals, and articles on territorial marketing, keyword analysis, identification of marketing clusters, visualization of scientific literature on place marketing. The study covers 1970-2021. The research object is 1611 relevant publications published in various scientific sources. The most influential journals were found to be the Journal of Business Research, Tourism Management and Marketing Theory. The most cited authors were Kavaratzis M. and Warnaby G. Most of the articles have been published by researchers from the USA, England, Italy, Canada, the Netherlands, Germany, Australia, and France. Eight key clusters were identified in the marketing of territories: politics, tourism, model, identity, place branding, residents, framework, city brand. In the last five years, most research has been devoted to placing brands, destination marketing, geographies, politics, culture, place branding, identity, tourism, involvement, governance, impact, smart city, loyalty, community. Areas of future research could include destination brand, technology, regeneration, legitimacy, experiences, word-of-mouth, attitude, reflections, memory, inequity of cities, inclusive place branding, brand equity, place attachment, place identity, and others. It is also recommended to focus on city-twinning, sister city, municipal cooperation. The study results could be helpful for companies involved in developing the brand of territories, local authorities for the development of place marketing, and scientists researching place marketing.

Over the last decade, the concept of smart destination management has been gaining momentum (Boes et al, 2016; Buhalis and Amaranggana, 2013, 2015; Del Vecchio et al, 2018a; Gretzel et al, 2015; Ivars-Baidal et al, 2019; Lamsfus and Alzua-Sorzabal, 2013; Xiang et al, 2015). As the tourism industry seeks recovery from the devastations of the COVID-19 pandemic, however, several authors have argued that it is more important than ever for destinations to become “smart” in efforts to build back in a more sustainable and regenerative way (Abbas et al, 2021; Assaf and Scuderi, 2020). Though called on globally to guide destinations through this era of change and adaptation, Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) continue to struggle to obtain adequate and reliable data. Specifically, those representing smaller regions often lack the internal capacity to perform the analyses required to become smart destinations (Dodds and Butler, 2019; Dredge, 2016; Gretzel et al, 2006). While the literature has pointed to Destination Management Information Systems (DMISs) as the solution to smart destination management, current applications have been limited and evidence remains primarily anecdotal. Therefore, guided by Höpken et al’s (2011) Knowledge Destination Framework Architecture, this study aimed to develop and empirically test a DMIS for Ottawa Tourism in its capacity to support smart destination management. Findings indicated that while it serves as a valid process in the development of a DMIS, a DMIS’s capacity to support smart destination management is limited by the quality of its inputs. Opportunities for future knowledge generation and knowledge application in the tourism industry are discussed along with areas for future research.

Purpose This study aims to analyze the possibilities for the development of an association of the most beautiful villages of Russia using an experience economy approach. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a case study approach based on the practices of the federation of the most beautiful villages of the Earth and the associations of the most beautiful villages of France, Italy, Japan, Canada and Germany. Findings Based on the analysis of the case studies of beautiful villages marketing in different countries and the methodology of the experience economy, the paper recommends essential changes in the management practices of the association of the most beautiful villages of Russia and its participants. Practical implications Several recommendations have been suggested for exploring, scripting and staging the experiences in beautiful villages of Russia. Originality/value The main output of this study is designed to provide guidance for the management of the association of the most beautiful villages of Russia, inhabitants of the most beautiful villages, rural tourism companies and local authorities in transition to the new experience economy approach accelerating the socioeconomic development of beautiful villages.

The article is devoted to the analysis of problems and prospects of the hunting tourism development in Ukraine. Within the study, it was found out that hunting tourism as a specific type of tourism is developing rapidly in many countries around the world, including Hungary, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Austria, Romania, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Botswana, Canada, Argentina, and others. This field is closely linked to the activities of many industries, and its development contributes to the creation of new jobs, differentiation of the national economy, rational use of natural resources and increase in the amount of financial revenues to the state and local budgets of these countries. Favorable natural conditions, diversity of wildlife, convenient geographical location and acceptable pricing policy create good conditions for the potential development of hunting tourism in Ukraine. Today, hunting tours to the Western regions of our country are in demand. A few years ago, tours to Kharkiv and Zaporizhia regions, as well as to the Crimea were quite popular among hunters. However, hostilities in eastern Ukraine, loss of territorial integrity of the state, as well as adverse social and economic situation significantly reduced the number of hunting tours to these regions. Today, domestic hunting tourism is a solitary tour, and therefore systematic hunting tourism is not discussed. We believe that successful development of this type of tourism is also hindered by many of the problems inherent in the hunting industry. These are the imperfection of the legal framework, low number of hunting animal species, lack of adequate infrastructure, services, related services, insufficient number of specialists, imperfect marketing policy and, as a consequence, loss of the hunting industry. Addressing these problems is a prerequisite for the successful development of hunting tourism.

Purpose Using a cross-cultural perspective, the purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of cultural difference and travel motivation on event participation and how cultural difference may influence the relationship between travel motivation and event participation. The paper highlights the importance of culture in tourism research. Design/methodology/approach The research was conducted by using a secondary data set (n=24,692) commissioned by Destination Canada (formerly the Canadian Tourism Commission). Both descriptive statistics (e.g. frequency analysis) and inferential statistics (e.g. hierarchical regressions) were calculated. Findings First of all, the results indicated that travel motivations and cultural difference can impact event participation. For example, those who were more motivated by knowledge and competence (e.g. knowing history and culture) were more likely to participate in art festivals and cultural events. Also, the research recognized that Asian-Canadians were more likely to visit ethnic or religious festivals than Anglo-Canadians, whereas Asian-Canadians were less likely to attend farmers’ market in comparison with Anglo-Canadians. Last, the effect of cultural difference can moderate the relationship between travel motivation and event participation. Originality/value These findings emphasize that travel motivations and cultural difference are key factors to be considered for festivals’ marketing. Particularly, the moderating effect of cultural difference reinforces that the important role played by culture for effective festival marketing should not be ignored. The research also provides valuable insights for destination managers who are interested in Asian markets. Moreover, using a secondary data set prepared by the Canadian Government largely increased the results’ representativeness, trustworthiness, and generalizability.

This study discusses about tourist characteristic and motivation in Pelaga, Badung Regency, Sibetan, Karangasem Regency, and Tenganan, Karangasem Regency. These three villages were developed into ecotourism village by JED (Village Ecotourism Network). Ecotourism is a community- based tourism, enviromentally sound, and responsible for sustainability. By seeing the number of visitor in Pelaga Ecotourism Village which has yet to reach the target, this is the impact of marketing system is still very common conducted without regard to the characteristics and motivations of tourists. This research purposes is to know the tourist characteristic and motivation who visit Pelaga, Sibetan, and Tenganan Ecotourism Village. Data collection in this research is done by direct obeservation to Pelaga Village, Sibetan Village, and Tenganan Village. Deep interview with the manager of JED and then deep interview with the coordinator of JED in every village, and also deep interview with the tourist to know their motivation visit Pelaga Ecotourism Village. While also using literature study and documentation. The result of this research show that in term geographic characteristic the visitor in Pelaga, Sibetan, and Tenganan Village is come from various country namely USA , Australia, Thailand, Japan, Germany, Canada, Netherland, England, France, Norway, Belgium, Philippines, Italy, Singapore, Malaysia, Cambodia, China, Poland, East Timor, Finland, Korea. In term socio- demographic characteristic the tourist who visit Pelaga and Sibetan dominated by man and in productive age, while in Tenganan is dominated by women and in older age. The whole tourist in three villages are work in private or public sector, and high educational background. Most of tourists who visit, have the motivation to know the culture in three villages.

