Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Tortricid'

El coneixement bàsic dels efectes letals i subletals que els insecticides poden generar en els insectes plaga resulta particularment important per l’optimització i millora de les estratègies de Control Integrat de Plagues (C.I.P), especialment quan l’ús d’insecticides és la principal eina de control. Al llarg de la present tesi s’ha realitzat una feina molt exhaustiva que dóna com a resultat unes corbes de mortalitat dosi-resposta per a tres insecticides neurotòxics amb diferents maneres d’acció [clorpirifòs (un organofosforat inhibidor de l’acetilcolinesterasa (AChE)), λ-cihalothrín (un piretroide modulador dels canals de sodi), i tiacloprid (un neonicotinoide agonista dels receptors nicotínics de l’AChE)] sobre tres espècies d’arnes que són importants plagues fruiteres [Cydia pomonella (L.), Grapholita molesta (Busck), i Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller)]. Tot seguit, es van analitzar els mecanismes de detoxificació de les tres espècies pels tres insecticides mitjançant l’estudi de les principals famílies enzimàtiques involucrades en la detoxificació [carboxil-esterases (EST), glutatió-S-transferases (GST), i multi-funció oxidases (MFO)]. Finalment, es va explorar si dosis subletals de l’insecticida tiacloprid, estimades en la primera part de la tesi, tenien un efecte sobre el sistema de comunicació mitjançant feromones sexuals en les tres espècies. Un aspecte característic d’aquesta tesi és que se centra en l’insecte adult, el qual està vagament representat dins la literatura científica de l’àrea de la toxicologia en Lepidòpters, probablement degut que la gran majoria dels insecticides tenen als ous o a diferents estadis larvaris com a element diana. No obstant, l’ús d’adults en aquest estudi ens reportarà una sèrie de descobriments insospitats que s’explicaran a continuació.
El conocimiento básico de los efectos letales y subletales que los insecticidas pueden generar en los insectos plaga resulta particularmente importante para la optimización y mejora de las estrategias de Control Integrado de Plagas (C.I.P), especialmente cuando el uso de insecticidas es la principal herramienta de control. El exhaustivo trabajo realizado a lo largo de la presente tesis da como resultado unas curvas de mortalidad dosis-respuesta para tres insecticidas neurotóxicos con diferentes modos de acción [clorpirifós (un organofosforado inhibidor de la acetilcolinesterasa (AChE)), λ-cihalothrín (un piretroide modulador de los canales de sodio), y tiacloprid (un neonicotinoide agonista de los receptores nicotínicos de la AChE)] sobre tres especies de polillas que son importantes plagas frutales [Cydia pomonella (L.), Grapholita molesta (Busck), y Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller)]. Acto seguido, se analizaron los mecanismos de detoxificación de las tres especies para los tres insecticidas mediante el estudio de las principales familias enzimáticas involucradas en la detoxificación [carboxilesterasas (EST), glutatión-S-transferasas (GST), y multifunción oxidasas (MFO)]. Finalmente, se exploró si dosis subletales del insecticida tiacloprid, estimadas en la primera parte de la tesis, tenían un efecto sobre el sistema de comunicación mediante feromonas sexuales en las tres especies. Un aspecto característico de esta tesis es que se centra en el insecto adulto, el cual está muy poco representado en la literatura científica del área de la toxicología en Lepidópteros, probablemente debido a que la gran mayoría de los insecticidas tienen a los huevos o a diferentes estadios de la larva como elemento diana. Sin embargo, el uso de adultos en este estudio nos reportará una serie de hallazgos inesperados que se explicarán a continuación.
Basic knowledge on lethal and sublethal insecticide effects on pest insects is particularly important for optimization and continuous improvement of IPM strategies, especially when insecticides are used as the main crop-protection strategy. The work that I carried out in my Ph.D. thesis provides thorough dose-mortality curves for three neurotoxic insecticides with different modes of action [chlorpyrifos (organophosphate, acetylcholinesterase inhibitor), λ-cyhalothrin (pyrethroid, sodium channel modulator), and thiacloprid (neonicotinoid, nicotinic acetylcholinesterase receptor agonist)] on three key fruit pest species [Cydia pomonella (L.), Grapholita molesta (Busck), and Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller)]. Subsequently I analyzed the detoxification mechanisms of the three species against the three insecticides by studying the most common enzymatic detoxification groups [carboxylesterases (EST), glutathione-S-transferases (GST), and mixed-function oxidases (MFO)]. Finally, I explored if the sublethal doses of thiacloprid estimated in the first part of the thesis affect the sex-pheromone communication system of these species. A singular aspect of my thesis is that I focused on the adult stage, which is poorly represented in the toxicological scientific literature of Lepidoptera, probably because most insecticides are mainly designed to kill egg or larval stages. However, this choice ultimately led to some unexpected findings that I explain next.