This article offers recent insights on contested heritage from Canada and Malta. These contrasting geographical extremes span a range of heritage dissonances but share a common historical identity as successor states to the British Empire, entailing familiar postcolonial heritage equivocations. Dissonances between colonial and indigenous heritage meanings are discussed. The principal focus of the paper is the Empire at war, as an issue of heritage management in Ottawa, the capital of Canada, and in Malta; comparative insights are generated with resonance for other imperial successor states such as Australia, New Zealand and Singapore. In Ottawa the National Capital Commission is engaged in a delicate management of heritage evolution from the imperial past to the multicultural present, involving adjustment and diversification of heritage meanings in which the indigenous peoples and Canada's wartime/military history figure prominently. Malta's time-depth generates an embarrassment of heritage resources, necessitating choices as it moves from 'blue' seacoast to 'grey' heritage tourism; while earlier eras are favoured, the British imperial and military heritage is inescapable, especially the heroic shared defence of 1940-3, generating management issues over recency, postcoloniality, the naval legacy and the problem of marketing to the former enemy populations. Questions of whose heritage, using which resources of what period, for whose benefit and how managed, elicit a different range of answers in the two cases: British colonial heritage is too diverse to be value-generalised, and there is no single, immutable colonial template for postcolonial identity. However, the particular legacy of the Empire at war is notably formative in the evolution of succeeding national identities.

The spreading of business improvement districts (BIDs) and similar forms of a public-private partnership, as a new mechanism of urban revitalization and economic development, have emerged in Canada five decades ago and quickly adopted to many cities in countries such as the USA, Germany, UK, South Africa and lately Denmark and Sweden. This form of a public-private partnership with local authorities is created when a significant number of businesses or business property owners agree through a democratic process ballot to manage a delimited area and offer additional public services such as security, maintenance, infrastructure improvement, and marketing, to improve decaying commercial and residential areas. Since 2011, the model has been applied in 8 districts in Albania, contributing to improved business life, infrastructure improvement, and enhanced general public services. The period is long enough to offer insights regarding their evolution and transformative effect in the areas where it has been applied. This paper aims to explore the adaptation of the business improvement district (BID) model in urban areas in Albania and, at the same time, point out its characteristics, activities, and contribution to the area development. The methodology used includes a qualitative research design, including primary and secondary data sources. Primary data sources include interviews with BID association members, administrators, and consultants in Albania, businesses, local government officials, and lawyers. Secondary sources include different research papers on BID functionality and BID legislation, conference proceedings, project reports, entrepreneurship magazines. By identifying the effects of the model in area transformation, this study results have important implications for Albania's public and development policies and extracts practical lessons from its introduction in this local context. The findings presented demonstrate BID's transformative role for area renewal, economic and social development of the areas where it has been applied.

Abstract Since the 1972 National Museums Policy announced its goals of “democratization and decentralization,” national historic sites have been marked by a trend toward regionalization. While scholars have focused on the nationalizing impetus of twentieth-century historiography before 1970, subsequently there have been consistent efforts to incorporate local environmental and cultural diversity into the “family” of national sites. This paper demonstrates this system-wide trend by comparing historic sites in the Bay of Fundy and the Alberta foothills. In both places, designation has evolved from the two-nations narrative of French-English rivalry, in seventeenth-century forts or fur trade posts which could integrate far-flung localities, thereby claiming transcontinental space as national territory. Interpretation now credits local ecological factors with shaping the course of historical events, and acknowledges in situ resources. In addition, Parks Canada has involved groups such as the Acadians or the Blackfoot, whose claims of “homeland” jostle the naturalized Canadian boundaries affirmed by the older national narrative. There are other complications, raised by revisions in public history; notably, these sites continue to play a role in the marketing of place – in a long tradition of using the landscape as an entrée to tourism – and they are not yet conceived in regional groupings.

Ultramarathons are often hosted in peripheral areas featuring challenging natural landscapes. Given limited local volunteer pools in these areas, the recruitment and retention of visiting volunteers is crucial to the sustainability of these events, yet little is known about the importance of the destination or place in terms of the volunteer experience. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to gain insight into the role that place plays in volunteer experiences at an ultramarathon in a peripheral area. A case study methodology was adopted with a focus on volunteers at the Canadian Death Race in Grande Cache (GC), Alberta, Canada. Semistructured interviews with event hosts, local volunteers, and visiting volunteers provided insight into the place dimension of the volunteer experiences. In phase 1, interviews with event/community hosts confirmed that local volunteer retention was challenging due to the growing demands of the event and to local volunteer fatigue. A systematic thematic analysis in phase 2 found that volunteers were connected to the destination through the place-based themes of: 1) beauty, 2) remoteness, 3) event, and 4) community. These findings demonstrated that "place mattered" in the experience of local and visiting volunteers. Therefore, organizers should actively recognize the importance of place when recruiting and retaining volunteers for these types of events in remote communities.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to determine the extent of online communication by festivals regarding their sustainability practices using Cultivation Theory as the framework to determine perceived value creation.Design/methodology/approachA mixed method approach was utilized to achieve data triangulation through a content analysis of websites, content analysis of social media sites as well as interviews.FindingsFindings indicated that 64% of festivals did not communicate any sustainable practices through their websites and only 6% communicated via social media. The most common sustainability practices communicated were waste management and sustainable transportation, yet few festivals engaged in effective, consistent and sufficient marketing of initiatives to festivalgoers. Best practice festivals (having communicated 5.47 initiatives or more) were found to have been significantly more likely than non-best practice festivals to be music festivals and have been in operation longer. Best practice festivals were also more likely than non-best practice festivals to have sustainability engrained into their corporate philosophy via a communicated sustainable vision and mission. Interviews revealed that most festivals did not have a designated role responsible for all sustainable initiatives and the responsibility was often taken on by volunteers or festival organizers. Festival organizers that communicated sustainability initiatives efficiently, consistently, and sufficiently perceived these efforts to benefit the festivals value amongst festivalgoers and host communities. Propensity to communicate sustainability initiatives was found to have been impacted by awareness, categorization, timing, policy and funding.Research limitations/implicationsWhile the findings are limited to the country of Canada and the extent of communication on websites and social media platforms as well as those festivals who participated, interviews helped to overcome these limitations as they gained an understanding of what was undertaken but not necessarily communicated.Practical implicationsThe findings generated from this study could be used as a guide for establishing a benchmark for festivals regarding sustainable communication as well as strategies for overall corporate responsibility. Content regarding sustainability at festivals is scarce, as is information on festival communication. As a result, this paper seeks to understand the sustainable initiatives that are being communicated by festivals.Originality/valueThis is the first time Cultivation Theory was used within a tourism context and may be a useful tool to determine value creation. Through Cultivation Theory, festival organizers believed to have the ability to impact perceived value of the festival by implementing efficient, consistent and sufficient communication of sustainability initiatives.

Harry Lindley belongs to a stalwart group of touring actor-managers like Henry Preston, Wilson and Clarke, and H. Price Webber whose passion for theatre endured through immense hardship. This paper examines his tours to large and small communities in Atlantic Canada between 1879 and 1894, where he consistently demonstrated ingenuity and flexibility in using whatever resources of actors and facilities were at hand. He catered to a broad spectrum of theatrical sophistication and showed a developing sensitivity to the moods of audiences in diverse locales, even as he introduced increasingly aggressive marketing strategies. Over time he became a familiar figure in the region and thus increasingly inspired confidence.

Purpose – This paper aims to report on a study of wine regions in five countries that assessed whether and how wineries use their web sites to provide information to and attract wine tourists. Design/methodology/approach – Content analysis of winery web sites from wine regions in five countries (Australia, Canada, Chile, France, USA) was conducted. Findings – While the majority of wineries in the study utilized web sites to provide information to consumers, there were significant differences in the effectiveness with which they did so. Wineries desiring to attract tourist visitors should ensure that basic information content is present (e.g. hours of operation, directions to the winery). Although some wineries have begun to engage consumers on mobile platforms, more can be done to ensure access to information at all stages of the tourist visit process. Research limitations/implications – Due to time and budget constraints, the study evaluated the web sites in only some wine regions of five wine-producing countries. Future researchers can build on this study by evaluating winery web sites in additional wine regions and countries. Practical implications – The authors identify practical ways in which wineries can enhance the information they provide via their web sites to attract winery visitors and augment cellar door sales. Originality/value – Previous research has examined winery web sites at the level of the destination marketing organization or individual winery within a country; the authors look at individual winery web sites in international comparison. Wineries seeking to attract tourists to their cellar door operations can thus evaluate their online communications in comparison with national and international competitors and best practices.

Abstract It was July 2 and Trina White, the General Manager (GM) of the Parkside Hotel in Victoria, Canada was sitting in her office. She had just reviewed her occupancy figures and realized her costs for labour in her hotel needed to change in order to address the 89% turnover in staffing. In the past year, turnover had cost the hotel CA$202,000 in annual costs, which was close to what was spent on the overall marketing of the business. Victoria is a relatively small city with lots of hotels so it was hard to find staff but the cost to constantly train new staff was not feasible and something needed to change. Later that week, Trina would have a meeting with the shareholders of the hotel but what was she going to suggest? Information © The Author 2022

Background: Canadians are increasingly engaging in medial tourism. The purpose of this study was to review Canadians’ experiences with travelling abroad for cosmetic surgery, including primary motivations for seeking care outside of Canada. Methods: A qualitative analysis was conducted using semistructured interviews following a pre-determined topic guide. People who had undergone cosmetic surgery outside of Canada were interviewed. The interviews were transcribed and coded to determine motivational themes. Patients were recruited until thematic saturation was achieved. Results: Thematic saturation was achieved after recruitment of 11 patients. The most common motivational themes identified in this study for seeking cosmetic surgery outside of Canada included cost, post-operative care provided, marketing/customer service, and word-of-mouth. Member checking and theory triangulation were validation techniques used to verify identified themes. Mexico was the most common location for cosmetic tourism. The most common procedures were breast augmentation, mastopexy, and abdominoplasty. Participants gathered pre- and post-operative information primarily through pamphlets and contact with surgeons’ offices. Follow-up was only available for half of the participants in this study, and only 5 of the participants felt that they had received informed consent. Conclusions: The majority of participants engaged in cosmetic tourism due to cost reasons and the level of post-operative care provided.

This study aims to examine the influence of geographic origin and gender on photo-taking and photo-sharing behaviours. An online survey was circulated in four geographical areas: Australia, Canada, India, and Malaysia. The survey questions asked respondents’ preferred types of photographic device, photo-content, photo-taking motivation, and photo-sharing behaviours while on holiday. Data were analysed using crosstabulation with Chi-square, controlling for gender, and reporting strength of association with Cramer's V. Results show geographic origin and gender are significant indicators of tourists’ photo-taking and photo-sharing behaviour. The number one preference for male/female respondents from India and Malaysia is taking photos of family, which are shared on social media. While nearly a third of male respondents from Australia and Canada do not share holiday photos on social media. Knowledge of this type may assist tourism marketers and destination marketing organisations (DMOs) to personalise their tourism offerings according to geographic region and gender.

In the digital era, more and more people tend to look for travel-related information on the Internet. Hence, destination marketing organization (DMO) websites can play a decisive role in affecting people’s destination choices. Based on the study of Pai, Xia, and Wang, Macao’s DMO website received the lowest score in the effectiveness when compared to the other four tourism destinations: Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, and Thailand. This paper aimed to carry out a comparative analysis on the functionality among three DMO websites in Asia. Each website was examined in great detail, and the features were categorized according to a well-established conceptual framework pioneered by Li and Wang. Consequently, the results of this study gave useful information and new insights to destination marketing managers in terms of gap analysis and the development of new features for their websites. The results of this research could be used as benchmarking purposes in regards to website functionality. In addition, DMO websites in western countries, such as Canada, were also examined for a better understanding of the comprehensiveness of the available website functionality aimed for prospective visitors. Business and managerial implications were also discussed.

In the digital era, more and more people tend to look for travel-related information on the Internet. Hence, destination marketing organization (DMO) websites can play a decisive role in affecting people’s destination choices. Based on the study of Pai, Xia, and Wang, Macao’s DMO website received the lowest score in the effectiveness when compared to the other four tourism destinations: Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, and Thailand. This paper aimed to carry out a comparative analysis on the functionality among three DMO websites in Asia. Each website was examined in great detail, and the features were categorized according to a well-established conceptual framework pioneered by Li and Wang. Consequently, the results of this study gave useful information and new insights to destination marketing managers in terms of gap analysis and the development of new features for their websites. The results of this research could be used as benchmarking purposes in regards to website functionality. In addition, DMO websites in western countries, such as Canada, were also examined for a better understanding of the comprehensiveness of the available website functionality aimed for prospective visitors. Business and managerial implications were also discussed.

Purpose One of the main factors that can impact the cost of holidays to a particular destination is the exchange rate; exchange rate fluctuations impact the overall price of the holiday and should be expected to effect tourism demand. This paper aims to scrutinize the volatility of the real effective exchange rate between the source market relative to the holiday destination and tourism demand volatility, where the influence of disaggregated data is noted. Design/methodology/approach The study uses multivariate conditional volatility regressions to simulate the time-varying conditional variances of international visitor demand and exchange rates for the relatively mature Caribbean tourist destination of Barbados. Data on the country’s main source markets, the UK, the USA and Canada is used, where the decision to disaggregate the analysis by market allows the authors to contribute to policymaking, particularly the future of tourism marketing. Findings The volatility models used in the paper suggests that shocks to total arrivals, as well as the USA and UK markets tend to die out relatively quickly. Asymmetric effects were observed for total arrivals, mainly due to the combination of the different source markets and potential evidence of Butler’s (1980) concept of a tourist area’s cycle of growth. The results also highlight the significance of using disaggregated tourism demand models to simulate volatility, as aggregated models do not adequately capture source market specific shocks, due to the potential model misspecification. Exchange rate volatility is postulated to have resulted in the greater utilization of packaged tours in some markets, while the effects of the market’s online presence moderates the impact of exchange rate volatility on tourist arrivals. Markets should also explore the potential of attracting higher numbers of older tourist, as this group may have higher disposable incomes, thereby mitigating the influence of exchange rate volatility. Research limitations/implications Some of the explanatory variables were not available on a high enough frequency and proxies had to be used. However, the approach used was consistent with other papers in the literature. Practical implications The results from the paper suggest that the effects of exchange rate volatility in key source markets were offset by non-price factors in some markets and the existence of the exchange rate peg in others. In particular, the online presence of the destination was one of those non-price factors highlighted as being important. Originality/value In most theoretical models of tourism demand, disaggregation is not normally considered a significant aspect of the model. This paper contributes to the literature by investigating the impact real effective exchange rate volatility has on tourism demand at a disaggregated source country level. The approach highlights the importance of modeling tourism demand at a disaggregated level and provides important perspective from a mature small island destination.

Within tourism and hospitality, research and focus on the festival and event industry has been increasing. However, research on smaller art and culture festivals has been lagging. Small-to-medium sized art and culture festivals and events are key contributors to society and impact well-being for local communities, resident attendees, and tourist attendees. More specifically, queer film festivals are experiencing a rapid increase in both quantity of festivals worldwide and total attendance at festivals in recent years. These festivals, which celebrate LGBT2Q+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, Two-Spirit, Queer and additional identities) people and communities, have a key place as history makers, storytellers, and community gathering places within the LGBT2Q+ community. The current research examined the diversity of attendees at the 31st annual Vancouver Queer Film Festival (VQFF) in 2019. VQFF is an initiative of Out on Screen, a LGBT2Q+-oriented organization based in Vancouver. The 31st edition of VQFF in 2019 attracted nearly 10,000 people over the 100+ film screening sessions during the 11-day festival. An examination of socio-cultural impacts of VQFF on the local community and resident attendees’ expectation for future programming was completed using a 54-question Qualtrics survey. Questions were asked about future programming, community benefits, subjective wellbeing, cultural/educational impacts, and demographics. With a sample size of 362, a structural equation modeling analysis showed a direct relationship between cultural/educational benefits, community benefits, and subjective well-being. In addition, community benefits and subjective well-being contributed positively to loyalty with an indirect connection between cultural/educational benefits and loyalty. Regarding future programming, respondents had higher interest for art and cultural-related programming as opposed to education-related activities. Implications for industry and researchers as well as future research areas are discussed.