La confusió sexual mitjançant feromones és una tàctica de control de plagues que, en impedir l'aparellament entre arnes, ha ajudat enormement a reduir els danys en cultius, així com l'ús de pesticides. La necessitat de disminuir els costos associats a la seva aplicació ha fomentat el desenvolupament de dispensadors automàtics o puffers. Aquests puffers alliberen una gran quantitat de feromona mentre els insectes estan sexualment actius. No obstant això, la falta d'informació sobre la biologia i el comportament dels insectes i de l'efecte que alguns factors externs tenen sobre la seva periodicitat diària impedeixen un correcte ajust dels puffers, la qual cosa pot suposar una disminució de la seva eficàcia en camp. A pesar que el parany automàtic pot servir per a determinar aquests períodes d'activitat i decidir quan alliberar feromona, els paranys disponibles comercialment no confereixen una resolució temporal suficient per a esbossar l'activitat dels insectes, que pot estar reduïda a unes poques hores. Per a la meva tesi hem dissenyat i posat a prova un parany assequible i fàcil de construir que m'ha permès determinar el vol sexual diari i estacional de Grapholita molesta (Busk) a partir de fotografies preses amb una gran resolució temporal. Tant en paranys encebats amb feromona sintètica com en paranys encebats amb femelles verges, la majoria de les captures van tenir lloc entre 3 hores abans i una hora després de la posta de sol, indicant una activitat diürna crepuscular en l'espècie. El tipus d'esquer (septe de feromona o femella verge) no va afectar al període de vol diari. Així i tot, les baixes temperatures van avançar els vols, mentre que les temperatures més altes retardaven el vol fins a hores pròximes a la posta de sol. Aquests resultats destaquen la necessitat de programar els puffers perquè alliberin la feromona en diferents hores al llarg de l'any, seguint la corba de vol dels insectes. Fent-t'ho així augmentaria l'eficàcia d'aquest sistema en camp, al mateix temps que reduiria el cost de la seva aplicació i evitaria un desaprofitament de feromona. Per a explicar els mecanismes subjacents al funcionament de la confusió sexual en el control de plagues, la majoria dels estudis s'han centrat en l'efecte de grans nivells de feromona sintètica sobre els mascles. Les femelles, d'altra banda, s'han considerat insensibles a la seva pròpia feromona. No obstant això, una revisió recent indica que hi ha una alteració notable en el comportament de les femelles en ser exposades a la seva pròpia feromona, un fenomen conegut com a “autodetecció”. Malgrat això, no hi ha proves que confirmin que les femelles siguin capaces de detectar la seva pròpia feromona a nivell de les neurones olfactòries. Mitjançant tècniques d'electrofisiologia, he comparat la resposta de les neurones olfactòries allotjades en sensilla trichodea de mascles i femelles a compostos biològicament rellevants per a G. molesta, una espècie en la qual s'ha descrit autodetecció. Una anàlisi d'agrupament jeràrquic indica un sistema olfactori perifèric radicalment diferent en cada sexe, la qual cosa podria estar relacionat amb les diferents necessitats biològiques de cadascun. Mentre que en els mascles no hi havia cèl·lules que responguessin a la seva pròpia feromona de festeig, cinamato d'etil, la majoria (63%) van respondre específicament als compostos de feromona sexual majoritari i minoritari (Z8-12:Ac i E8-12:Ac, respectivament). La freqüència de cadascun d'aquests tipus de cèl·lules és similar al ràtio de mescla de feromones de les femelles. En femelles, un 6% de les cèl·lules responien a volàtils de planta i un 3% són específiques per a la feromona de festeig dels mascles. A pesar que algunes cèl·lules eren estimulades per la feromona sexual de les femelles, aquestes respostes eren sempre menors que les de mascles i, a més, responien a més composts. De fet, l'agrupació jeràrquica les inclou en un grup (91%) de neurones inespecífiques. L'absència en femelles de receptors per a la feromona sexual i la seva baixa sensibilitat a la mateixa els impediria detectar variacions en les ràtios de feromona en la naturalesa. Per tant, qualsevol alteració del comportament després d'una exposició a feromona coespecífic en el laboratori no podria ser atribuïda a un reconeixement de la pròpia espècie. El comportament de les femelles sí que es pot veure alterat per altres senyals més rellevants per a les seves necessitats biològiques. L'olor característica d'una planta pot provocar un efecte diferent en femelles que provenen d'hostes diferents. En la meva tesi he analitzat respostes electroantenogràfiques de mascles i femelles adults de Lobesia botrana (Denis et Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) recollides en la fase larvària de la vinya (Vitis vinífera L.) o del torvisco (Daphne gnidium L.) a volàtils específics i compartits dels hostes, així com a compostos de feromona sexual. Els meus resultats indiquen que la detecció de feromona no difereix entre totes dues poblacions. A més, la detecció de volàtils de planta no es veu afectada pel sexe o la planta de desenvolupament larvari. Poblacions polífagues desenvolupant-se en un hoste concret semblen retenir la capacitat per a respondre als volàtils d'altres hostes. Aquesta falta de diferències estadístiques en la diferenciació de compostos olfactoris al nivell de l'antena no implica que els individus que provenen de cada hoste mostrin preferències similars davant tots dos conjunts de volàtils, atès que les respostes biològiques depenen en última instància de la integració cerebral de cada individu. Així i tot, és important comprendre la capacitat dels insectes polífags per a reproduir-se o buscar aliments i refugis alternatius a l'hora de determinar els límits topogràfics de la confusió sexual. La meva tesi serveix per a entendre millor les repercussions que alguns factors ambientals poden tenir sobre el funcionament d'una tècnica complexa com és la confusió sexual. A pesar que l'ús de pesticides s'ha reduït, encara ens valem d'aquests químics per a evitar el descontrol de les plagues, i és necessari conèixer les variables que afecten l'eficàcia de les alternatives sostenibles.
La confusión sexual mediante feromonas es una táctica de control de plagas que, al impedir el apareamiento entre polillas, ha ayudado enormemente a reducir los daños en cultivos, así como el uso de pesticidas. La necesidad de disminuir los costes asociados a su aplicación ha fomentado el desarrollo de dispensadores automáticos o puffers. Estos puffers liberan una gran cantidad de feromona mientras los insectos están sexualmente activos. Sin embargo, la falta de información sobre la biología y el comportamiento de los insectos y del efecto que algunos factores externos tienen sobre su periodicidad diaria impiden un correcto ajuste de los puffers, lo que puede suponer una disminución de su eficacia en campo. A pesar de que el trampeo automático puede servir para determinar estos periodos de actividad y decidir cuándo liberar feromona, las trampas disponibles comercialmente no confieren una resolución temporal suficiente para bosquejar la actividad de los insectos, que puede estar reducida a unas pocas horas. Para mi tesis hemos diseñado y puesto a prueba una trampa asequible y fácil de construir que me ha permitido determinar el vuelo sexual diario y estacional de Grapholita molesta (Busk) a partir de fotografías tomadas con una gran resolución temporal. Tanto en trampas cebadas con feromona sintética como en trampas cebadas con hembras vírgenes, la mayoría de las capturas tuvieron lugar entre 3 horas antes y una hora después de la puesta de sol, indicando una actividad diurna crepuscular en la especie. El tipo de cebo (septo de feromona o hembra virgen) no afectó el periodo de vuelo diario. Aun así, las bajas temperaturas avanzaron los vuelos, mientras que las temperaturas más altas retrasaban el vuelo hasta horas cercanas a la puesta de sol. Estos resultados destacan la necesidad de programar los puffers para que liberen la feromona a distintas horas a lo largo del año, siguiendo la curva de vuelo de los insectos. Hacerlo aumentaría la eficacia de este sistema en campo, al tiempo que reduciría el coste de su aplicación y evitaría un desperdicio de feromona. Para explicar los mecanismos que subyacen al funcionamiento de la confusión sexual en el control de plagas, la mayoría de los estudios se han centrado en el efecto de grandes niveles de feromona sintética sobre los machos. Las hembras, por otro lado, se han considerado insensibles a su propia feromona. Sin embargo, una revisión reciente indica que hay una alteración notable en el comportamiento de las hembras al ser expuestas a su propia feromona, un fenómeno conocido como “autodetección”. A pesar de ello, no hay pruebas que confirmen que las hembras sean capaces de detectar su propia feromona a nivel de las neuronas olfativas. Mediante técnicas de electrofisiología, he comparado la respuesta de las neuronas olfativas alojadas en sensilla trichodea de machos y hembras a compuestos biológicamente relevantes para G. molesta, una especie en la que se ha descrito autodetección. Un análisis de agrupamiento jerárquico indica un sistema olfativo periférico radicalmente diferente en cada sexo, lo que podría estar relacionado con las diferentes necesidades biológicas de cada uno. Mientras que en los machos no había células que respondieran a su propia feromona de cortejo, cinamato de etilo, la mayoría (63%) respondieron específicamente a los compuestos de feromona sexual mayoritario y minoritario (Z8-12:Ac y E8-12:Ac, respectivamente). La frecuencia de cada uno de estos tipos de células es similar al ratio de mezcla de feromonas de las hembras. En hembras, un 6% de las células respondían a volátiles de planta y un 3% son específicas para la feromona de cortejo de los machos. A pesar de que algunas células eran estimuladas por la feromona sexual de las hembras, estas respuestas eran siempre menores que las de machos y, además, respondían a más compuestos. De hecho, la agrupación jerárquica las incluye en un grupo (91%) de neuronas inespecíficas. La ausencia en hembras de receptores para la feromona sexual y su baja sensibilidad a la misma les impediría detectar variaciones en las ratios de feromona en la naturaleza. Por lo tanto, cualquier alteración del comportamiento tras una exposición a feromona conspecífica en el laboratorio no podría ser atribuida a un reconocimiento de la propia especie. El comportamiento de las hembras sí que puede verse alterado por otras señales más relevantes para sus necesidades biológicas. El olor característico de una planta puede provocar un efecto diferente en hembras que provienen de huéspedes distintos. En mi tesis he analizado respuestas electroantenográficas de machos y hembras adultos de Lobesia botrana (Denis et Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) recogidas en fase larvaria de la vid (Vitis vinífera L.) o del torvisco (Daphne gnidium L.) a volátiles específicos y compartidos de los huéspedes, así como a compuestos de feromona sexual. Mis resultados indican que la detección de feromona no difiere entre ambas poblaciones. Además, la detección de volátiles de planta no se ve afectada por el sexo o la planta de desarrollo larvario. Poblaciones polífagas desarrollándose en un huésped concreto parecen retener la capacidad para responder a los volátiles de otros huéspedes. Esta falta de diferencias estadísticas en la diferenciación de compuestos olfativos al nivel de la antena no implica, sin embargo, que los individuos que provienen de cada huésped muestren preferencias similares ante ambos conjuntos de volátiles, dado que las respuestas biológicas dependen en última instancia de la integración cerebral de cada individuo. Aun así, es importante comprender la capacidad de los insectos polífagos para reproducirse o buscar alimentos y refugios alternativos a la hora de determinar los límites topográficos de la confusión sexual. Mi tesis sirve para entender mejor las repercusiones que algunos factores ambientales pueden tener sobre el funcionamiento de una técnica compleja como es la confusión sexual. A pesar de que el uso de pesticidas se ha reducido, aún nos valemos de estos químicos para evitar el descontrol de las plagas, y es necesario conocer las variables que afectan a la eficacia de las alternativas sostenibles.
Pheromone-mediated mating disruption (MD), a pest management tactic that prevents moth mating, has helped reduce insecticide use and crop damage in agriculture. The need to decrease the economic and labor costs associated with its application has encouraged the development of automated dispensers. These puffers disrupt mating behavior of moth pests by releasing pheromone during the time when insects are active. However, the lack of a firm basis on the biology and behavior of moths, and how external factors can alter their periodicity, prevent the proper adjustment of the puffers, and may result in a decrease of their efficacy in the field. Although automated traps can be used to determine these activity periods and adjust puffer pheromone release, commercially automated traps do not offer enough temporal resolution to outline insect activity periods, which usually last one or a few hours. In my thesis, we have designed and tested a cheap and easy to build high temporal resolution image-sensor insect trap. Based on captures in traps lured with synthetic pheromone and virgin females I have determined the daily and seasonal Grapholita molesta male sexual responsiveness. Although the lure did not influence the daily and seasonal sexual responsiveness period of Grapholita molesta (Busk), the flight activity within 24 h circadian rhythm is often influenced by sunset time and temperature. Most captures were registered between 3 hours before and 1 hour after sunset, indicating a diurnal to crepuscular activity of the species. Lure type (septum or female) did not influence the daily time of flight. While low temperatures led to an earlier flight in males, warmer temperatures resulted in flights closer to the sunset time. To reduce the cost of MD and avoid wasting pheromone, puffers should be programmed to spray at a variable time throughout the season, following the curve of activity of the insects. In order to explain the mechanisms of pheromone-mediated MD in pest management, most studies have focused on the effect high levels of synthetic pheromones have on the behavior of males, whereas females were considered unresponsive to their own pheromone. However, a recent review shows that there is substantial behavioral evidence that female moths respond to their own sex pheromone. Nevertheless, the evidence for sex pheromone "autodetection" at the olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) level is limited. By means of electrophysiological methods I compared the responses of ORNs housed in antennal sensilla trichodea to an array of biologically relevant compounds of male and female G. molesta, a species with reported pheromone autodetection. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) indicated a radically different peripheric olfactory system between sexes that could be related to their specific ecological roles. In males no cells responded to their own courtship pheromone ethyl trans-cinnamate, while most (63%) were tuned specifically to the major or minor pheromone compounds (Z8-12:Ac and E8-12:Ac, respectively), their relative abundance being similar to their ratio in the female pheromone. Plant volatile cells were relatively frequent in females (6%) and 3% of the female ORNs were also tuned to the male-produced courtship pheromone. Several female cells were excited by female-produced sex pheromone, but their responses were generally lower than in males, and they responded broadly to the other compounds as well, so the HCA grouped them in a large cluster (91%) of "unspecific" female neurons. The lack of differential sex pheromone receptor neurons in females, and their relatively low sensitivity to sex pheromone would not allow females to detect variations in the pheromone ratios in nature. Thus, the alteration of their behavior after exposure to conspecific pheromone under laboratory conditions does not appear to be species-specific. Female behavior can nonetheless be specifically altered by other cues more relevant to their biological needs. The headspace of different plants may induce a different effect on females stemming from different hosts. I analyzed electroantennogram (EAG) responses of male and female adults of the European grapevine moth Lobesia botrana (Denis et Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) collected as larvae from grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) and flax-leaved daphne (Daphne gnidium L.) to specific and shared plant volatiles of the two hosts, as well as to sex pheromone compounds. My results indicate that pheromone detection did not differ between the two populations. Furthermore, host-plant volatile detection was not affected by sex or larval host plant. Polyphagous populations developing on a specific host seem therefore able to detect the plant volatiles of alternative hosts. However, lack of statistical differences in odor discrimination at the antennal level does not imply that insects from each host would show similar preference for the two host-specific odor blends, since behavioral responses to plant odors require brain integration of the antennal input of each individual odorant in a blend. Differences in plant preference could still occur if there are no differences at the EAG level. Understanding the potential ability of a polyphagous moth to reproduce or find food and shelter in alternative hosts is important to assess the topographical limitations of MD. My thesis serves to understand a bit better the complex functioning of a technique like MD and the repercussions that some environmental factors can have in its proper functioning. Even though pesticide use has been reduced, we still rely on these chemicals to prevent pest outburst. A more deep and rigorous study of the variables affecting the efficacy environmentally friendly alternatives should be conducted.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Cydia pomonella (codling moth), Thaumatotibia leucotreta (False codling moth), Thaumatotibia batrachopa (Macadamia nut borer), Grapholita molesta (Oriental fruit moth), Cryptophlebia peltastica (Litchi moth), Epichoristodes acerbella (Pear leafroller/Carnation worm) and Lozotaenia capensana (Apple leafroller) are the most economically important tortricids affecting various crops in South Africa. The correct identification of these species, especially of the larval stage, is of great importance in pest management. Using available literature, augmented by additional morphological studies, an interactive identification key (Lucid key) for larval and adult stages of the seven species was developed. The colour and markings of the head, characteristics of the prothoracic and anal shields, the position of the prespiracular setae (L-group) relative to the spiracle on the prothoracic segment, the position of the spiracle on the eighth abdominal segment and L-group on the ninth abdominal segment, as well as the presence or absence of the anal comb are key characteristics for larval identification. For adult identification, wing pattern and genitalia are the most important features. However, the use of genitalia for moth identification might be difficult for the lay user, as the dissection and mounting of these structures requires certain skills and specialized equipment. Thus, genitalia have not been included in the Lucid Key. Differences in the morphological characteristics of most pupae were so minute that this stage was also not included in the Lucid key. However, the pupae of E. acerbella and L. capensana are easily distinguished from those of the other species by the presence of acremaster. This study also included the first morphological description of the pupa of L. capensana, which can be distinguished from that of E. acerbella by various features of the cremaster, antennae, spiracle shape, number of setae on abdominal segments A5-7, the size of spines on A3-7, and the presence/absence of spines on A9. A previous study by Timm (2005) indicated that geographically isolated populations of T. leucotreta tend to be genetically distinct. This raised the question of whether speciation/subspeciation has occurred or is occurring. Male moth genitalia are thought to evolve rapidly and are often the only features that can reliably distinguish similar species. Hence, variation in the shape of the valvae of T. leucotreta was used to determine whether divergence has occurred between populations of T. leucotreta. Elliptical Fourier analysis was used to analyze the valvar variation in three different populations. Although some variation in valvar shape was detected among mean population values for certain traits, no clear pattern emerged. Principle component analysis also showed no distinct clustering of valvae shape among populations, providing no evidence for divergence in male genitalia and therefore no morphological evidence of incipient speciation.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Cydia pomonella (Kodlingmot), Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Valskodlingmot), T. batrachopa (Makadamianeutboorder), Grapholita molesta (Oosterse vrugtemot), Cryptophlebia peltastica (Lietsjiemot), Epichoristodes acerbella (Peerbladroller/Angelierrusper) en Lozotaenia capensana (Appelbladroller) is die mees ekonomies belangrike tortrisiede van die vrugtebedryf in Suid-Afrika. Die juiste identifikasie van hierdie spesies, veral van hulle larwale stadium, is van groot belang by plaagbestuur. Deur gebruik te maak van beskikbare literatuur, aangevul deur bykomstige morfologiese studies, is ‗n interaktiewe uitkenningssleutel (―Lucid key‖) vir die larwale en volwasse stadia van die sewe spesies ontwikkel. Die kleur en tekening van die kop, kenmerke van die prothorakale en anale skild, die ligging van die prespirakulêre setae (L-groep) relatief tot die spiraculum op die prothorakale segment, die ligging van die spirakulum op die agste abdominale segment en L-groep op die negende abdominale segment, asook die aan- of afwesigheid van die anale kam is sleutel kenmerke vir larwale uitkenning. Vir die volwassenes is die vlerktekening en genitalia die mees belangrike kenmerke. Die gebruik van die genitalia vir motuitkenning kan egter vir die leek gebruiker moeilik wees omdat die disseksie en montering van hierdie strukture bepaalde vaardighede en gespesialiseerde toerusting vereis. Vir die rede is die genitalia nie in die Lucid-sleutel ingesluit nie. Verskille in die morfologiese kenmerke van meeste papies is klein en die stadium is gevolglik ook nie in die sleutel ingesluit nie. Die papies van E. acerbella en L. capensana kan egter maklik van die ander spesies onderskei word deur die aanwesigheid van ‗n cremaster. Hierdie studie sluit ook die eerste morfologiese beskrywing van die papie van L. capensana in, wat van dié van E. acerbella onderskei kan word deur gebruik te maak van kenmerke van die cremaster, antennae, spirakulêre vorm, aantal setae op abdominale segmente A5-7, die grootte van stekels op A3-7, en die aan- of afwesigheid van stekels op A9. ‗n Vroeëre studie (Timm 2005) het aangedui dat geografies geïsoleerde bevolkings van T. leucotreta neig om geneties verskillend te wees. Dit het die vraag laat ontstaan of spesiasie/subspesiasie moontlik plaasgevind het of steeds plaasvind. Manlike mot genitalië word geag om vinnig te ontwikkel en is dikwels die enigste kenmerke wat betroubaar tussen soortgelyke spesies kan onderskei. Dus is die variasie in die vorm van die valvae van T. leucotreta gebruik om te bepaal of divergensie wel tussen bevolkings van T. leucotreta plaasgevind het. Elliptiese Fourier ontleding is gebruik om die valvae se variasie by drie verskillende bevolkings te ontleed. Alhoewel enkele variasie in die vorm van die valvae bespeur is by die gemiddelde bevolkingswaardes vir bepaalde eienskappe, kon geen duidelike patroon bespeur word nie. Hoofkomponentontleding het ook geen duidelike groepering van valvae se vorm tussen bevolkings getoon nie, wat geen bewys lewer van divergensie in die manlike genitalia en dus geen morfologiese bewys van beginnende spesiasie.