Most undergraduate programmes in tourism management in Malaysia and elsewhere include a course on tourism geography. Knowledge of geography is deemed essential on the ground that it will equip travel and tourism professionals with geographic literacy of both the immediate environment at a particular destination and the world outside, regional and international. Travel counsellors, tourist guides and hotel guest contact personnel in particular, need knowledge in geography to be in the position to advise or provide visitor information on numerous geographic aspects of a destination such as weather, distance, time, location, direction, costs, terrain and the physical environment, especially fauna and flora. Mancini wrote Selling Destinations: Geography for the travel professional with this in mind. He begins the textbook with a debatable observation that travel professionals do not sell travel, what they really sell is geography. While it is true that most travellers see the burden of transfer from the place of origin to the destination as the less favored part of leisure travel, many travellers such as the early explorers, pilgrims, globetrotters and nowadays cruise ship passengers, value the transit experience as part of the leisure travel package. Indeed for the more exclusive niche markets such as space travel, overnight ecotourism hiking trails and mountain climbing, the thrill lies in the journey itself rather than any expected ‘eureka’ at the destination. Travel is thus always an inseparable part of a tour package. The book is big and thick, not a user-friendly volume that readers can conveniently pass around or carry in the suitcase. The author tries to cover a long list of places and items, at the expense of useful foci on pertinent elements at the destination. As a result it paradoxically suffers a lack of both depth and breath. In terms of depth the text is hardly academically rigorous as it claims to be (p. vii). For a self-proclaimed bestseller textbook that is used in more than 60 travel schools in Canada the reader expects a list of references at the back of the book if not after each chapter. Unfortunately the author prefers to stray from the familiar by not including features that, he worries, may ‘clutter’ the mind and this includes distractive references. Selling Destinations... seems to be the only travel geography text in the market that strangely omits references to others’ works. Thus it claims without evidence that, “Fifty-two percent of travellers pick the restaurant they will eat in before arriving at their destination” (p. 7), and that the word ‘serendipity’ comes from the Muslim name for Sri Lanka! In the same breadth this is hardly a scientific text which resorts to a tendentious myth (p. 583) that the eruption of Krakatoa in A. D. 535 caused...the rise of Islam (note: the religion of Islam was not founded until A. D. 622). It also claims that Jerusalem is the capital of Israel (p. 440) although this is still contestable. Coverage of the world is fairly comprehensive albeit uneven. For instance while Canada is allotted 72 pages, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan and Korea are only allocated one page each, notwithstanding the fact that Malaysia receives far more tourists that Canada. There is a conspicuous absence of Air Asia and Langkawi in the description of inbound airlines and island destinations in Malaysia. That the author refers to eastern Malaysia as Sarawak and Sabah regions rather than states indicates his own lack of geographic literacy. This book nonetheless offers the beginner an adequate descriptive framework which covers the essential geographic elements of a destination, namely location, local weather and climate, time zone, landscape, accessibility and key attractions. To Mancini’s credit students will find the trivia, misgivings and quiz sections enjoyable. As the reader proceeds from continent to continent s/he will be increasingly familiar with a rather formulaic format which details information on how to get to the destination, local weather, tips on getting around, possible itineraries, allied destinations, factors that motivate visitors and sales considerations. The prospective visitor is also alerted to possible misgivings on the destination which the travel counsellor might want to address in his/her advice to the client. This is clearly a book on the geography for travel which aims at equipping students with the core competencies for travel counselling. It contrasts with the less vocational orientation of other tourism geography books which devote some space for the geography of tourism with its key concepts and theories. In the latter emphasis is usually given to explaining why tourists and facilities catering to their needs are concentrated in particular regions and locations. For an understanding of the distribution patterns Ullman’s model on spatial interaction and Butler’s idea on the evolution of a tourist destination are now common knowledge, as are concepts of tourism demand and supply, and more recently ideas on ‘sustainable tourism’. Although Mancini does not delve explicitly into the five themes associated with the above concepts: location, place, human-environment interaction, movement and the character of a region as the destination, the diligent learner would nevertheless be able to connect the dots by the end of the course. His use of side notes and trivia boxes helps to make reading a breezy and enjoyable task. The reader is also provided with a 6.5 cm margin to write whatever noteworthy comments s/he wants to write for future reference and recollection. Selling Destinations...is clearly tailor-made for Canadian undergraduates, hence the disproportionate emphasis on the geography of Canadian destinations. A titular subscript Geography for the Canadian Travel Professional would have been more appropriate given such an emphasis. In view of its vocational orientation one does not expect this expensive book, now in its fifth edition, to be included in scholarly reviews among geographers. It is ironic that such a successful book in the market receives no mention in any scholarly review in the subfields of tourism geography or tourism marketing. The author himself seems oblivious to the existence of a large and growing body of literature on tourism geography and destination marketing. There is thus still a lack of integration in tourism geography literature with one concentration addressing geography for tourism while the other on geography of tourism. For a more comprehensive treatment the two sections clearly ought to come together.

During the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic mass gatherings were prohibited across Canada. Festival organizations were faced with a challenge not seen in modern times. How festival business models changed course as a result of pandemic restrictions was explored with in-depth interviews. Senior festival organizers of festivals from across Canada, were invited to participate in this qualitative study and share their experiences. In total, 25 participants described how they were moving forward in light of the pandemic. Findings revealed that festivals’ business models were changing to focus on organizational sustainability, innovation, relationships, and adaptation. Factors influencing these changes were explored.

The emergence of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in December 2019 was a wake-up call for the human resources community. In some ways, COVID-19 was a real game changer, but in other ways, it was simply another flashpoint in an ongoing HR transformation. Many have lost their jobs, and employers and their human resources departments have had to adjust to the situation. Some industries succeeded in going through the pandemic while others did not. It is no wonder why many employees have reoriented their careers to other industries, especially those who used to work in tourism and hospitality. Today, these industries are facing more challenges than ever before, and the lack of employees is making the HR job more difficult and, in many cases, impossible to find employees. This paper is about the HR challenges before and after the pandemic. It is aimed at exploring how human resources management has evolved and changed in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. From a historical perspective, we will first provide an overview of the history of human resources management in relation to the pandemic and then discuss the contemporary issues that have emerged following the outbreak. Then we will analyze the HR situation in Canada and how the pandemic has affected it and its backdown on hospitality and tourism.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/edu_01/0743/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

The purpose of this research was to explore different issues and controversies found in media narratives about hosting the Heritage Classic Ice-Hockey Game, on Canada’s Parliament Hill. This paper utilized the Eight-step Qualitative-Temporal Visual Analysis and Narrative methodology to look at how Canadian media framed the discussion around the hosting location of the Heritage Classic. A total of 81 news articles from 12 media outlets served as the data for the current study. Media frames were grouped into seven themes: parliamentary rules, interest groups, anniversaries, logistics, competition, event landscape, and nostalgia. These frames point to how Parliament Hill was maintained as an institution through regulations and symbolism. The following manuscript informs research on institutional work through applications of special events, eventscapes, and nostalgia.

Ten years ago, in 2012, the United Nations announced a global waste crisis. The festival industry produces a significant amount of waste, however, management practices and policies across locational contexts can help address sustainability goals. This study used Mair and Jago’s (2010) model to understand the drivers and barriers experienced by festival organizers in Canada and New Zealand. Five key findings emerged from this study: (1) similarities in context, drivers, barriers and catalysts exist across these two countries; (2) internal forces were generally more significant drivers than external forces; (3) waste management companies hold the potential to be a significant catalyst; (4) the most prominent barriers were a lack of resources and a lack of knowledge/awareness/skill; (5) political leadership as a contextual factor can support the adoption of festival waste management practices. Recommendations are put forth to leverage drivers and fill management and policy gaps in support of the United Nations SDGs.

Publicly funded sport events (may) affect the relationship between governments and residents. The use of taxpayers’ money creates certain expectations, including community-focused event outcomes. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the alignment of event objectives and outcomes between host residents and those responsible for bringing a publicly funded sport event to a city, namely the government. The 2011 and 2019 Canada Winter Games, two publicly funded, non-mega, multi-sport events, provided the context for the study. Data were collected through documents, interviews, and focus groups. Our findings are articulated in three themes, highlighting that while residents often evaluated their respective events positively, event experiences diverged from those of event providers. Our findings support the need for multi-sectoral event portfolios to pursue community objectives and public engagement strategies throughout the event planning process. These results may help event providers meet the needs of host residents when hosting future sport events.

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, the sport industry has contended with stoppages of play and interrupted revenue streams. With sport beginning to ‘return to normal,’ there is uncertainty about the safe return of spectatorship and how live-event attendees perceive safety and precautionary measures amidst a serious health emergency. The purpose of this study was to assess golf consumers’ perceptions of following COVID-19 preventative measures at small-scale professional golf event in Canada, and how these perceptions may influence their future event attendance. The results from a multiple linear regression analysis indicated that perceived benefits of COVID-19 vaccination and self-efficacy of following preventative measures significantly and positively influenced golf spectator’s consideration of attending an event where these measures are enforced, while the perceived barriers of mask wearing significantly and negatively influenced attendance consideration. This has several practical implications for event management practitioners planning and hosting an event amidst the COVID-19 pandemic.

PurposeThe paper intends to review academic research on peer to peer (P2P) accommodation sharing, notably Airbnb, for 2010–2022 and to identify the knowledge gaps for future research directions.Design/methodology/approachNumerous databases were searched using keywords. Based on the central theme of the research papers, the papers were divided into eight segments—consumer behavior, host behavior, host–guest relationship (HGR), trust in Airbnb, dominant theories in Airbnb, Airbnb regulation, Airbnb and hotels and macro impacts of Airbnb. In-depth content analysis resulted in the final 101 papers for inclusion.FindingsThe review advances comprehension of the Airbnb phenomenon by enriching the literature with new and most recent studies. Most existing Airbnb research has been conducted in Europe, USA/Canada, followed by Asian countries like China, Singapore, S. Korea and India. Future studies should include South America, Africa and other developing nations. More cross-cultural studies are required to understand consumer and host behavior in different cultural settings. Numerous proposals to fulfill the research gaps identified by the paper are discussed.Practical implicationsThe study will give better insights into the spiraling P2P accommodation economy. The study will be useful to researchers, scholars, Airbnb, the hotel industry, vacation rental players and destination marketing organizations by relating the study findings to practical competition analysis. The study provides deeper insights into the decision-making process of both guests and hosts by examining the relevant motivators and constraints. It will also assist the Airbnb platform in identifying its strength over the traditional hotel industry and other vacation rentals. The findings will also assist policymakers in better controlling the Airbnb phenomena by providing a comprehensive view of the micro and macro environment.Originality/valueThe paper includes the most recent studies from Asian countries like India, Singapore, China, Korea and Taiwan, not covered by earlier reviews. Prior studies mainly focused on European and American countries. Also, the paper tried to cover the macro impacts of Airbnb in-depth and the effects of COVID-19.

Purpose Neither visitors of visiting friends and relatives (VFR) travel nor hosts are homogeneous segments (Griffin & Guttenberg, 2020). For this reason, this study aims to address students as hosts of VFR travel and analyzes differences in the visitor and the host segment. As a result, marketing implications for destination marketing organizations that seek to realize the potential of the student VFR segment arise. Design/methodology/approach This research project adopts a multi-method approach to derive a deeper empirical understanding of visitors’ behaviors and the role of students hosting friends and relatives (SHFR). The quantitative study aims to reveal the relevance and differences between visits to friends (VF) and visits to relatives (VR), whereas the qualitative study elaborates on the findings of the quantitative study and seeks to understand the role and experiences of students as hosts. Findings The findings reveal that VR and VF travelers vary in terms of their expenditure. Hosts’ spending depends on visitors’ budgets; in general, both their direct and indirect (when relatives pay) spending increases when they have visitors. Furthermore, the data identify two distinct hosting styles: functional hosting is concerned with providing outstanding hospitality based on a more traditional, guest-oriented understanding of the role, whereas integrative hosting blurs the lines between hospitality and lifestyle based on a more modern, host-oriented understanding of the role. Research limitations/implications Regarding limitations, this study did not differentiate between students who were simultaneously locals and students who resided in the city only for study purposes. In a similar vein, the cultural background of the students was not considered in the research. Finally, the differences between VF and VR could further be explored in a quantitative follow-up study and in testing for significant differences in SHFR spending behaviors. Further research could examine whether domestic travelers, travelers with cultural proximity and/or short-distance VFR travelers are more likely to visit after COVID-19 as suggested by Backer and Ritchie (2017) in the case of crises and disaster. Practical implications Students as hosts differ from other hosts in VFR travel in their reluctance to embrace conventional tourism products. This study found that place attachment makes hosts of VFR travelers passionate ambassadors and advertisers for the destinations; destination marketing organizations (DMOs) could support this already positive image by providing and supporting students with more detailed information about their cities and the opportunities they offer. Results are of particular relevance because the COVID-19 pandemic is forcing DMOs to develop destination strategies that incorporate social-distancing and avoid crowded places. Social implications When students take their friends out to events and nightclubs, they contribute significantly to experiences that go beyond typical tourism activities such as sightseeing and shopping. By offering special discounts to visitors who come with their hosts, DMOs could help visitors delve more deeply into city life and thereby reduce the likeliness of crowded city centers. Considering the findings relating to the social and emotional qualities of VFR travel, DMO marketing to VFR travelers could benefit from promoting socio-cultural spaces and offerings that value groups’ social ties (e.g. family prices for families with adult children) or alumni status. Originality/value According to the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first which analyzes both, visitors and hosts of VFR travel using a two methods approach. Very recently, Griffin and Guttenberg (2020) miss VFR research focusing on the heterogeneity of the segment, and Backer et al. (2020) claim for more VFR research on the role of hosts carried out outside of Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the UK and the USA. To the authors’ best knowledge, this study is the first which delivers empirical insights on SHFR in Central Europe.

Purpose This study aims to investigate how domestic and international undergraduate students from a university in Ontario, Canada, defined locally grown food and examined the factors behind their locally grown food purchase intentions. Design/methodology/approach Questionnaires were distributed in the School of Hospitality, Food, and Tourism Management undergraduate classes. A total of 196 complete surveys were returned. Using multiple regression analysis and theory of planned behavior (TPB) as a theoretical framework with an additional construct, moral norm, proposed hypotheses were tested. Findings Domestic students narrowly defined locally grown food based on distance (e.g. food grown/raised within 100 km of where a person lives) compared to international students (e.g. food grown in Canada). The multiple regression analysis revealed that 36% of variance in purchase intention is explained by the four independent variables (i.e. student status, attitude, perceived product availability and moral norm), with perceived product availability as the strongest predictor of intention to purchase locally grown food. Research limitations/implications The convenience sampling method limitations are as follows. First, the sample size was small for international students. Second, there was a possibility of underrepresentation of certain origins of international student populations. Third, the undergraduate respondents were from the School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism. Finally, another limitation is that the four variables in this study (i.e. attitudes, subjective norms, perceived product availability, and moral norm) only explained 36% of the variance of this model. Practical implications Perceived product availability, moral norm and attitude constructs positively influenced the locally grown food purchase intention. A perceived product availability construct revealed the strongest influence in locally grown food purchase intention of students. Particularly, five key questions were created based on the major research findings of this study, which can be used as a guideline for locally grown food providers and farmers when promoting locally grown food to students. These questions include: Where can I find it? When can I find it? Who grows it? How can I benefit others? Why is it good for me? Social implications The results of this study shown that which factors influence locally grown food purchase intention of students. Hence, local restaurateurs and university dining facilities may incorporate these factors in their marketing message to serve students population better who might be interested in buying food products using locally grown ingredients. Research results also allow local farmers to communicate and inform their current and potential student consumers about the advantages of locally grown food. Overall, findings can contribute to economy and business of local community. Originality/value Current research findings verified that there is a significant use of a moral norm construct to predict locally grown food purchase intention of students. The moral norm construct positively influenced the locally grown food purchase intention in this study, and this construct seemed useful to predict locally grown food purchase intention of students. Additionally, the research discovered that there were differences in domestic and international undergraduate students' perception in the locally grown food definition.