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The Argyrotaenia sphaleropa (Meyrick, 1909) (Lepidoptera:Tortricidae) is often found damaging vineyards and other temperate fruit orchards, in the Serra Gaucha region. This work was conducted to study seasonal occurrence of A. sphaleropa adults in vineyards using sexual synthetic pheromone, the effect of commercial formulations of insecticides with emphasis on that allowed in the organic production (neem, natural piretro, pirolenhoso extract and Bacillus thuringiensis) to control A. sphaleropa and their effects on the egg parasitoid Trichogramma pretiosum adults. Based on weekly evaluation A. sphaleropa adults catched in Delta trap baited with synthetic sexual pheromone (Z11,13-14Ac + Z11,13-14Al + Z11-14Al in a ratio of 4:4:1, 1000μg/septum) during 2003/2004 season, it was observed four populational peaks in a Cabernet Sauvignon vineyards. The first population peak occurred in the beginning of October, the second in the beginning of February, the third occurred in middle of March and the forth in June. In the experiments conducted in the laboratory using grapevine leaves with artificial infestations of 3st to 4th instars) and in commercial vineyard, Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Dipel DF 50, 75 and 100 g/100L), fenitrothion (Sumithion 500 CE, 150 mL/100L) and triclhorfon (Dipterex 500, 300 mL/100L) were efficient to control A. sphaleropa larvae reducing insect population upper to 90%. In laboratory, the insecticides Natuneem® (1500 ppm of azadirachtin/L) and the pirolenhoso extract (Biopirol 7 M®) (250 and 500 mL/100L) were not efficient in the control of A. sphaleropa when applied over grapevine leaves. Natural piretro (250 and 500 mL/100L) resulted in a mortality of 77,65 and 85,88% of insects, respectively 120 hours after application. Natuneem® (0,25 e 0,50%) incorporated to A. sphaleropa artificial diet increased larval phase, reduced larval and pupae viability producing males with a reduces lifespan. Biopirol 7M® in the concentration of 0,50% increased larval duration, reduced male longevity and the oviposition period without affecting fecundity. Baseding on the fertility life table, it was verified that Natuneem® and Biopirol®, both in 0,25 and 0,50% added to artificial diets increase modified the duration in days of a generation, the liquid tax of reproduction, the infinitesimal reason of population increase and the finite reason of increase of A. sphaleropa, when compared with diet without insecticides. Secondary effects of insecticides allowed in organic production (Natuneem®, natural piretro, Biopirol 7M® and Dipel DF®) and the phosphorous compounds used in grapevine (triclorfon and fenitrotion) were evaluated on adults of the egg parasitoid Trichogramma pretiosum following IOBC methodology. The experiments were conducted exposing adults (more sensible period) of T. pretiosum to dry pesticide residues sprayed on glass plates. It was observed that Natuneem® (500 mL/100L), Biopirol 7 M® (500 mL/100L) and Dipel DF® (100g/100L) had been innocuous (<30% parasitism reduction) while natural piretro (250 mL/100L) was classified as moderad harmful (80-99% of parasitism reduction). Natural piretro in the higher dose (500 mL/100L) showed a parasitism deduction in more than 99%equivalent to fenthiom (Lebaycid 500, 100.
Avaliação de inseticidas para o controle de Argyrotaenia sphaleropa (Meyrick, 1909) na cultura da videira (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) e efeito secundário sobre Trichogramma pretiosum (Riley, 1879) (Hymenoptera:Trichogrammatidae). Orientador: Dr. Marcos Botton. Co-orientador: Dr. Anderson Dionei Grützmacher. A lagarta-das-fruteiras Argyrotaenia sphaleropa (Meyrick, 1909)(Lepidoptera:Tortricidae) é uma espécie freqüentemente encontrada danificando a cultura da videira e outras frutíferas temperadas na região da Encosta Superior do Nordeste do Rio Grande do Sul. Neste trabalho, foi estudado a variação sazonal de machos adultos de A. sphaleropa na cultura da videira com emprego do feromônio sexual sintético, o efeito de formulações comerciais de inseticidas com ênfase para os permitidos na produção orgânica (nim, piretro natural, extrato pirolenhoso e Bacillus thuringiensis) para o controle do inseto e seu efeito sobre o parasitóide de ovos Trichogramma pretiosum. Com base na avaliação semanal de machos de A. sphaleropa capturados em armadilha Delta contendo o feromônio sexual sintético (formulação Z11,13-14Ac + Z11,13-14Al + Z11- 14Al na proporção 4:4:1, impregnada em liberadores de borracha na dose de 1000μg/septo) durante a safra 2003/2004 foram observados quatro picos populacionais na cultura da videira cultivar Cabernet Sauvignon. O primeiro pico populacional ocorreu no início do mês de outubro, o segundo no início de fevereiro e o terceiro teve o acme em meados do mês de março sendo quarto no mês de junho. Em experimentos conduzidos em laboratório com discos de folhas de videira com lagartas de 3-4 ínstar e em pomar comercial de videira, observou-se que os inseticidas Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Dipel DF 50, 75 e 100 g/100L) fenitrothion (SumithionÒ 500 CE, 150 mL/100L), e triclorfon (DipterexÒ 500, 300 mL/100L) foram eficientes no controle de A. sphaleropa, reduzindo a população em níveis superiores a 90%. Em laboratório, os inseticidas Natuneem® (1500 ppm de Azadiracta indica por litro) e o extrato pirolenhoso (Biopirol 7 M®) nas doses (250 e 500 mL/100L) não foram eficientes no controle de A. sphaleropa quando aplicados sobre folhas de videira enquanto que o piretro natural (250 e 500 mL/100L) resultou em mortalidade significativa, controlando o inseto em 77,65 e 85,88% respectivamente, 120 horas após a aplicação. O Natuneem® nas concentrações testadas (0,25 e 0,50%) incorporados à dieta artificial de A. sphaleropa provoca um aumento na duração da fase de lagarta, menor viabilidade das fases de lagarta e pupa e menor longevidade de machos enquanto que o Biopirol 7M® na concentração de 0,50% provoca aumento na duração da fase de lagarta, reduz a longevidade de machos e o período de oviposição sem afetar a fecundidade. Com base na tabela de vida de fertilidade verificou-se que a presença do Natuneem® e do Biopirol® dietas artificiais nas concentrações de 0,25% e 0,50% aumentaram a duração em dias de uma geração, a taxa líquida xiii de reprodução, a razão infinitesimal de aumento populacional e a razão finita de aumento de A. sphaleropa quando comparado com a dieta sem os inseticidas. O efeito secundário dos inseticidas (Natuneem®, piretro natural, Biopirol 7M® e Dipel DF®) e do organo-fosforado fenthiom foi avaliado sobre adultos do parasitóide de ovos Trichogramma pretiosum seguindo a metodologia da IOBC. Os testes foram conduzidos expondo-se os adultos (estágio mais sensível) de T. pretiosum a resíduos secos de pesticidas pulverizados sobre placas de vidro. Foi observado que o Natuneem® (500 mL/100L), Biopirol 7 M® (500 mL/100L) e Dipel DF® (100g/100L) foram inócuos (<30% de redução no parasitismo) enquanto o piretro natural na dose de 250 mL/100L foi classificado como moderamente nocivo (80-99% de redução no parasitismo) e nocivo (>99% de redução no parasitismo) na dose de 500 mL/100L equivalendo-se ao organo-fosforados.

Gene expression studies provide baseline information on the interactions of insects with their environment. Despite the importance of this information, limited gene expression data are available for most insect pests, including the family Tortricidae (Lepidoptera), which includes Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyr), an important agricultural pest in Africa. Because T. leucotreta can be controlled successfully by a granulovirus, this system is a good model for exploring insect-virus susceptibility. The main aim of this study was to investigate gene expression of T. leucotreta in responce to virus infection. However, before pursuing this aim, two objectives required completion. First, the most suitable RNA extraction method for insects needed to be determined and second, the most suitable reference genes for qPCR for Tortricidae pests needed to be identified. Once these objectives were accomplished, the response of T. leucotreta to its granulovirus was evaluated at different temperatures and points after infection.Four RNA extraction methods, the RNeasy® Mini Kit, SV Total RNA isolation system, TRIzol® reagent, and a CTAB-based method, were compared using two beetle and two moth species, including T. leucotreta. The quality of extracted RNA was similar for all four species for all extraction methods. Based on several criteria, the best RNA extraction method was the SV Total RNA isolation system. Six candidate reference genes were evaluated for qPCR using different tissue types of T. leucotreta and two other Tortricidae pests. Additionally, reference genes were evaluated for T. leucotreta with and without its granulovirus at different temperatures. Reference gene stability was found to be dependent on species and tissue type. Overall the most suitable combination of reference genes for T. leucotreta were α-actin, arginine kinase and elongation factor 1-α.Gene expression of T. leucotreta in response to granulovirus infection at different temperatures and intervals after infection was evaluated by qPCR using 13 target genes associated with the infection process. Most genes were down-regulated after 24 and 48 h.p.i. However, after 72 h.p.i most genes were up-regulated. The same trend was observed at different temperatures, where most genes were down-regulated at 15°C and 25°C but up-regulated at 35°C. These results show that there is a dynamic gene expression response in T. leucotreta due to granulovirus infection under different conditions. Not only do these findings provide insight into the control of this tortricid pest, they also contribute further to our knowledge of insect-virus interactions.

A THESIS PRESENTED TO CAPE PENINSULA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTERS OF TECHNOLOGY DEGREE IN HORTICULTURE. IN THE FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES 2014
Codling moth ([Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae]) infest pomes resulting in high production losses to fruit farmers in South Africa and globally. Many farmers are adopting biocontrol methods including the use of entomopathogens as alternatives to synthetic insecticides for sustainable management of Arthropod pests. Research activities on screening and application of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) have intensified in recent years. This study was carried out to isolate and identify virulent indigenous entomopathogenic fungal strains from soils of selected locations in the Western Cape region of South Africa that are pathogenic against codling moth (Cydia pomonella (Linn) [Lepidoptera: Totricidae]) and to evaluate the possiblility of combining semiochemicals and fungal inoculums in a simulated attract-and-fungus contamination system for codling moth control. Soil samples were collected from 10 locations in the Western Cape, South Africa for the isolation of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) by baiting the soil samples with 5th instar larvae of codling moths. Fungal strains were identified and characterized using light microscopy and DNA analysis (internal transcribed spacer region) and elongation factor 1-α (EF 1-α) genes of fungal cultures. Thirty-nine (39) isolates belonging to six species were obtained; Purpureocillium lilacinum (8 isolates), Fusarium oxysporum (five isolates), Fusarium polyphialidicum (two isolates), Beauveria pseudo-bassiana (one isolate), Aspergillus flavus (three isolates) and Metarhizium robertii (20 isolates). Generally, M. robertsii was the most frequently encountered species representing 51% of the total number of isolates collected from the soil samples. This is the first report of the isolation of M. robertsii in southern Africa. A screening test to identify the most virulent fungal strains against codling moth was carried out on 39 isolates by immersing 5th instar larvae of C. pomonella into aqueous spore suspension 1 x 108 conidia ml-1. Mortality data from the immersion bioassay indicated that the 39 fungal isolates were pathogenic against fifth instar larvae of codling moth inducing 47-85% insect mortality at an infective concentration of 1 x108 spores’ ml-1, 5 days post-treatment. Two fungal strains MTL151 and GW461 induced over 85% larval mortality and were selected for further evaluations. The effect of MTL151 and GW461 on egg hatchability of 0-day old eggs was evaluated by exposing freshly laid eggs on wax papers that were pre-treated with fungal spores ranging from 103 -108 spores/ml. Egg hatchability reduced significantly from 93-71% (GW461) and 95-66% (MTL151) as spore concentration increases from1 x 103 to 1 x 108 spores ml-1, respectively. The highest spore concentration significantly inhibited egg hatchability resulting in lower egg hatchability compared to that obtained with the cypermethrin containing commercial insecticide (Fruitfly [registered by Kombat (PTY) Ltd] ) tested at the recommended dose of 0.25 ml/250 ml of water. The potential of the two M. robertsii strains to protect apples from infestation by codling moth neonates was assessed in an apple fruit bioassay under laboratory and field bioassay. Codling moth neonates were exposed to apples that were sprayed topically with varied conidia concentrations (103 - 108 sporesml-1). The mean number of participating apple fruits having developing/developed larvae in the core/flesh significantly reduced from 5.3 to 1 and 7.6 to 1 for MTL151 and GW461, respectively as spore concentrations increased from 1 x103 to 1x 108 spores/ml-1. A concurrent decrease in apple fruit rot as conidia concentration increased was observed. Up to 90% of apples treated with 1 x 108 spores/ml-1 had no larva present in their cores and this result compared favourably with the commercial pesticide (Fruitfly) used at a recommended dose of 0.25g/250 ml of water. No significant difference was found between the EC50 values of 1.2 x 103 (CI=1.2 x 102 -1 x 105) (MTL151) and 1.1 x 105 (CI =7 x103 – 5.6x105) (GW461) spores ml-1. However, neither the two M. robertsii strains nor the insecticide deterred the neonates from feeding on the surface of the fruits. The attraction responses of male and female adult codling moths to butyl hexanoate and codlemone blend; butyl hexanoate (0.025 mg / ml of hexane) and codlemone (0.1 mg / ml of hexane) in a ratio of 1:1 (0.5 ml: 0.5 ml from both solutions) were assessed in a one-choice wind tunnel olfactory bioassay during scoto-phase in the absence of fungal spores. The blend attracted more females (69%) than males (66.7%), however these responses were not significantly different (P > 0.5). The prospect of integrated use of entomopathogenic fungal conidia and semiochemical blend for control of C. pomonella adults was assessed in a wind tunnel containing the combo lure and M. robertsii (MTL151) spores formulated as a powder (250 mg) or aqueous spore suspension (3.1 x 108 spores m-1 ± 7 x 102 sporesml-1). Insect attraction, mean number of spores picked per insect and insect mortality was assessed. No significant difference (P > 0.5) was observed in the number of inoculi picked by unsexed adult moths in the two conidial formulations tested; spore powder (3.1 x 103 ± 1 x 103 spores ml-1) and aqueous spore suspension (3.1 x 103 ± 7 x 102 spores ml-1). No mortality was recorded among fungus or control-treated moths. Both M. robertsii (MTL151) spore formulations did not significantly (P > 0.05) affect the attraction responses of the insects to the combo lure; powder (73.3 ± 3.3%) and aqueous (68.6 ± 2.9%) compared to the control treatment (without the fungal spores) (70 ± 0.5 %). These results suggest that the fungus did not inhibit the attraction of moths by semiochemicals. Despite the successful autoinoculation of moths with fungal spores, the level of contamination was too low to induce mortality among adult moths. This study opens up opportunities for research in attract-and-fungus contamination delivery systems. This is the first report of the occurrence of M. robertsii in the southern Africa. Further, results from this study indicates that C. pomonella is susceptible to indigenous South African entomopathogenic fungi and 2 indigenous M. anisopliae strains, MTL151 and GW461 provided adequate protections against codling moth larval infestations of apple fruits. Future research endeavours to improve adherence of conidia to adult moth cuticle is recommended. Key words: Entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), codling moth, B. pseudobassiana, M. robertsii, larvae, pathogenicity and biological control, coddlemone, butyl hexanoate, attraction, semiochemicals.

Thesis (MSc (Agric) (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Ambient temperature plays a key role in insect-physiology, -population dynamics and ultimately -geographic distribution. Here, I investigate the survival of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (Linnaues) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), which is a pest of economic importance in pome fruit production, to a wide range of temperature treatments. In this thesis, I first explore how temperature affects the survival and limits to activity of codling moth and secondly investigate if thermal acclimation can improve field performance of moths used in sterile insect technique control programmes under ecologically relevant conditions. First, I found that absolute temperature as well as the duration of temperature exposure significantly affects adult C. pomonella survival. Lethal temperatures, explored between -20 °C to -5 °C and 32 °C to 47 °C over a range of durations, showed that 50% of the adult C. pomonella population killed at -12 °C and at 44 °C after 2 hrs for each treatment. At high temperatures a pretreatment at 37 °C for 1 hr dramatically improved survival at 43 °C for 2 hrs from 20% to 90% (p<0.0001). Furthermore, high temperature pre-treatments (37 °C for 1 hr) significantly improved low temperature survival at -9 °C for 2 hrs. In sum, my results suggest pronounced plasticity of acute high temperature tolerance in adult C. pomonella, but limited acute low temperature responses. Secondly, low-temperature acclimated laboratory-reared moths were recaptured in significantly higher numbers (d.f. = 2, χ2 = 53.13 p<0.001), by sex pheromone traps, under cooler conditions in the wild relative to warm-acclimated or non-acclimated moths. However, these improvements in low temperature performance in cold-acclimated moths came at a cost to performance under warmer conditions in the wild. This novel study demonstrates the importance of thermal history on C. pomonella survival and clear costs and benefits of thermal acclimation on field and laboratory performance, and thus, the potential utility of thermal pre-treatments for improved efficacy in the sterile insect technique programme for C. pomonella control under cooler, springtime conditions. Finally, on a global scale, this study highlights that low and high temperatures could play a role in CM adult survival through direct mortality and thus, may influence, or have influenced in the pest, population dynamics.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Temperatuur speel ‘n belangrike rol in die fisiologie, populasiedinamika en geografiese verspreiding van insekte. In hierdie tesis ondersoek ek die rol van ‘n wye reeks temperature op die oorlewing van kodlingmot Cydia pomonella (Linnaues) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), ‘n sagtevrug pes-spesie van ekonomiese belang. Ek ondersoek hoofsaaklik die effek van temperatuur op die fisiologie en fiksheid van kodlingmot, asook die mate waartoe termiese akklimasie (‘n mate van aanpassing) die veldgedrag van die steriele insek beheer-metode (SIT), d.m.v. kodlingot, in relevante omgewingstemperature kan verbeter. Ek het (i) gevind dat die temperatuur en duur van die temperatuur toediening ‘n betekenisvolle toename in volwasse C. pomonella oorlewing tot gevolg het. In die deel van die studie is temperature tussen -20 °C en -5 °C and tussen 32 °C en 47 °C ondersoek oor ‘n reeks van 0.5, 1, 2, 3 en 4 ure van duur. In kort lei -12 °C en 44 °C vir 2 uur onderskeidelik tot die uitsterf van 50% van die volwasse C. pomonella populasie. Indien die motte vooraf gehou is by 37 °C vir ongeveer 1 uur, is oorlewing by 43 °C vir 2 ure betekenisvol verbeter van 20% tot 90% (p<0.0001). Hoër temperatuur vooraf-blootstellings (akklimasie), by 37 °C vir 1 uur, het daartoe gelei dat lae temperatuur lae-temperatuur-oorlewings by -9 °C vir 2 ure betekenisvol verbeter het. Oor die algemeen het die resultate gedui dat hoër akute temperatuurstoleransie in C. pomonella bestaan, maar beperkte akute lae-temperatuur reaksies bestaan. Verder het lae-temperatuur akklimasie (laboratorium geteelde) motte ‘n betekenisvolle hoër getal hervangste deur geslagsferomone in koeler omgewings opgelewer (v.i. = 2, χ2 = 53.13, p<0.001) in vergelyking met warmer-temperatuur geakklimatiseerder motte. Hierdie verbeteringe in laetemperatuur reaksies vanaf lea-temperatuur akklimasie groepe is teen ‘n koste teen warmer reaksie-toestande in die natuur geïs. Hierdie eersdaagse studie demonstreer die belang van historiese temperatuur op die oorlewing van C. pomonella. Die kostes- en voordele van termiese akklimasie op veld- en laboratoriumpopulasie reaksies en die potensiële gebruik daarvan in die verbetering van steriele insek tegniek programme, onder koeler omstandighede, is uitgelig. Laastens, beklemtoon hierdie studie die belangrikheid van temperatuur as bepalende faktor van kodlingmot-oorlewing en die invloed daarvan op die vrugte-pes populasiedinamika.

Cydia pomonella (L.) es una plaga clave en el cultivo de frutales en gran parte del mundo, principalmente en manzanos. El manejo de esta plaga ha sido una constante en aquellas zonas donde ha representado un problema, ya sea por la severidad de los daños causados o por la necesidad de adoptar estrategias de lucha más racionales que el uso de insecticidas de amplio espectro. Con la implementación de programas de control integrado se han descartado un gran número de insecticidas por diversos motivos, como
por ejemplo su toxicidad, ya sea a mamí­feros o a otros organismos que no son la plaga en sí­. Esto ha permitido la entrada en el mercado de otros insecticidas o técnicas de control que se caracterizan por perfiles eco-toxicológicos más favorables pero también se caracterizan por ser productos que requieren de un conocimiento técnico más exhaustivo para poder ser utilizados con éxito. Generalmente es necesario conocer
sobre qué estados actúa el insecticida y si posee cierta acción y/o produce efectos subletales sobre los otros estados del insecto que puedan contribuir de forma significativa en el control de la plaga. Uno de los insecticidas de reciente
implementación en el control de carpocapsa ha sido tebufenocida, análogo de la hormona ecdisona, descubierto por Rohm and Haas Company (Philadelphia, PA) y presentado como larvicida especí­fico contra lepidópteros.
La finalidad de esta tesis ha sido investigar en algunos parámetros de la actividad biológica de tebufenocida, análogo de la hormona ecdisona, sobre C. pomonella. Para dicho estudio se profundizó en el conocimiento de los efectos letales de tebufenocida en los diferentes estadios de C. pomonella; se estudió una metodologí­a para la evaluación de la susceptibilidad de una determinada población de carpocapsa a tebufenocida; se compará la actividad larvicida de tebufenocida con otros reguladores del crecimiento de insectos; se estudiaron los efectos subletales de tebufenocida en los diferentes estadios de C. pomonella; se determinó el momento de aplicación en campo y el efecto de la utilización de coadyuvantes y volumen de tratamiento en la efectividad de tebufenocida en el control de C. pomonella.
En estudios sobre la actividad ovicida de tebufenocida en carpocapsa, se ha obtenido
que la actividad residual de tebufenocida en huevos varía considerablemente dependiendo del substrato en que los huevos han sido puestos. En aplicaciones en laboratorio, la CLso fue de 4,35 ppm en hojas de manzano tratadas con distintas
concentraciones de tebufenocida. No hubo diferencias entre el control y los tratamientos (excepto algunas dosis muy altas) en la mortalidad de los huevos cuando el substrato utilizado fueron manzanas o papel encerado. Tebufenocida fue unas 30 veces más activo cuando los huevos fueron puestos sobre el residuo en hojas, que cuando fueron tratados típicamente. Los huevos puestos sobre manzanas y tratados
típicamente no fueron afectados, y sí lo fueron afectados ligeramente los huevos colocados sobre papel encerado, aunque dependiendo de la edad en que eran tratados.
La mortalidad conseguida en estos tratamientos osciló entre el 40 y el 60%, sin que se
vieran afectados los huevos que se encontraban cerca de la eclosión. Por lo tanto, se
demuestra la acticidad ovicida de tebufenocida, aunque ésta se ve condicionada por factores como pueden ser el substrato de puesta y si las aplicaciones son típicas o residuales. Aunque no se han investigado las causas que producen estas diferencias en toxicidad entre tipo de aplicación y sobretodo entre substratos, se ha especulado en que son las propias caracterí­sticas fisiológicas de la hoja las que facilitan la penetración del
insecticida a través del corion al interior del huevo, y así­ conseguir afectar al embrión.
Tebufenocida fue muy activo cuando las larvas neonatas de carpocapsa fueron alimentadas con manzanas tratadas con este insecticida, donde se obtuvo una LCso de 16,08 ppm. Se obtuvo un ligero daño en la superficie de las manzanas como
consecuencia de la alimentación de las larvas, incluso en las concentraciones más altas
evaluadas. Esto indica que el tiempo transcurrido entre la ingestión del insecticida y la
parada de la alimentación de las larvas, como efecto de tebufenocida, es lo suficiente
como para que se produzcan ligeros daños. Cuando se utilizó dieta artificial se obtuvo
una LC50 de 0,22 ppm para larvas neonatas, 0,40; 0,29 y 1,47 ppm para segundo, tercer
y cuarto estadio larvario respectivamente, siendo iguales las rectas Probit en el segundo
y tercer estadio larvario. KKS15MKN tiMNKKAI.
En cuanto a la actividad por contacto sobre larvas neonatas de carpocapsa. cuando las
larvas fueron expuestas durante una hora sobre hojas de manzano tratadas, la CL50 fue
de 499.9 ppm, mucho menor que el valor obtenido cuando actuó por ingestión.
También se observaron diferencias en la toxicidad de tcbufcnocida por contacto sobre
neonatas dependiendo del substrato. Las CL50 fueron similares cuando se expusieron las
larvas sobre hojas tratadas durante 1 hora (499.9 ppm). que sobre plástico durante 4 horas (348.7 ppm). Estas diferencias pueden ser debidas a variaciones en la humedad, textura, etc. entre los dos substratos, que pueden facilitar que la larva está expuesta u mayores cantidades del insecticida en el caso de la hoja, o también debidas a una ingestión del insecticida cuando la larva realiza mordiscos exploratorios en la hoja.
En aplicaciones típicas de tcbufcnocida. a una concentración de 400 ppm, sobre adultos
de carpocapsa no se observó ningún efecto en la longevidad de las mariposas que fue entre 6 y 7 dí­as.
Tcbufcnocida (RH 5992) fue menos activo que el también anàlogo de la hormona ccdisona RH 2485 cuando larvas neonatas fueron alimentadas con man Amas tratadas, siendo la LC50 de éste último compuesto unas cuatro veces menor que la de
tcbufcnocida. Fcnoxicarb no tuvo ningún efecto larvicida cuando larvas neonatas se alimentaron con manzanas tratadas con este insecticida a una dosis de 200 ppm. No se comprobó si dichas larvas podí­an desarrollarse y convertirse posteriormente en adultos normales. Diflubcnzurón tampoco tuvo ningún efecto larvicida cuando larvas neonatas se alimentaron con manzanas tratadas con diflubcnzurdn a una dosis de 200 ppm. No se observó nada anormal cuando se realizó la evaluación de la mortalidad larvaria, pero en
este caso tampoco se comprobó si las larvas continuarí­an desarrollándose normalmente.
Se estudiaron los efectos sublctalcs de tcbufcnocida sobre huevos, por lo que se evaluó
la duración del desarrollo embrionario de los huevos que sobrevivieron a aplicaciones
típicas de tebufenocida Se obtuvo un retraso en el desarrollo embrionario que se produjo cuando los tratamientos se realizaron sobre huevos recién puestos (estado blanco) y cuando estaban aproximadamente en la mitad de su desarrollo (anillo rojo), pero no se observó cuando los huevos tratados estaban cerca de su eclosión. Esto indica que tebufenocida afecta en cierta forma el desarrollo embrionario, aunque a partir de cierto punto del desarrollo tebufenocida ya no produce ningún efecto en el embrión. No
se obtuvieron diferencias entre las distintas dosis de tebufenocida aplicadas, auque sí­
entre éstas y el control.
Se encontró que tebufenocida afecta a la fecundidad y viabilidad de los huevos puestos
cuando se aplica típicamente sobre mariposas de carpocapsa. La fecundidad de hembras de carpocapsa fue menor cuando éstas fueron tratadas con tebufenocida a 400 ppm; la fertilidad también fue menor cuando se trataron tanto machos como hembras a la misma dosis con tebufenocida. También la fecundidad y fertilidad fueron menores
que el testigo cuando se trataron mariposas de carpocapsa a dosis iguales o inferiores a
200 ppm, aunque en este caso las diferencias no eran estadí­sticamente significativas.
Tebufenocida afectó a la fecundidad y fertilidad de adultos de C. pomonella cuando
éstos fueron expuestos durante 24 horas a follaje tratado en campo con tebufenocida a una dosis de 330 g ma/ha, donde los porcentajes de reducción obtenidos en el tratamiento con tebufenocida fueron del 66,8% en la fecundidad y del 73,6% en la fertilidad respecto al testigo.
Aunque no se obtuvieron diferencias significativas entre tratamientos, cuando se
suministró tebufocida (0,1 ppm) en dieta a larvas mantenidas en condiciones diapausantes durante 50 dí­as el porcentaje de larvas en diapausa fue del 57%, mientras que en el control fue del 99%. Tampoco se observaron diferencias significativas entre tratamientos en la rotura de la diapausa cuando se cambiaron las condiciones a no
diapausantes.
En tratamientos en campo contra la primera generación de carpocapsa, no se obtuvieron
diferencias significativas entre las aplicaciones de tebufenocida aplicado como ovicida
o como larvicida. La carencia de diferencias entre los distintos momentos de aplicación
puede indicar que en aplicaciones tempranas se obtiene el beneficio del control ovicida
de tebufenocida, y en aplicaciones tardí­as la ventaja del efecto larvicida. Cuando tebufenocida fue aplicado como ovicida (50 grados dí­a) se obtuvo un 5% de penetraciones profundas en fruto. Cuando fue aplicado como larvicida (139 grados dí­a), se obtuvo un 8% de entradas. Sin embargo cuando la aplicación fue entre estos dos
periodos, el porcentaje de entradas fue del 21%. Esto puede ser debido a que en esta aplicación, tebufenocida actuó típicamente sobre un porcentaje considerable de huevos, y por lo tanto el tratamiento ovicida no fue eficaz, y demasiado pronto para actuar como larvicida.
Se obtuvieron diferencias en el porcentaje de mortalidad larvaria entre volúmenes de
caldo utilizado en campo, siendo del 64,4% cuando se utilizaron 935 I/ha y del 81,1% cuando se utilizaron 3.741 I/ha. Esto indica la importancia de alcanzar un buen nivel de cobertura en aplicaciones con tebufenocida para obtener un nivel de control alto. En las aplicaciones de tebufenocida en campo, prácticamente no disminuyó el porcentaje de control larvario de este insecticida hasta 24 dí­as después de su aplicación. Por lo tanto, tebufenocida es un insecticida que dispone de una persistencia considerable, mayor que un insecticida como por ejemplo metí­lazinfos. De los cuadyuvantes ensayados, parece ser que Silwet-77 y Latron AG-98 incrementan la persistencia de tebufenocida.