Theoretical basis Transnational entrepreneurs (TEs) are individuals that migrate from one country to another, concurrently maintaining business-related linkages with their former country of origin and currently adopted countries and communities. TEs are active social actors who enact networks, ideas, information and practices for the purpose of seeking business opportunities or maintaining businesses within dual-social fields, which, in turn, force them to engage in varied strategies of action to promote their entrepreneurial activities (Drori, Honig & Wright, 2009). This case research focused on the ethic, legal and cultural challenges TE has been facing when operating their business across boards. Research methodology The data used in this case were collected from mainly third-parties, including the office de la protection du consommateur; Office of consumer protection (OPC), securities and exchange commission (SEC) reports, news as well as marketing materials posted on public media by Sinorama Corp. and Vacances Sinorama. The authors conducted interviews with former employees of Vacances Sinorama to gain the understanding of the owners and the business challenges faced during the years of operation. The authors also communicated with the OPC through to obtain specific case-related information through the Canadian freedom of information channels. Triangulation of such information from multiple resources had been conducted to validate and support the details described in the case content. Case overview/synopsis A Chinese immigrant couple migrated to Canada and started Vacances Sinorama Inc. (“Vacances Sinorama”) in 2005. The focus of this case is on the expansion of their travel businesses after 2015. In 2016, they established a financing shell company, Sinorama Corporation (“Sinorama Corp.”), in Florida, USA, which became the holding company to the operation subsidiaries. Born during the 1970s and raised in Mainland China, the owners were culturally traditional and operated the company with the values and norms from their heritage culture. Vacances Sinorama successfully penetrated the local tourism market using Web-based technology and aggressive low-pricing strategies after the scaling-up strategies. However, Vacances Sinorama was operating in the red for several consecutive years (2015–2018). Sinorama Corp. received additional capital of US$4.4m by listing a portion of its shares on the NASDAQ over-the-counter market during 2016 and 2017. Canadian regulators began to investigate its operational and financing activities in 2017. They found a comingling of client and operation funds, which directly violated Canadian consumer protection laws. As a result of these violations, the license for Vacances Sinorama was nonrenewed in August 2018. The majority of owners fought to overturn the regulators’ decision and failed at all levels of appeal, administrative and judicial. This entrepreneurial endeavor ended with Vacances Sinorama declaring bankruptcy in October of 2018. Complexity academic level This multipurpose teaching case aims to assist students from an integrated approach whom are learning about entrepreneurship, international business, business law and business ethics. It is best suited for advanced undergraduate courses in entrepreneurship, business ethics, international business and business law as well as specific teaching modules in MBA courses.

La diffusion du tourisme dans le monde aboutit à une transformation des lieux à but touristique pour tous les pays, régions et villes désireux de recevoir une partie de la manne procurée par le tourisme mondial. Ce processus demise en tourismeest davantage perçu comme économique (apports financiers) et spatial (transformation du lieu) alors qu’il touche aussi, sinon davantage, la société et les populations des territoires concernés. L’expression « mise en tourisme » apparaît ainsi comme une sorte « d’enchantement sémantique » visant à approcher un processus autrement plus complexe que sa réduction à une dimension économique, spatiale ou même de marketing. Comment appréhender la mise en tourisme dans le discours scientifique, notamment en matière de tourisme urbain ? Trois volets scientifiques sont proposés : d’une part, une lecture analytique des écrits francophones sur la mise en tourisme comparés aux écrits anglophones ; d’autre part, une analyse sémantique des définitions de mise en tourisme de la ville obtenues auprès de chercheurs francophones (Europe, Canada, Afrique du Nord) ; finalement, la définition modèle obtenue à travers l’analyse sémantique est révisée dans le contexte des écrits anglophones sur le processus de transformation des lieux à des fins touristiques.

In the era of current globalization, when the whole world is faced with the qualitatively new economic crisis, for the purpose of raising the living standards of population the great importance is attached to ensuring their effective employment. The latter belongs to the major social-economic issues and poses quite a serious challenge to a country. The aforesaid is also conditioned by the fact that at the current stage of formation and operation of labour market the unemployment is regarded as the key factor causing poverty. Under the conditions of coronomics the problem is more exacerbated by thousands of workplaces having been temporarily suspended and lost due to the spread of Covid19 within the country. In such a situation it would be difficult to cope with the unemployment and make progress in effective employment without developing the socio-labour relations and applying its qualitatively new forms. Occasioned by the above mentioned, the paper aims at the profound study of peculiarities of the forms of distance employment, which are widespread in the international practice, and focuses on the formulation of certain directions and recommendations relating to the potential and prospects of their utilization in the country. In particular, on the basis of the research and analysis conducted the following key recommendations and conclusions have been reached: 1. In the contemporary world the expansion of non-standard employment including the distance employment has radically changed the tendencies of developing the labour market. The mentioned forms of employment are characterized by: labour flexibility; the application of non-standard organizational-legal forms of labour; the adaptation of employers and employees to the constantly changing economic conditions; the realization of their interests, etc.; 2. In the developed countries the distance employment greatly contributes to the increase in the overall level and scales of employment. Its main distinctive mark is the existence of workplaces out of enterprise (outworks). Accordingly, the distance employment is examined in the context of non-standard employment represented as the form of long-term labour relations with a single employer, which diverges from the standard model of full, regulated and open employment according to one or several criteria (performance, labour regime, labour hours, working conditions, work outcomes, working hours, work place and its location, social protection, the correlation between the subjects of labour relations, etc.); 3. Based on its attractiveness as well as by popular demand, the distance employment is recently developing and enhancing at a fast pace all over the world. For instance, while at the outset of the 2000s approximately 30.0 million people were employed on distance jobs in the USA and EU countries, in the second decade of XXI century their number increased to 55.0 – 60.0 million. The quantity of distance employers is annually growing by 20%-30% worldwide. In 2019, the number of outworking employees equaled to 39.0% all over the world. In addition, 28% more of employees had the right to distance jobs. The USA, Canada, Finland, Denmark and Sweden lead this sphere; 4. The advantages of distance employment are as follows: 1. On behalf of employees: flexible working hours; the standard, comfortable conditions of employment; the opportunity to get education and participate in the socially useful activities; extra income; contracts with outer organizations; the possibility to schedule the working time and the labour optimization; the provision of high efficiency and quality of work; the maintenance of the personal rhythm, resting and working time and their protection; saving of expenses; the decrease in time of communications; comfortable working space; the lack of corporate culture; the distance employment is the basis of creative self-realization, pleasure and satisfaction for a number of employers. 2.On behalf of employers: employing the professionals and providing the flexibility of personnel; raising the labour productivity and efficiency; ensuring the personnel loyalty; providing the clients with round –the-clock information services; forming the flexible organizational structure for enterprises; work site arrangement, saving rental costs. 3. On behalf of a state: the increase in the level of employment and the decrease in the level of unemployment; the development of distance employment involving the disabled persons; the decrease in traffic in the country; the increase in the number of economically active population; scaling down the migration; 5. Apart from the positive points, the expansion of distance employment is related to the significant risk factors, which necessitate the introduction of their controlling mechanism by the state. It should be focused on reducing the aforesaid riskfactors to minimum level and protecting social and legal rights of employees; 6. Occasioned by the goals of ensuring the effective employment as well as according to National Strategy for Labour Market and Employment Policy of Georgia 2019-2023, the provision of developing the non-standard forms of employment assumes the great importance in the country. It is also essential to regularly conduct the impact assessment defining the scales of distance jobs and the pace of their expansion at the level of total employment; 7. In order to conduct the comprehensive analysis and evaluation of distance employment at the overall level of employment, we deem it expedient to make its classification not in terms of the scope of fields but according to the professions, which are currently singled out as being in great demand. Currently, at the labour market of Georgia the following specialties are most demanded by employers: 1. A specialist in marketing; 2. Sales manager; 3. The specialist in the area of internet-technologies; 4. A web-designer; 5. A programmer; 6. Distributer; 7. Tourism ( where the demands have, accordingly, increased on the specialties such as a waiter, a barman, a hotel manager, a guide); 8. Audit; 9. Accountant – financier; 10. A doctor; 11. A lawyer; 12. A teacher; 13. A construction manager; 14. Translator, etc. Exactly the mentioned professions are attractive in terms of developing the distance employment in a number of developed countries abroad; 8. With the aim of raising the efficiency of state programs for employment and regulating the distance employment, the regular researches should be necessarily implemented in the direction of determining the real demands on working forces at the labour market. This is the only way offering the real prospects for developing the distance employment and their involvement in the state and regional programs of employment. The latter will considerably contribute to improving the quality of working life of population and ultimately, the raise of living standards.