Several attempts were made at improving an artificial rearing method developed by Ruth and Hedlin (1969) for the Douglas-fir cone moth from 1983 to 1985. During 1983 and 1984, different container types, establishment methods and diet formulations were tested resulting in the production of a method that reduced both larval handling and media moisture loss. However, unexpected high mortality occurred during the late L4 stage when the insect constructed a cocoon within or adjacent to the media, and at pupation when developmental problems became obvious. These symptoms suggested the presence of a disease, however, no pathogens were observed with the light microscope. These forms of mortality had not been reported by Ruth and Hedlin (1969). It was postulated that media nutrient degradation was one cause since the method described by Ruth and Hedlin (1969) allowed the larvae to feed continuously on relatively fresh (nutrient rich) media while the larvae fed on unchanged media throughout the larval feeding period with my method. In 1985, two spruce budworm diets (Robertson’s 1981 and Bioserv) were replaced with freshly made media of the same formulation two weeks after establishment with eggs. Although pupal survival differed considerably between the two diets, no significant improvements in larval or pupal survival were obtained by changing media. In a second experiment, the initial concentrations of linolenic and L-ascorbic acid contained in Robertson's (1981) diet were varied to produce 12 different diets. Both nutrients were reported to degrade in artificial diets. Larval survival and pupal production were directly related to the dietary concentration of linolenic but not L-ascorbic acid. The best overall pre-winter survival of 53.9% and post-winter survival of 37.8% were obtained on Roberston's (1981) diet with four times and two times the normal concentration of linolenic acid, respectively. Linolenic acid appeared to be an essential nutrient for the cone moth since its absence produced the worst pre- and post-winter survival. Bioserv -reared pupae and pupae resulting from either of these "best" diets were not significantly different in weight from naturally-reared pupae. Adult emergence success was not affected by increasing quantities of dietary linolenic acid above the normal concentration. The incidence of 2YD appeared related to rearing temperature. Prolonged diapause incidences were significantly different between artificially- and naturally-reared pharate adults for each year of artificial rearing (1983 through 1985). A sample of cone moths from 40 trees revealed that within stand variation of 2YD incidences was relatively narrow. This result suggested that the proportion of cone moths entering 2YD may be regulated by factor(s) that uniformaly affect the stand, such as temperature, rather than as a response to the individual tree's reproductive potential in the year following larval feeding. This relationship and the improvement of the 1985 rearing method requires further investigation.
Forestry, Faculty of
Graduate

My research addressed pheromone lure design and the activity of the grape berry moth, Paralobesia viteana, flight and infestation across three years of study. In my lure evaluations, I found all commercial lures contained impurities and inconsistencies that have implications for management. First, sex pheromone concentration in lures affected both target and non-target attraction to traps, while the blend of sex pheromones impacted attraction to P. viteana. Second, over the duration of study, 54 vineyard blocks were sampled for the pest in and around cultivated wine grape in Virginia. The trapping studies indicated earliest and sustained emergence of the spring generation in sex pheromone traps placed in a wooded periphery. Later, moths were detected most often in the vineyard, which indicated that P. viteana emerged and aggregated in woods prior to flying and egg-laying in vineyards. My research supports use of woods and vineyard trap monitoring at both the height of 2 meters and in the periphery of respective environments. These conditions should improve grower efficiency when using trapping as a tool. Cluster infestation was assessed relative to vineyard growth stage and location in the vineyard. My results are in agreement with historical studies that suggest infestation is highest in the periphery of vineyards. However, I found that infestation peaked at veraison before falling somewhat around pre-harvest. This indicated that growers should manage this pest prior to veraison, perhaps as early as budbreak, to prevent the insect from reaching damaging levels when the crop is more susceptible to loss. Lastly, by combining field-based data collection with remote climate and landscape monitoring, growers can achieve a greater level of surveillance of P. viteana. A mash up of remote and vineyard-based data can provide substantive pertinent information for management at both local and regional scales. If one grower identifies moth emergence, then growers nearby potentially can use that same information to initiate models to monitor development of the moth population in their own vineyard. This research complements the notion that the more a community shares information, the broader its applicability becomes to neighbors.
Ph. D.

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The aim of this study was characterize the reproductive behavior of apple leafroller Bonagota salubricola (Meyrick, 1931) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae). The creation was made in laboratory by 25±1ºC and 70±10% of RU, with artificial diet. All the pupae had been separated by sex and transferred to pots, where they had remained until the emergency of the adults. To the measure that the individuals emerged, males and females with until 24h of life they had been, random, coupled in containers that had served as local of mate and substratum for oviposition. Each egg mass was analyzed separately, so that the egg counting was made under stereomicroscope, analyzed the fertility and viability. They had been coupled and analyzed 45 couples. The period of daily pre-oviposition had duration of 3,20 ± 0,26 days, oviposition 10,02 ± 0,69 days and pos-oviposition, 3,53 ± 0,58 days. The females had produced 13,29 ± 1,17 egg mass that had enclosed 178,00 ± 18,88 eggs. In all the experiment a total of 598 egg mass with 8010 eggs was produced, originating a total of 13,58 ± 1,24 eggs for egg mass. How much to the viability of eggs, it was observed that 100% of fertile eggs they had given to origin of 1° to instar perfect, and of all produced eggs, 74. 78% had been fertile. These results show that, exactly producing egg mass infertile at the beginning of the period of oviposition, the female is capable to produce ¾ of fertile eggs throughout its adult life. The average of length of abdomen of the females was of 5,92 ± 0,10mm and of the males was of 5,09 ± 0,07mm. The average of weight of the pupae of the females, that was of 19,54 ± 0,83mg, is almost the double of the average of the weight of the pupas of the males, 10,58 ± 0,28mg. The longevity of the females reached a number of 16,76 ± 0,79 days, whereas the longevity of the males was of 16,29 ± 0,79 days. The duration of the egg phase was of 6,85 ± 0,08 days, the phase of caterpillar, 23,88 ± 0,67 and of 8,55 pupa ± 0,31. The time of duration of the period eggadult was of 39,28 ± 0,90 days. The duration of the cycle of total life is of 55,57 days, on average, for males and 56,04 for the females.
O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar o comportamento reprodutivo da lagartaenroladeira da macieira, Bonagota salubricola (Meyrick, 1931) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae). A criação dos insetos foi feita em laboratório a 25±1ºC e 70±10% de UR e 14h de fotofase com dieta artificial. Todas as crisálidas foram sexadas e transferidas para potes, onde permaneceram até a emergência dos adultos. À medida que os indivíduos emergiam, machos e fêmeas com até 24h de vida foram, aleatoriamente, pareados em recipientes que serviram como local de acasalamento e substrato para oviposição. Cada postura foi analisada separadamente para que fosse feita a contagem de ovos sob estereomicroscópio, analisando fertilidade e viabilidade. Foram pareados, ao todo, 45 casais. O período de pré-oviposição teve duração de 3,20 ± 0,26 dias, oviposição 10,02 ± 0,69 e pós-oviposição, 3,53 ± 0,58. As fêmeas produziram 13,29 ± 1,17 posturas que proporcionaram 178,00 ± 18,88 ovos. Em todo o experimento foi produzido um total de 598 posturas e 8010 ovos, resultando um total de 13,58 ± 1,24 ovos por postura. Do total de ovos produzidos, 74,78% foram férteis; e quanto à viabilidade, foi observado que 100% dos ovos férteis deram origem a lagartas de 1° ínstar perfeitas. Estes resultados mostram que, mesmo produzindo posturas inférteis no início do período de oviposição, a fêmea é capaz de produzir ¾ de ovos férteis ao longo de sua vida adulta. O comprimento do abdome das fêmeas foi de 5,92 ± 0,10mm e dos machos foi de 5,09 ± 0,07mm. A média de peso das crisálidas das fêmeas, que foi de 19,54 ± 0,83mg, é quase o dobro do peso das crisálidas dos machos, 10,58 ± 0,28mg. A longevidade das fêmeas alcançou um número de 16,76 ± 0,79 dias, enquanto que a longevidade dos machos foi de 16,29 ± 0,79 dias. A duração da fase de ovo foi de 6,85 ± 0,08 dias, a fase de lagarta, 23,88 ± 0,67 e de crisálida 8,55 ± 0,31. O tempo de duração do período ovo-adulto foi de 39,28 ± 0,90 dias. A duração do ciclo de vida total é de 55,57 dias, em média, para os machos e 56,04 para as fêmeas.

Grapholita molesta é uma das principais pragas de Rosaceae, provocando danos significativos nas brotações e nos frutos. Nos meses de dormência das rosáceas, no sul do Brasil, a densidade populacional é reduzida. Nesse estudo, foi avaliada a influência dos fotoperíodos (10L:14E, 11L:13E, 12L:12E, 13L:11E, 14L:10E e 16L:8E) na temperatura de 25 ± 1 ºC e umidade relativa de 60 ± 10% na indução da diapausa nas fases de ovo, larva, pré-pupa e pupa de G. molesta. Observou-se também o efeito do fotoperíodo no tempo de desenvolvimento dos insetos que não manifestaram diapausa, bem como a fertilidade, a fecundidade e a duração das fases imaturas da segunda geração. A diapausa foi observada, no estágio de prépupa, apenas quando ovos e larvas com menos de 12 horas foram expostos às fotofases de 10, 11, 12, 13 e 14 horas. Entre os indivíduos que não manifestaram dormência, a redução da fotofase tendeu a aumentar o tempo de desenvolvimento dos insetos. A fecundidade e a fertilidade, de modo geral, não foram afetadas pelo fotoperíodo. O tempo de desenvolvimento dos indivíduos da segunda geração tendeu a ser mais longo nas fotofases entre 14 e 10 horas.
Grapholita molesta is a major pests of Rosaceae, causing significant damage to buds and fruits. In Southern Brazil, its population density is reduced during Rosaceae dormancy months. In this study, we evaluated the influence of photoperiod (10L:14D, 11L:13D, 12L:12D, 13L:11D, 14L:10D and 16L:8D) on diapause induction of egg, larval, prepupal and pupal phases in G. molesta, at 25 ± 1 ºC of temperature and 60 ± 10% of relative humidity. We also observed the photoperiod effect on the duration of development of non-diapausing insects, on fertility and fecundity, and the duration of the immature stages of the second generation. The prepupal diapause was observed only when eggs and larvae were submitted to photophases of 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 hours. Among the individuals that did not manifest dormancy, the photophase reduction tended to increase the length of development. In general, fecundity and fertility were not affected by the photoperiod. The development of the second generation individuals tended to be longer in the photophases between 10 and 14 hours.

A aprendizagem caracteriza-se como a mudança de um determinado comportamento, que ocorre como resultado de uma experiência anterior. Esta capacidade pode auxiliar os insetos em estratégias de busca e defesa, conferindo a estes, plasticidade de respostas frente a diferentes estímulos. O presente estudo teve como objetivo, avaliar a ocorrência de aprendizagem e memória em Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann,1830) (Diptera: Tephritidae) e Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae). Foram avaliadas as respostas comportamentais de A. fraterculus, quando previamente expostas a frutos artificiais confeccionados com ágar, agua e polpa de espécies hospedeiras, ou inexperientes, assim como moscas previamente expostas a frutos artificiais contendo óleo essencial de capim-limão ou confeccionados apenas com água e ágar (controle). Também foram verificadas as respostas quimiotáxicas de lagartas e adultos de G. molestas experientes ou não com o odor de óleo essencial de capim-limão e a permanência da memória olfativa após a metamorfose. Além disso, foi avaliada a influencia de um estímulo aversivo sobre aprendizagem associativa, após o condicionamento das lagartas desta espécie, pareando odor de acetato de etila e choque elétrico, sendo as lagartas e adultos posteriormente testados em olfatômetro Y. A experiência com frutos artificiais contendo polpa de amora influenciou positivamente o número de puncturas e de ovos depositados sobre este substrato, por A. fraterculus, sendo que esta memória se manteve por até 72 horas, enquanto que a exposição a substratos contendo polpa de goiaba não afetou o comportamento das moscas. A experiência prévia com óleo essencial de capim-limão alterou o comportamento de escolha do hospedeiro, por A. fraterculus e o quimiotáxico de lagartas e adultos de G. molesta. Lagartas de G. molesta aprenderam de forma associativa e mantiveram a memória adquirida após a metamorfose por 72 horas.
Learning is defined as a change in behavior caused by prior experience. Insects' capacity to learn helps improve their search and defense strategies by allowing them a plasticity of response to different stimuli. The aim of this study was to assess learning and memory in Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann,1830) (Diptera: Tephritidae) and Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae). Behavioral responses were tested for A. fraterculus flies previously exposed to artificial fruits consisting of agar, water, and fruit pulp of host species, flies not exposed to such fruits, flies previously exposed to artificial fruits containing lemongrass essential oil, and flies exposed to fruits made with water and agar (control). Chemotaxic responses of G. molesta caterpillars and adults exposed or not exposed to lemongrass essential oil were also assessed, together with the duration of olfactory memory after metamorphosis. The influence of an adverse stimulus on associative learning was also tested, by first conditioning G. molesta caterpillars to associate ethyl acetate with an electric shock, and then testing caterpillar and adult behavior in a Y-olfactometer. Prior experience with artificial fruits containing blackberry pulp increased the number of punctures and eggs deposited by A. fraterculus on that substrate, with this memory lasting for up to 72 hours. By contrast, exposure to substrates with guava pulp did not affect flies' behavior. Prior experience with lemongrass essential oil modified the host-selection behavior of A. fraterculus and the chemotaxy of juvenile and adult G. molesta. G. molesta caterpillars demonstrated associative learning and maintained the memory for 72 hours after metamorphosis.