IntroductionFilmed during a 1955 family trip from Perth to the Gulf of Carpentaria, Keith Adams’s Northern Safari showed to packed houses across Australia, and in some overseas locations, across three decades. Essentially a home movie, initially accompanied by live commentary and subsequently by a homemade sound track, it tapped into audiences’ sense of Australia’s north as a place of adventure. In the film Adams interacts with the animals of northern Australia (often by killing them), and while by 1971 the violence apparent in the film was attracting criticism in letters to newspapers, the film remained popular through to the mid-1980s, and was later shown on television in Australia and the United States (Cowan 2; Adams, Crocodile Safari Man 261). A DVD is at present available for purchase from the website of the same name (Northern Safari). Adams and his supporters credited the film’s success to the rugged and adventurous landscape of northern Australia (Northeast vii), characterised by dangerous animals, including venomous spiders, sharks and crocodiles (see Adams, “Aussie”; “Crocodile”). The notion of Australia’s north as a place of rugged adventure was not born with Adams’s film, and that film was certainly not the last production to exploit the region and its wildlife as a source of excitement. Rather, Northern Safari belongs to a long list of adventure narratives whose hunting exploits have helped define the north of Australian as a distinct region and contrast it with the temperate south where most Australians make their lives.This article explores the connection between adventure in Australia’s north and the large animals of the region. Adams’s film capitalised on popular interest in natural history, but his film is only one link in a chain of representations of the Australian north as a place of dangerous and charismatic megafauna. While over time interest shifted from being largely concentrated on the presence of buffalo in the Northern Territory to a fascination with the saltwater crocodiles found more widely in northern Australia that interest in dangerous prey animals is significant to Australia’s northern imaginary.The Northern Safari before AdamsNorthern Australia gained a reputation for rugged, masculine adventure long before the arrival there of Adams and his cameras. That reputation was closely associated with the animals of the north, and it is generally the dangerous species that have inspired popular accounts of the region. Linda Thompson has recognised that before the release of the film Crocodile Dundee in 1986 crocodiles “received significant and sensational (although sporadic) media attention across Australia—attention that created associations of danger, mystery, and abnormality” (118). While Thompson went on to argue that in the wake of Crocodile Dundee the saltwater crocodile became a widely recognised symbol of Australia (for both Australians and non-Australians) it is perhaps more pertinent to consider the place of animals in creating a notion of the Australian north.Adams’s extended and international success (he showed his film profitably in the United States, Canada, England, Germany, South Africa, Rhodesia, and New Zealand as well as throughout Australia) suggests that the landscape and wildlife of northern Australia holds a fascination for a wide audience (Adams, Crocodile Safari Man 169-261). Certainly northern Australia, and its wild beasts, had established a reputation for adventure earlier, particularly in the periods following the world wars. Perhaps crocodiles were not the most significant of the north’s charismatic megafauna in the first half of the twentieth century, but their presence was a source of excitement well before the 1980s, and they were not the only animals in the north to attract attention: the Northern Territory’s buffalo had long acted as a drawcard for adventure seekers.Carl Warburton’s popular book Buffaloes was typical in linking Australians’ experiences of war with the Australian north and the pursuit of adventure, generally in the form of dangerous big game. War and hunting have long been linked as both are expressions of masculine valour in physically dangerous circumstances (Brennan “Imperial” 44-46). That link is made very clear in Warbuton’s account when he begins it on the beach at Gallipoli as he and his comrades discuss their plans for the future. After Warburton announces his determination not to return from war to work in a bank, he and a friend determine that they will go to either Brazil or the Northern Territory to seek adventure (2). Back in Sydney, a coin flip determines their “compass was set for the unknown north” (5).As the title of his book suggests, the game pursued by Warburton and his mate were buffaloes, as buffalo hides were fetching high prices when he set out for the north. In his writing Warburton was keen to establish his reputation as an adventurer and his descriptions of the dangers of buffalo hunting used the animals to establish the adventurous credentials of northern Australia. Warburton noted of the buffalo that: “Alone of all wild animals he will attack unprovoked, and in single combat is more than a match for a tiger. It is the pleasant pastime of some Indian princes to stage such combats for the entertainment of their guests” (62-63). Thereby, he linked Arnhem Land to India, a place that had long held a reputation as a site of adventurous hunting for the rulers of the British Empire (Brennan “Africa” 399). Later Warburton reinforced those credentials by noting: “there is no more dangerous animal in the world than a wounded buffalo bull” (126). While buffalo might have provided the headline act, crocodiles also featured in the interwar northern imaginary. Warburton recorded: “I had always determined to have a crack at the crocodiles for the sport of it.” He duly set about sating this desire (222-3).Buffalo had been hunted commercially in the Northern Territory since 1886 and Warburton was not the first to publicise the adventurous hunting available in northern Australia (Clinch 21-23). He had been drawn north after reading “of the exploits of two crack buffalo shooters, Fred Smith and Paddy Cahill” (Warburton 6). Such accounts of buffalo, and also of crocodiles, were common newspaper fodder in the first half of the twentieth century. Even earlier, explorers’ accounts had drawn attention to the animal excitement of northern Australia. For example, John Lort Stokes had noted ‘alligators’ as one of the many interesting animals inhabiting the region (418). Thus, from the nineteenth century Australia’s north had popularly linked together remoteness, adventure, and large animals; it was unsurprising that Warburton in turn acted as inspiration to later adventure-hunters in northern Australia. In 1954 he was mentioned in a newspaper story about two English migrants who had come to Australia to shoot crocodiles on Cape York with “their ambitions fed by the books of men such as Ion Idriess, Carl Warburton, Frank Clune and others” (Gay 15).The Development of Northern ‘Adventure’ TourismNot all who sought adventure in northern Australia were as independent as Adams. Cynthia Nolan’s account of travel through outback Australia in the late 1940s noted the increasing tourist infrastructure available, particularly in her account of Alice Springs (27-28, 45). She also recorded the significance of big game in the lure of the north. At the start of her journey she met a man seeking his fortune crocodile shooting (16), later encountered buffalo shooters (82), and recorded the locals’ hilarity while recounting a visit by a city-based big game hunter who arrived with an elephant gun. According to her informants: “No, he didn’t shoot any buffaloes, but he had his picture taken posing behind every animal that dropped. He’d arrange himself in a crouch, gun at the ready, and take self-exposure shots of himself and trophy” (85-86). Earlier, organised tours of the Northern Territory included buffalo shooter camps in their itineraries (when access was available), making clear the continuing significance of dangerous game to the northern imaginary (Cole, Hell 207). Even as Adams was pursuing his independent path north, tourist infrastructure was bringing the northern Australian safari experience within reach for those with little experience but sufficient funds to secure the provision of equipment, vehicles and expert advice. The Australian Crocodile Shooters’ Club, founded in 1950, predated Northern Safari, but it tapped into the same interest in the potential of northern Australia to offer adventure. It clearly associated that adventure with big game hunting and the club’s success depended on its marketing of the