Anecdotal reports in the South African citrus industry claim higher populations of false codling moth (FCM), Thaumatotibia (Cryptophlebia) leucotreta (Meyr) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in orchards during the first three to five harvesting years of citrus planted in virgin soil, after which, FCM numbers seem to decrease and remain consistent. Various laboratory studies and field surveys were conducted to determine if, and why juvenile orchards (four to eight years old) experience higher FCM infestation than mature orchards (nine years and older). In laboratory trials, Washington Navel oranges and Nova Mandarins from juvenile trees were shown to be significantly more susceptible to FCM damage and significantly more attractive for oviposition in both choice and no-choice trials, than fruit from mature trees. Although fruit from juvenile Cambria Navel trees were significantly more attractive than mature orchards for oviposition, they were not more susceptible to FCM damage. In contrast, fruit from juvenile and mature Midnight Valencia orchards were equally attractive for oviposition, but fruit from juvenile trees were significantly more susceptible to FCM damage than fruit from mature trees. Artificial diets were augmented with powder from fruit from juvenile or mature Washington Navel orchards at 5%, 10%, 15% or 30%. Higher larval survival of 76%, 63%, 50% and 34%, respectively, was recorded on diets containing fruit powder from the juvenile trees than on diets containing fruit powder from the mature trees, at 69%, 57%, 44% and 27% larval survival, respectively. Bioassays were conducted to determine if differences in plant chemistry between fruit from juvenile and mature trees will have an impact on the susceptibility FCM to entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN), entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) and Cryptophlebia leucotreta granulovirus (CrleGV). No significant differences in the susceptibility of larvae reared on diets containing 15% fruit powder from juvenile and mature trees to EPN and EPF were recorded. Mortality of neonate larvae was significantly lower when placed on diets containing 15% fruit powder from mature trees (45% mortality) than diets containing 15% fruit powder from juvenile trees (61% mortality), after larvae ingested the lowest virus concentration tested, being 2 x104 OBs/ml. Data collected from field surveys showed significantly lower egg parasitism, virus infection of larvae and EPF occurrence in juvenile orchards than mature orchards. Egg parasitism was between 11% and 54% higher in mature orchards than juvenile orchards, with the exception of Mandarins during 2015, where egg parasitism was slightly higher in juvenile orchards, but not significantly so. A significantly higher proportion of larvae retrieved from mature orchards (7% of larvae) were infected with CrleGV than larvae retrieved from juvenile orchards (4% of larvae). A significantly higher occurrence of EPF was recorded in non-bearing and mature orchards, with 40% and 37% occurrence respectively, than in juvenile orchards, with 25% occurrence recorded. EPF occurrence in juvenile orchards increased significantly by 16% to 32% from the first to the third year of sampling. In contrast to results recorded in laboratory trials, similar or higher pest pressure in juvenile orchards than mature orchards did not always result in significantly higher levels of FCM damage under field conditions. FCM damage in juvenile orchards may have been lower than expected, as greater extremes of temperature and lower humidity were recorded in juvenile orchards, which would increase larval mortality. Results of this study showed that juvenile and mature orchards are significantly different and should be managed differently.

Resumo: O monitoramento é uma etapa fundamental do Manejo Integrado de Pragas e tem a finalidade de verificar a presença de um inseto e sua intensidade, fornecendo subsídios para tomada de decisões para aplicação de uma medida de controle. Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916), é uma importante praga de fruteiras de clima temperado e a eficiência do monitoramento desta espécie, realizado com armadilhas a base de feromônio, é prejudicada em áreas onde se utiliza a técnica de confusão sexual como controle, devido à similaridade dos feromônios envolvidos. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar novos compostos atrativos para G. molesta, visando sua utilização no monitoramento deste tortricídeo em pomares com confusão sexual. Atrativos alimentares foram testados em campo para a captura de mariposas, utilizando armadilhas do tipo McPhail iscadas com suco e vinho de uva em pomares de maçã. Também foram realizados experimentos em laboratório para identificar os voláteis emitidos por frutos de 'Eva' e 'Gala' em diferentes estágios de desenvolvimento, através da coleta dos voláteis por headspace e análise em cromatografia gasosa, assim como a resposta eletrofisiológica e comportamental de G. molesta a estes compostos. Por fim, o efeito da interação entre os voláteis liberados por maçã madura e feromônio sintético foi avaliado para a captura de machos de G. molesta em experimentos de campo. Verificou-se que o vinho foi o atrativo mais eficiente para a captura de G. molesta em pomares com confusão sexual, superando as capturas com feromônio sintético. Além disso, atrativos alimentares capturaram fêmeas copuladas, o que pode explicar a ocorrência de danos mesmo quando há baixas capturas em armadilhas com feromônio durante a eficiência da formulação de confusão sexual. Em relação à avaliação de resposta de G. molesta aos voláteis de maçã em diferentes estágios de maturação, não foram detectadas repostas eletrofisiológicas da mariposa-oriental aos voláteis emitidos em estágio imaturo de ambas cultivares. Adultos responderam eletrofisiologicamente a dois compostos de 'Eva' em estágio de processo de maturação: hexanoato de isoamila e ? -farneseno. Dentre os voláteis liberados em estágio de maturação fisiológica, doze elicitaram respostas em adultos. Fêmeas virgens não responderam aos voláteis em olfatômetro e fêmeas acasaladas foram atraídas por voláteis liberados por frutos em estágio de maturação fisiológica, o que sugere uma maior sensibilidade de fêmeas acasaladas, estimuladas pela necessidade de localizar sítios de oviposição. Machos também foram atraídos por voláteis de frutos em estágio de processo de maturação e em maturação fisiológica, possivelmente estes utilizam o odor como pista química em busca de parceiras para o acasalamento. Quanto ao efeito de voláteis de maçã madura e feromônio sintético, não foi observado incremento na atração de adultos em bioensaios em olfatômetro "Y" e nas capturas de machos em campo.

This study presents a description of the life cycle and biology of the macadamia nutborer Ecdytolopha torticornis (Meyrick), and identifies factors which influence the abundance of the nutborer in a macadamia orchard in Atirro Farm, Turrialba, Costa Rica, during 1991-1993. Four larval instars were identified. The life cycle was completed in 36 days, and sex ratio of 1:1 was recorded. Fecundity was found to be 37 eggs per female. Macadamia clones differed in their susceptibility to nutborer attack: clones 344 and 246 were more heavily attacked than clones 508 and 660. The maximum level of nut damage was 37%. Nut damage decreased between years and sites. Four larval parasitoids (Apanteles I, Apanteles II, Pristomerus sp. and Ascogaster sp.) and one egg parasitoid (Trichogrammatidae) were reared. Parasitism presented a delayed-density dependence response to nutborer, abundance, as measured by nut damage. Apanteles I accounted for 40% of parasitoids reared, while Ascogaster accounted for 50%. Predation was found to be negatively affect the abundance of larvae in nuts on the ground, and the fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, was considered to be the most important predator. The nutborer preferred to oviposit upon nuts on branches within the first three meters from the ground, and the number of eggs laid was affected by weed management, more eggs were found when husk was applied as a mulch than in unweeded plots. Nitrogen content decreased with nut maturation. The nitrogen and tannin content of different clones were found to have no effect on the abundance of the nutborer. However, proanthocyanidin content and dry matter may affect larval performance. Evidence is given which supports the hypothesis that E. torticornis is a native species rather than an introduced pest. Four factors affect E. torticornis abundance, the quality of its food source, the quantity of the food source, predation and parasitism.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo verificar a estratégia reprodutiva de seis lepidópterospraga, os noctuídeos Anticarsia gemmatalis, Heliothis virescens e Spodoptera frugiperda (Noctuidae), Diatraea saccharalis (Crambidae), Gymnandrosoma aurantianum (Família) e Stenoma catennifer (Elachistidae), tendo como alvo principal o uso de recursos nutricionais na fase adulta para sustentar o processo de reprodução e o efeito da atividade de cópula e temperatura na reprodução dessas espécies. Apesar de todas as espécies apresentarem índice de ovigenia bem inferior a 1, indicando a maturação de oócitos no decorrer da vida adulta, apenas A. gemmatalis e H. virescens necessitaram de alimentação na fase adulta para sustentar o processo reprodutivo, enquanto as demais espécies se utilizam dos nutrientes armazenados durante a fase larval. A partir destes resultados, foram escolhidas duas espécies que apresentavam estratégias reprodutivas distintas. Uma que utilizava apenas os nutrientes armazenados na fase imatura, S. frugiperda, enquanto a outra necessitava adquirir nutrientes na fase adulta para a sua reprodução, A. gemmatalis, para se verificar o efeito da freqüência de cópula e de seus efeitos na fecundidade, fertilidade e longevidade de adultos com estratégias reprodutivas distintas. A freqüência de cópula afetou de forma semelhante a longevidade de ambas espécies, havendo redução na longevidade com o aumento no número de cópulas. Porém, a fecundidade de S. frugiperda mostrou correlação positiva com a freqüência de cópula, não sendo verificado nenhum efeito na fecundidade de A. gemmatalis. Machos de ambas as espécies podem contribuir de forma semelhante para a reprodução da fêmea, independentemente de sua experiência prévia. Assim, a reprodução de fêmeas que copularam com machos experientes (2 cópulas prévias) foi similar àquela de fêmeas acasaladas com machos virgens. No entanto, a duração da cópula aumentou com a experiência do macho, sendo a terceira cópula mais longa do que a primeira. A relação da temperatura (15, 20, 25, 30 e 35ºC) e freqüência de cópula também foi investigada para essas espécies, sendo observado que as temperaturas extremas (15 e 35oC) afetaram a freqüência de cópula de ambas espécies. Porém, a temperatura demonstrou afetar as interações entre o número de cópulas e demais atributos biológicos relacionados à reprodução apenas para S. frugiperda mantidas a 25ºC, onde o aumento no número de cópulas resultou em maior fecundidade.
This paper deals with the reproductive strategies of six lepidopteran species, considering the use of food sources in the adult stage and the effect of mating activity and temperature in the reproduction of those species. The lepidopteran species were: Anticarsia gemmatalis, Heliothis virescens, Spodoptera frugiperda (Noctuidae), Diatraea saccharalis (Crambidae), Gymnandrosoma aurantianum (Tortricidae), and Stenoma catenifer (Elachistidae). From this group two species with different reproductive strategies were selected: S.frugiperda, which uses the nutrients stored during the larval stage, and A.gemmatalis, which uses nutrients acquired in the adult stage. Then one verified the mating frequency and its effects on adult fecundity, fertility and longevity. For both species longevity decreased as the number of matings increased. Female reproduction was similar either when they mated with virgin males or non virgin males. However mating duration was different for the third mating was longer than the first one. The temperatures of 15º and 35ºC did affect the mating frequency of both species. The frequency of matings was positively related to fecundity but only for S.frugiperda. Also S.frugiperda at 25ºC presented higher fecundity with the increasing in the number of matings.

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O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar o comportamento reprodutivo da lagartaenroladeira da macieira, Bonagota salubricola (Meyrick, 1931) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae). A cria??o dos insetos foi feita em laborat?rio a 25?1?C e 70?10% de UR e 14h de fotofase com dieta artificial. Todas as cris?lidas foram sexadas e transferidas para potes, onde permaneceram at? a emerg?ncia dos adultos. ? medida que os indiv?duos emergiam, machos e f?meas com at? 24h de vida foram, aleatoriamente, pareados em recipientes que serviram como local de acasalamento e substrato para oviposi??o. Cada postura foi analisada separadamente para que fosse feita a contagem de ovos sob estereomicrosc?pio, analisando fertilidade e viabilidade. Foram pareados, ao todo, 45 casais. O per?odo de pr?-oviposi??o teve dura??o de 3,20 ? 0,26 dias, oviposi??o 10,02 ? 0,69 e p?s-oviposi??o, 3,53 ? 0,58. As f?meas produziram 13,29 ? 1,17 posturas que proporcionaram 178,00 ? 18,88 ovos. Em todo o experimento foi produzido um total de 598 posturas e 8010 ovos, resultando um total de 13,58 ? 1,24 ovos por postura. Do total de ovos produzidos, 74,78% foram f?rteis; e quanto ? viabilidade, foi observado que 100% dos ovos f?rteis deram origem a lagartas de 1? ?nstar perfeitas. Estes resultados mostram que, mesmo produzindo posturas inf?rteis no in?cio do per?odo de oviposi??o, a f?mea ? capaz de produzir ? de ovos f?rteis ao longo de sua vida adulta. O comprimento do abdome das f?meas foi de 5,92 ? 0,10mm e dos machos foi de 5,09 ? 0,07mm. A m?dia de peso das cris?lidas das f?meas, que foi de 19,54 ? 0,83mg, ? quase o dobro do peso das cris?lidas dos machos, 10,58 ? 0,28mg. A longevidade das f?meas alcan?ou um n?mero de 16,76 ? 0,79 dias, enquanto que a longevidade dos machos foi de 16,29 ? 0,79 dias. A dura??o da fase de ovo foi de 6,85 ? 0,08 dias, a fase de lagarta, 23,88 ? 0,67 e de cris?lida 8,55 ? 0,31. O tempo de dura??o do per?odo ovo-adulto foi de 39,28 ? 0,90 dias. A dura??o do ciclo de vida total ? de 55,57 dias, em m?dia, para os machos e 56,04 para as f?meas

Les nombreuses donnees recueillies au cours de cinq annees (1987-1991) sur la station de bouake (cote-d'ivoire) et sur divers postes d'observation de la zone cotonniere ont montre que c. Leucotreta est un des plus importants ennemis animaux du cotonnier dans ce pays. C. Leucotreta est en activite toute l'annee et migre massivement vers les cultures cotonnieres des leur mise en place. Leurs pullulations sont detectees en aout-octobre dans les zones sud et centre, et en octobre dans les zones nord. Les variations saisonnieres des populations sont expliquees de facon significative par la pluviometrie. La repartition spatiale de c. Leucotreta dans le champ de cotonniers est de type agregatif. La disposition en spirale des branches fructiferes influence la repartition des infestations qui commencent des la formation des boutons floraux, evoluent avec la floraison et culminent entre le 92eme et le 112eme jour de culture. Les cotonniers nectariless hebergent des populations larvaires plus faibles. L'association mais-cotonnier contribue a reduire les attaques de c. Leucotreta sur cotonnier pourvu que le mais soit seme avant ou a la meme date que le cotonnier et que les epis soient detruits a temps. Des seuils d'intervention correspondants a 3 chenilles p. 100 capsules ou a 20-40 adultes captures par semaine peuvent etre proposes en vue de la mise en place d'une lutte raisonnee

The effects of pheromone trap placement on male moth catches of both species were studied. For P. flavedana, traps hung at 2.1 and 3.0 meters captured the greatest number of moths. Trap heights of 1.2, 2.1, and 3.0 meters caught the greatest number of P. idaeusalis moths. The outside-the-canopy trap position captured more P. flavedana moths, while the within-canopy trap location caught the greatest number of P. idaeusalis moths. Traps placed in the west portion of the tree captured the greatest number of P. flavedana moths. P. idaeusalis moth catches were not influenced by compass quadrants. Trap design and pheromone dispenser and rate influenced trap catches of P. flavedana. Development of P. flavedana and P. idaeusalis on a meridic diet was observed at constant temperatures in the laboratory. Lower developmental threshold values for egg, larval, and pupal stages of P. flavedana were: 10.6, 8.6, 9.0°C, respectively. Lower developmental threshold values of 9.7, 7.0, and 8.5°C were estimated for P. idaeusalis egg, larval, and pupal stages, respectively. An average of 101.5 °D_10.6’, 379.6 °D_8.6’, and 126.0 °D_9.0’ were required for development of egg, larval, and pupal stages of P. flavedana, respectively. P. idaeusalis required 104.7 °D_9.7’, 442.7 °D_7.0’, and 132.2 °D_8.5’ to complete development in the egg, larval, and pupal stages, respectively. Differences in rate of development were observed between food sources for both species. Within-tree spatial distribution of egg masses and fruit damage resulting from larval feeding for both species was investigated. P. flavedana egg masses were mostly found in the southern portion of the tree below 1.8 meters. Egg masses of P. idaeusalis were observed in greatest numbers in the southern and eastern quadrants of the tree below 2.8 meters. Fruit damage caused by larvae of both species was greatest in the lower portion of the tree. Wind dispersal of first-instar larvae between trees is believed to have influenced fruit damage distribution. The seasonal activity of P. flavedana and P. idaeusalis was monitored. Degree-day accumulations for first moth catch, first and peak egg deposition, and first and peak egg hatch of both generations are presented.
Ph. D.

La repartition spatio-temporelle des degats de la tordeuse choristoneura murinana hb. , a ete etudiee dans un peuplement de sapin pectine (abies alba mill. ) dans une perspective biologique (dynamique numerique de l'insecte) et methodologique (echantillonnage). L'estimation visuelle du taux moyen de perte d'aiguilles des pousses annuelles (taux de defoliation) a permis de mesurer retrospectivement les degats du ravageur pour une periode de 8 ans. La repartition spatiale des degats a ete etudiee a l'echelle de la branche, de l'arbre et du peuplement. Nos resultats montrent que les variations spatio-temporelles du taux de defoliation constituent un bon estimateur de celles de l'intensite des degats des chenilles, mais un assez mauvais estimateur des variations de leur densite aux differentes echelles considerees, du fait des variations concomitantes de la biomasse foliaire disponible. La repartition des degats a l'interieur des branches montre que la tordeuse a une preference marquee pour leur partie apicale. L'examen d'un nombre reduit de pousses permet par ailleurs d'estimer correctement l'intensite des degats dans le peuplement, independamment du niveau de population du ravageur. La repartition des degats dans le houppier des arbres n'est pas structuree horizontalement. En revanche, verticalement, les degats sont generalement les plus importants dans la partie mediane du houppier. L'echantillonnage d'un seul verticille du houppier permet d'obtenir une estimation tres fiable, en moyenne, de l'intensite des degats sur l'arbre entier pour les individus d'un statut social donne. A l'echelle du peuplement, la repartition des degats n'est pas fonction de la localisation des arbres. Cependant, certains d'entre eux sont generalement plus attaques. Les facteurs determinant la fenetre de coincidence phenologique entre le ravageur et son hote, en particulier la date de debourrement des arbres et la presence de fleurs males, en sont partiellement responsables

Memoria para optar al título profesional de Ingeniero Agrónomo Mención Sanidad Vegetal
La importancia económica que los tortrícidos han tenido en nuestra agricultura en los últimos 30 años, ha ido aumentando de manera significativa, particularmente desde el punto de vista cuarentenario en el sector de exportaciones hortofrutícolas. En consecuencia, es necesario un mayor conocimiento de las especies endémicas de Chile. Es esencial lograr una identificación taxonómica certera de sus estados inmaduros, de las principales especies que atacan frutales y otros cultivos. En el presente trabajo, se presenta la descripción taxonómica del último estado larvario y de pupas de dos especies de tortrícidos de Chile: Proeulia auraria (Clarke) y Proeulia chrysopteris (Butler). Se realizaron estudios en base a crianzas de larvas en condiciones de laboratorio, de las cuales se realizaron preparaciones microscópicas y su identificación a nivel de adultos. Además se entrega una actualización, que incluyen nuevos registros de hospederos y una clave de identificación larvaria ilustrada, en atención a que las detecciones en sitios de inspección cuarentenaria, deben realizarse sobre una base científica adecuada. La terminología utilizada para los detalles morfológicos de la larva (quetotaxia), está basado esencialmente en el aporte de Hinton (1946) y Stehr (1987). El formato para las figuras de la cabeza y larva, está basado en los trabajos de MacKay (1959, 1962) y Vargas (2006). Respecto a la descripción de las estructuras morfológicas de la pupa, se adopta la propuesta de Gilligan et al. (2008). De los adultos obtenidos de las crianzas, se realizaron estudios de genitalia comparada, con el objetivo de identificar y confirmar a la especie en estudio. Para tal efecto, se utilizaron los siguientes trabajos taxonómicos del género, Obraztsov (1964) y Razowski (1995, 1999). Para la clave ilustrada de identificación, se propone una en orden y nivel dicotómica para larvas de último estado, la cual considera aquellos aspectos morfológicos, de mayor importancia desde el punto de vista biológico.
The economic importance that the tortricid moths have reached in the last 30 years, particularly in the quarantine restrictions set within the fruit export areas, requires a better biological specific information of the major native species involved in common quarantine detections, specially to have a better knowledge of the morphological characters separating larval stages. In the present work, the taxonomic description of the last instar larvae and pupae of two of the commonest fruit tree leafrollers Proeulia auraria (Clarke) y Proeulia chrysopteris (Butler) are presented. Studies were made on specific laboratory rearings; the last (fifth) larval instar was characterized according to anatomical features, particularly from their setal distribution in selected larval segments and cephalic areas. Other major specific details, such as feeding behaviour and local distribution are accompanying each treated entity. Terminology used in the description of larval data, chaetotaxy and others, are essentially based in basic literature (Hinton, 1946; MacKay, 1959; MacKay, 1962; Stehr, 1987; Vargas, 2006). As far as the pupae, morphological information has been adopted from Gilligan et al. (2008). Confirmation on specific adults entities was drawn from comparative genitalia studies this was also compared in major taxonomic studies (Obraztsov, 1964; Razowski, 1995; Razowski, 1999). To facilitate species comparative identification, a dicotomic key is provided for last larval instars of the species studied. Insofar pupal structures is concerned, those pertaining of both sexes of P. auraria and P. chrysopteris are also dealt with.

Baseando-se em estudos de seleção de linhagens, comportamento, liberação e avaliação de parasitismo, incluindo-se técnicas de marcação com radioisótopos 32P, objetivou-se, nesta pesquisa, verificar em laboratório e no campo, a espécie de Trichogramma mais eficiente para o controle de Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima, 1927). Assim, verificou-se em laboratório que Trichogramma atopovirilia Oatman & Platner, 1983, quando comparada com T. pretiosum Riley, 1879, foi a espécie com maior potencial para o controle desta praga. Foi observado que T. atopovirilia apresentou um maior parasitismo na faixa de 20 a 30°C quando comparado às temperaturas de 10, 15 e 35°C, sendo que nesta faixa (15 a 35°C) o parasitismo aumentou a partir de 2 horas de exposição. Houve aumento no parasitismo e na longevidade dos parasitóides, quando foi oferecida uma fonte de alimento (mel puro) aos adultos, logo após a emergência. O parasitismo foi também superior nos ovos mais novos, especialmente, aqueles com 24 horas de desenvolvimento embrionário, comparados aos de 48 e 72 horas, respectivamente, o que pode auxiliar na definição do momento de liberação dos parasitóides no campo. A dosagem do radioisótopo 32P, utilizada para a marcação de espécimens de Trichogramma não interferiu na aceitação e parasitismo de ovos de E. aurantiana e no desenvolvimento dos parasitóides na geração subseqüente. Em condições de campo, o número de parasitóides a serem liberados foi variável dependendo da época do ano. Assim, foram necessários 72 e 288 parasitóides por ovo, nos períodos de abril a junho e de julho a setembro, respectivamente. O grande número de aerópilas presente nos ovos de E. aurantiana facilita o seu ressecamento quando mantidos em substratos artificiais, afetando o comportamento do parasitóide e a sua capacidade de parasitismo em campo. O raio de dispersão e a eficiência de parasitismo em função da distância percorrida por T. atopovirilia foram determinados usando-se o marcador 32P na dosagem determinada. Houve diminuição do parasitismo com o aumento da distância do ponto inicial de liberação dos parasitóides. Observou-se, que nas primeiras 24 horas, as maiores taxas de parasitismo de T. atopovirilia ocorreram entre 8 e 10 m do ponto central de liberação, correspondendo a uma área de 171 m2 de dispersão para os pomares cítricos. Baseando-se nestes resultados, serão necessários 60 pontos de liberação por unidade de área (ha), para viabilizar o uso de T. atopovirilia como uma estratégia de controle biológico de E. aurantiana.
Based on strain selection, behavior, release and parasitism evaluation studies including 32P radioisotope marking, one aimed at verifying in laboratory and field the more efficient Trichogramma species to control Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima, 1927). Thus, the comparison between Trichogramma atopovirilia Oatman & Platner, 1983 and T. pretiosum Riley, 1879 in laboratory indicated the first one as the species with higher potential to control the pest. The parasitism in T. atopovirilia was observed to be higher in the 20-30°C range in comparison with temperatures of 10, 15 and 35ºC, and at the studied range (15 to 35°C), the parasitism increased starting in 2 hours of exposure. Parasitism and parasitoid longevity increased when a food source (pure honey) was offered to adults right after emergence. The parasitism was also higher in newer eggs, especially those with 24 hours of embrionary development, compared to those of 48 and 72 hours, respectively, which can help define the moment of parasitoid release in the field. The 32P radioisotope dosage used to mark Trichogramma specimens did not interfere in the acceptance and parasitism of E. aurantiana eggs and in the parasitoid development in the following generation. Under field conditions, the number of parasitoids to be released was variable, depending on the time of the year. Thus, 72 and 288 parasitoids were required per egg in the periods of April-June and July-September, respectively. The large number of aeropiles found in E. aurantiana eggs makes them dry out more easily when kept in artificial mediums, affecting the parasitoid behavior and its parasitism capacity in the field. The dispersion range and parasitism efficiency in function of the distance run by T. atopovirilia were determined through the 32P marker at the given dosage. Parasitism decreased as the distance from the initial point of parasitoid released increased. In the first 24 hours the higher T. atopovirilia parasitism rates were observed to occur between 8 and 10 m from the central release point, corresponding to an area of 171 m2 of dispersion towards the citrus groves. Based on these results, 60 release points will be necessary per area unit (ha) to make the use of T. atopovirilia viable as a biological control strategy for E. aurantiana.

Les travaux presentes constituent une contribution a la connaissance des genes pnl/pnl (orf 86), lef-4 (orf 90) et lef-5 (orf 99), qui sont impliques directement ou indirectement dans les mecanismes de regulation de l'expression des genes tardifs et tres tardifs chez acmnpv. L'etude de leur expression d'une part et de la fonction des proteines codees d'autre part, a ete entreprise. Les cinetiques d'expression des transcrits au cours du cycle viral dans les cellules sf21, ainsi que les sites d'initiation et de terminaison de la transcription ont ete determines. Ces donnees transcriptionnelles, cumulees avec une analyse de l'activite des promoteurs en cellules non infectees, nous ont permis de montrer que pnk/pnl etait un gene precoce immediat, alors que lef-4 et lef-5 etaient du type precoce retarde. La suppression du gene pnk/pnl du genome d'acmnpv c6 (knock-out) a permis de montrer que ce gene n'etait pas indispensable pour l'execution du cycle viral. Par ailleurs, l'analyse de populations virales a permis de montrer que ce gene etait absent de certaines souches d'acmnpv et d'autres virus comme bmnpv et opmnpv. L'obtention d'un anticorps dirige contre des peptides internes a lef-4, a permis d'une part, d'etudier la cinetique d'expression de cette proteine, et d'autre part de determiner la localisation sub-cellulaire par des techniques immunologiques couplees a l'observation en microscopie confocale et electronique. Differents systemes d'expression ont ete utilises, afin de produire les proteines en quantite importante. En systeme bacterien, des problemes d'insolubilite ont ete rencontres. En complement, le systeme baculovirus a ete utilise pour l'hyper-production de lef-4 et lef-5. Deux virus recombinants, acoverlef-4 et acoverlef-5 ont ete construits. Le virus acoverlef-4 nous a permis de realiser les premieres experiences concernant la determination des domaines fonctionnels de lef-4.