adventurous north to Australia’s urban population (Brennan “Africa” 403-06). Similarly, the safari camps which developed in the Northern Territory, starting with Nourlangie in 1959, promoted the adventure available in Australia’s north to those who sought to visit without necessarily roughing it. The degree of luxury that was on offer initially is questionable, but the notion of Australia’s north as a big game hunting destination supported the development of an Australian safari industry (Berzins 177-80, Brennan “Africa” 407-09). Safari entrepreneur Allan Stewart has eagerly testified to the broad appeal of the safari experience in 1960s Australia, claiming his clientele included accountants, barristers, barmaids, brokers, bankers, salesmen, journalists, actors, students, nursing sisters, doctors, clergymen, soldiers, pilots, yachtsmen, racing drivers, company directors, housewives, precocious children, air hostesses, policemen and jockeys (18).Later Additions to the Imaginary of the Northern SafariAdams’s film was made in 1955, and its subject of adventurous travel and hunting in northern Australia was taken up by a number of books during the 1960s as publishers kept the link between large game and the adventurous north alive. New Zealand author Barry Crump contributed a fictionalised account of his time hunting crocodiles in northern Australia in Gulf, first published in 1964. Crump displayed his trademark humour throughout his book, and made a running joke of the ‘best professional crocodile-shooters’ that he encountered in pubs throughout northern Australia (28-29). Certainly, the possibility of adventure and the chance to make a living as a professional hunter lured men to the north. Among those who came was Australian journalist Keith Willey who in 1966 published an account of his time crocodile hunting. Willey promoted the north as a site of adventure and rugged masculinity. On the very first page of his book he established his credentials by advising that “Hunting crocodiles is a hard trade; hard, dirty and dangerous; but mostly hard” (1). Although Willey’s book reveals that he did not make his fortune crocodile hunting he evidently revelled in its adventurous mystique and his book was sufficiently successful to be republished by Rigby in 1977. The association between the Australian north, the hunting of large animals, and adventure continued to thrive.These 1960s crocodile publications represent a period when crocodile hunting replaced buffalo hunting as a commercial enterprise in northern Australia. In the immediate post-war period crocodile skins increased in value as traditional sources became unreliable, and interest in professional hunting increased. As had been the case with Warburton, the north promised adventure to men unwilling to return to domesticity after their experiences of war (Brennan, “Crocodile” 1). This part of the northern imaginary was directly discussed by another crocodile hunting author. Gunther Bahnemann spent some time crocodile hunting in Australia before moving his operation north to poach crocodiles in Dutch New Guinea. Bahnemann had participated in the Second World War and in his book he was clear about his unwillingness to settle for a humdrum life, instead choosing crocodile hunting for his profession. As he described it: “We risked our lives to make quick money, but not easy money; yet I believe that the allure of adventure was the main motive of our expedition. It seems so now, when I think back to it” (8).In the tradition of Adams, Malcolm Douglas released his documentary film Across the Top in 1968, which was subsequently serialised for television. From around this time, television was becoming an increasingly popular medium and means of reinforcing the connection between the Australian outback and adventure. The animals of northern Australia played a role in setting the region apart from the rest of the continent. The 1970s and 1980s saw a boom in programs that presented the outback, including the north, as a source of interest and national pride. In this period Harry Butler presented In the Wild, while the Leyland brothers (Mike and Mal) created their iconic and highly popular Ask the Leyland Brothers (and similar productions) which ran to over 150 episodes between 1976 and 1980. In the cinema, Alby Mangels’s series of World Safari movies included Australia in his wide-ranging adventures. While these documentaries of outback Australia traded on the same sense of adventure and fascination with Australia’s wildlife that had promoted Northern Safari, the element of big game hunting was muted.That link was reforged in the 1980s and 1990s. Crocodile Dundee was an extremely successful movie and it again placed interactions with charismatic megafauna at the heart of the northern Australian experience (Thompson 124). The success of the film reinvigorated depictions of northern Australia as a place to encounter dangerous beasts. Capitalising on the film’s success Crump’s book was republished as Crocodile Country in 1990, and Tom Cole’s memoirs of his time in northern Australia, including his work buffalo shooting and crocodile hunting, were first published in 1986, 1988, and 1992 (and reprinted multiple times). However, Steve Irwin is probably the best known of northern Australia’s ‘crocodile hunters’, despite his Australia Zoo lying outside the crocodile’s natural range, and despite being a conservationist opposed to killing crocodiles. Irwin’s chosen moniker is ironic, given his often-stated love for the species and his commitment to preserving crocodile lives through relocating (when necessary, to captivity) rather than killing problem animals. He first appeared on Australian television in 1996, and continued to appear regularly until his death in 2006.Tourism Australia used both Hogan and Irwin for promotional purposes. While Thompson argues that at this time the significance of the crocodile was broadened to encompass Australia more generally, the examples of crocodile marketing that she lists relate to the Northern Territory, with a brief mention of Far North Queensland and the crocodile remained a signifier of northern adventure (Thompson 125-27). The depiction of Irwin as a ‘crocodile hunter’ despite his commitment to saving crocodile lives marked a larger shift that had already begun within the safari. While the title ‘safari’ retained its popularity in the late twentieth century it had come to be applied generally to organised adventurous travel with a view to seeing and capturing images of animals, rather than exclusively identifying hunting expeditions.ConclusionThe extraordinary success of Adams’s film was based on a widespread understanding of northern Australia as a type of adventure playground, populated by fascinating dangerous beasts. That imaginary was exploited but not created by Adams. It had been in existence since the nineteenth century, was particularly evident during the buffalo and crocodile hunting bubbles after the world wars, and boomed again with the popularity of the fictional Mick Dundee and the real Steve Irwin, for both of whom interacting with the charismatic megafauna of the north was central to their characters. The excitement surrounding large game still influences visions of northern Australia. At present there is no particularly striking northern bushman media personage, but the large animals of the north still regularly provoke discussion. The north’s safari camps continue to do business, trading on the availability of large game (particularly buffalo, banteng, pigs, and samba) and northern Australia’s crocodiles have established themselves as a significant source of interest among international big game hunters. Australia’s politicians regularly debate the possibility of legalising a limited crocodile safari in Australia, based on the culling of problem animals, and that debate highlights a continuing sense of Australia’s north as a place apart from the more settled, civilised south of the continent.ReferencesAdams, Keith. ’Aussie Bites.’ Australian Screen 2017. <https://aso.gov.au/titles/documentaries/northern-safari/clip2/>.———. ‘Crocodile Hunting.’ Australian Screen 2017. <https://aso.gov.au/titles/documentaries/northern-safari/clip3/>.———. Crocodile Safari Man: My Tasmanian Childhood in the Great Depression & 50 Years of Desert Safari to the Gulf of Carpentaria 1949-1999. Rockhampton: Central Queensland University Press, 2000.Bahnemann, Gunther. New Guinea Crocodile Poacher. 2nd ed. London: The Adventurers Club, 1965.Berzins, Baiba. Australia’s Northern Secret: Tourism in the Northern Territory, 1920s to 1980s. Sydney: Baiba Berzins, 2007.Brennan, Claire. 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