Orientador: Lino Bittencourt Monteiro
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Paraná, Setor de Ciências Agrárias, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Agronomia. Defesa: Curitiba, 2007
Inclui bibliografia
Área de concentração: Produção vegetal

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
A maioria dos organismos vivos são ectotérmicos, com exceção de pássaros e mamíferos. A temperatura corporal (Tc) de um ectotérmico é resultado da troca de calor entre o organismo e o meio ambiente e esta afeta a maioria das funções biológicas. Por exemplo, os insetos, para mudarem de estágio de desenvolvimento, requerem um mínimo de energia acumulada (calor). Para as pragas, a maioria dos modelos fenológicos é baseada na relação entre características do de desenvolvimento (ex., crescimento) e a temperatura do ar. Todavia, a utilização destes modelos ainda é limitada em razão da falta de exatidão na estimativa das temperaturas máximas e mínimas de desenvolvimento para a maioria das pragas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a importância dos fatores: resistência a inseticidas e termoperíodo, assim como discutir os métodos de modelagem para o inseto endofítico Cydia pomonella. Para tal, se submeteu larvas e pupas de 4 linhagens diferentes desta espécie: sensível (Sv), resistente a diflubenzuron (Rdfb), resistente a deltametrina (Rdelta) e resistente ao granulovírus (Rgv), a 4 termoperíodos (15°C-20°C, 20°C-25°C, 25°C-30°C e 30°C- 35°C). Os parâmetros avaliados foram: taxa de crescimento, mortalidade, razão sexual e temperatura base, mínima e ótima de desenvolvimento do inseto. Com o auxílio dos valores obtidos nestes parâmetros, modelos lineares e curvilineares foram desenvolvidos, comparados entre si e com modelos obtidos por autores a temperaturas constantes. Os resultados mostraram que em condições de temperaturas variáveis a resistência implica em mudanças nos parâmetros biológicos (taxa de crescimento, mortalidade e razão sexual) e que o termoperíodo acelera o crescimento de larvas e pupas de carpocapsa. Com o auxílio dos modelos obtidos, foi realizada uma simulação do período de desenvolvimento de C. pomonella utilizando...
The majority living organisms are ectotherms except birds and mammals. The body temperature (Tb) of an ectotherm results from the energy balance between this the organisms and its environment. The Tb determines most of the biological functions. For instance, a minimum of heat accumulation by insects is needed to pass from a development stage to another during their life cycle. For insect pests, most of phenological models are based on life history trait (e.g., growth) and air temperature. Unfortunately, the use of phenological models is limited since there is a lack of accuracy estimatives in maximum and minimum temperatures. The aim this work was to study the importance of two factors ((i) the insecticide resistance, (ii) the thermoperiod) and the modelling methods to design a phenological model for the the endophyte insect Cydia pomonella. Four strains of C. pomonella: (i) Sv (susceptible strain), (ii) Rdfb (resistant to diflubenzuron), (iii) RD (resistant to deltamethrin), RGv (resistant to C. pomonella granulovirus) and 4 thermoperiods (15°C-20°C, 20°C-25°C, 25°C-30°C e 30°C-35°C) were used. Measured parameters were the development rate, the mortality, the sex ratio, the Toptm, Tmin and Tmax of the development rate. Based on the obtained values for each parameter, linear and curvilinear phenological models were made and compared between them and with those obtained at constant temperature by some authors. Thus, in fluctuating thermal conditions, it was shown that insecticide resistance involved aftereffects on life-history traits as the development rate, the mortality and sex ratio. Also, it was shown that the C. pomonella development rate at larval stage is higher in thermoperiodic conditions. With the models the development of C. pomonella was simulated using air and micro-habitat temperatures for two areas of apple orchards in Europe (e.g., Valais in Switzerland and la Drôme...(Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Resumo: A maioria dos organismos vivos são ectotérmicos, com exceção de pássaros e mamíferos. A temperatura corporal (Tc) de um ectotérmico é resultado da troca de calor entre o organismo e o meio ambiente e esta afeta a maioria das funções biológicas. Por exemplo, os insetos, para mudarem de estágio de desenvolvimento, requerem um mínimo de energia acumulada (calor). Para as pragas, a maioria dos modelos fenológicos é baseada na relação entre características do de desenvolvimento (ex., crescimento) e a temperatura do ar. Todavia, a utilização destes modelos ainda é limitada em razão da falta de exatidão na estimativa das temperaturas máximas e mínimas de desenvolvimento para a maioria das pragas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a importância dos fatores: resistência a inseticidas e termoperíodo, assim como discutir os métodos de modelagem para o inseto endofítico Cydia pomonella. Para tal, se submeteu larvas e pupas de 4 linhagens diferentes desta espécie: sensível (Sv), resistente a diflubenzuron (Rdfb), resistente a deltametrina (Rdelta) e resistente ao granulovírus (Rgv), a 4 termoperíodos (15°C-20°C, 20°C-25°C, 25°C-30°C e 30°C- 35°C). Os parâmetros avaliados foram: taxa de crescimento, mortalidade, razão sexual e temperatura base, mínima e ótima de desenvolvimento do inseto. Com o auxílio dos valores obtidos nestes parâmetros, modelos lineares e curvilineares foram desenvolvidos, comparados entre si e com modelos obtidos por autores a temperaturas constantes. Os resultados mostraram que em condições de temperaturas variáveis a resistência implica em mudanças nos parâmetros biológicos (taxa de crescimento, mortalidade e razão sexual) e que o termoperíodo acelera o crescimento de larvas e pupas de carpocapsa. Com o auxílio dos modelos obtidos, foi realizada uma simulação do período de desenvolvimento de C. pomonella utilizando... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: The majority living organisms are ectotherms except birds and mammals. The body temperature (Tb) of an ectotherm results from the energy balance between this the organisms and its environment. The Tb determines most of the biological functions. For instance, a minimum of heat accumulation by insects is needed to pass from a development stage to another during their life cycle. For insect pests, most of phenological models are based on life history trait (e.g., growth) and air temperature. Unfortunately, the use of phenological models is limited since there is a lack of accuracy estimatives in maximum and minimum temperatures. The aim this work was to study the importance of two factors ((i) the insecticide resistance, (ii) the thermoperiod) and the modelling methods to design a phenological model for the the endophyte insect Cydia pomonella. Four strains of C. pomonella: (i) Sv (susceptible strain), (ii) Rdfb (resistant to diflubenzuron), (iii) RD (resistant to deltamethrin), RGv (resistant to C. pomonella granulovirus) and 4 thermoperiods (15°C-20°C, 20°C-25°C, 25°C-30°C e 30°C-35°C) were used. Measured parameters were the development rate, the mortality, the sex ratio, the Toptm, Tmin and Tmax of the development rate. Based on the obtained values for each parameter, linear and curvilinear phenological models were made and compared between them and with those obtained at constant temperature by some authors. Thus, in fluctuating thermal conditions, it was shown that insecticide resistance involved aftereffects on life-history traits as the development rate, the mortality and sex ratio. Also, it was shown that the C. pomonella development rate at larval stage is higher in thermoperiodic conditions. With the models the development of C. pomonella was simulated using air and micro-habitat temperatures for two areas of apple orchards in Europe (e.g., Valais in Switzerland and la Drôme...(Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Orientador: Odair Aparecido Fernandes
Coorientador: Marc Saudreau
Coorientador: David G.Biron
Coorientador: Hervé Sinoquet
Banca: Benoit Sauphanor
Banca: Mario Eidi Sato
Banca: Nilza Maria Martinelli
Banca: Sergio Antonio de Bortoli
Doutor

Tesis para optar al grado de Magister en Ciencias Agropecuarias
Proeulia auraria, una especie nativa de Chile, causa daños en vides, arándanos, manzanos y perales, entre otros, y tiene estatus cuarentenario. El desarrollo de controles alternativos de esta plaga es de gran importancia en el manejo agrícola sustentable del país. La identificación de la feromona sexual de P. auraria, en el 2014, permitirá evaluar nuevos controles alternativos, pero antes se debe disponer de una línea base conductual. Para ello se caracterizó el comportamiento sexual de P. auraria y su grado de estereotipia. En laboratorio, se determinó el horario en que ocurre la conducta de llamado (05:00 y 07:00 h, n = 55 secuencias). Para evaluar las respuestas de los machos se hicieron ensayos en laboratorio y campo y se obtuvieron secuencias de vuelo de 22 individuos. Para el cortejo, se obtuvieron 8 parejas de individuos, con 5 cortejos exitosos. Estas secuencias se analizaron ya sea con la prueba de Chi-cuadrado o con la prueba Exacta de Fischer, lo que indicó que cada paso conductual depende del paso inmediatamente anterior y que las transiciones entre secuencias de pasos fueron estereotipadas. Este estudio ayudará al desarrollo de nuevas técnicas de control para esta plaga, basadas en la modificación de su conducta sexual.
Proeulia auraria, a native species from Chile, causes damage to vineyards, blueberries, apple trees, pear trees, among others, and has quarantine status. The development of alternative controls for this pest is very important to the sustainable agricultural management of the country. The identification of the sexual pheromone of P. auraria, in 2014, will allow to evaluate new alternative controls, but before there must be a based behavioral line. For that, it was characterized the sexual behavior of P. auraria and its stereotype grade. In laboratory assays, the time in which calling behavior occurs was characterized (05:00 – 07:00 h) from a total of 55 sequences. To evaluate male responses, field and laboratory assays were performed and the flight sequences from 22 males were obtained. For courtship, eight pairs of individuals who courted were obtained, of which 5 were successful. These sequences were analyzed with Chi-square or Fisher’s Exact tests, indicating that each behavioural step depends on the immediately preceding step and that transitions among step sequences were stereotyped. This study will support the development of new control techniques for this pest, based on modifying their sexual behavior.

Com o objetivo de avaliar o potencial de utilização de espécies/linhagens de Trichogramma como mais um componente do manejo de Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima, 1927), importante praga da citricultura paulista, foram realizadas avaliações biológicas envolvendo seleção de linhagens, biologia em diferentes temperaturas, exigências térmicas, capacidade de parasitismo e número de ideal de parasitóides a ser liberado por ovo da praga. A seleção de linhagens/espécies de Trichogramma é básica para o controle de E. aurantiana, pois ocorreu uma grande variação no parasitismo de ovos da praga dentre os vários materiais biológicos estudados. A razão sexual das espécies/linhagens não foi afetada pela temperatura na faixa de 18 a 32ºC, sendo a temperatura de 25ºC a mais adequada para as espécies/linhagens estudadas. A duração do período ovo-adulto de T. atopovirilia Oatman & Platner, 1983 e de T. pretiosum Riley, 1879 foi inversamente relacionada como aumento da temperatura, na faixa térmica de 18 a 32ºC, sendo as exigências térmicas dessas espécies muito próximas, em torno de 108 GD. O hospedeiro de criação natural, E. aurantiana ou o alternativo, Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller, 1879) não afetaram o parasitismo das espécies/linhagens selecionadas. Em laboratório, obteve-se maior parasitismo expondo-se 30 ovos de E. aurantiana por fêmea de Trichogramma spp. durante 34 horas. As maiores taxas de parasitismo de ovos de bicho-furão para as duas espécies/linhagens ocorreram quando os parasitóides foram provenientes de ovos de E. aurantiana. A proporção estimada de 36 parasitóides por ovo de E. aurantiana possibilitou a maior porcentagem de parasitismo por T. pretiosum. Os resultados obtidos indicaram que os parasitóides de ovos do gênero Trichogramma apresentam potencial de controle de E. aurantiana, desde que liberados em grandes quantidades por unidade de área e em torno das plantas.
In order to evaluate the potential of use of Trichogramma species/strains as an additional component in the management of Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima, 1927), an important pest of Citrus in the state of São Paulo, biological trials were carried out involving strain selection, biology at different temperatures, thermal requirements, parasitism capacity and optimal number of parasitoids to be released per pest egg. The selection of Trichogramma strains/species is basic to control E. aurantiana for the egg parasitism of the pest varied greatly among several biological materials studied. The sex ratio of the species/strains was not affected by the temperature at a 18-32ºC range, and 25ºC was the more suitable temperature for the species/strains studied. The duration of the egg-adult period of T. atopovirilia Oatman & Platner, 1983 and T. pretiosum Riley, 1879 was inversely related to the increased temperature at a thermal range of 18-32ºC, and the thermal requirements of these species are very close, ranging 108 DD (degree days). Neither the natural rearing host, E. aurantiana, nor the factitious host, Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller, 1879) affected the parasitism of the selected species/strains. The proportion of 30 eggs of E. aurantiana per Trichogramma spp. female provided a higher parasistism rate, with eggs exposed to the parasitoid for 34 hours. The higher parasitism rates of the eggs of citrus fruit borer for the two species/strains occurred when the parasitoids were reared on eggs of E. aurantiana. The estimated ratio of 36 parasitoids per egg of E. aurantiana allowed a higher parasitism percentage of T. pretiosum. The results achieved showed that the egg parasitoids of Trichogramma have a potential to control E. aurantiana provided that they are released in large amounts per area unit and surrounding the plants.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo comparar três métodos de amostragem de adultos do bicho-furão, quais sejam: 1) monitoramento com armadilhas de feromônio sexual; 2) monitoramento do inseto criado no campo em dietas artificiais; 3) previsão baseada em exigências térmicas do inseto. Para complementar tal pesquisa, que visa facilitar o manejo e o controle da praga, foram estudados o nível de controle para o método utilizando-se feromônio sexual e o efeito de agroquímicos sobre a fase adulta do inseto com base no monitoramento mais adequado. Os três métodos de monitoramento de Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima, 1927) mostraram eficiência para serem utilizados em condições de campo. O método de monitoramento do bicho-furão por meio de feromônio sexual foi o que exigiu menor mão-de-obra. O método de monitoramento através de exigências térmicas foi aplicável no verão, exigindo fatores de correção para as demais estações do ano. O nível de controle, determinado para o monitoramento com feromônio sexual, foi de 4 a 6 adultos/semana; a partir destes números, as perdas foram maiores a despeito do maior número de aplicações de produtos químicos. Como o tempo de penetração da lagarta do bicho-furão foi rápido (100% em 24 h), com cerca de 42,9% atingindo a polpa em 72 h, torna-se difícil o controle do inseto nesta fase através de produtos químicos ou biológicos. A alta mortalidade larval do bicho-furão durante a penetração no fruto, pode mascarar os resultados de avaliação da eficiência de controle com produtos químicos ou biológicos. O piretróide bifentrine foi eficiente no controle de adultos de E. aurantiana, desde que adicionado a óleo mineral.
The goal of this work was to compare three sampling methods for adult citrus fruit borer, as follows: 1) monitoring with sexual pheromone traps; 2) monitoring of insects reared under artificial diets in the field; 3) Forecasting based on the thermal requirements of the insect. In order to complete this research, which is intended for an easier pest management and control, one studied the control level for the method with sexual pheromone and the effects of agrochemicals on the adult stage of the insect based on the more suitable monitoring. All three methods of Ecdytolopha aurantiana (Lima, 1927) monitoring were efficient under field conditions. The citrus fruit borer monitoring method by means of sexual pheromone was the least laborious one. The monitoring method through thermal requirements was applicable in the summer, requiring correction factors in the remaining seasons of the year. The control level as determined for the sexual pheromone monitoring was 4 to 6 adults/week; following these figures, the losses were greater despite the higher amount of chemicals application. Since the penetration time of the citrus fruit borer was brief (100% in 24h), with approximately 42.9% reaching the pulp in 72h, it is difficult to control the insect at this stage through chemical or biological products. The high larval mortality of the citrus fruit borer during fruit penetration can conceal the results of the control efficiency evaluation with chemical or biological products. Pyrethroid bifenthrin was efficient to control adult E. aurantiana provided that mineral oil was added.

A mariposa-oriental, Grapholita molesta (Lep.: Tortricidae), se destaca como uma das principais pragas das culturas de rosáceas no Brasil. Durante a alimentação, as lagartas fazem galerias em brotos, ramos e frutos, prejudicando a produção comercial destes. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a influência de voláteis de plantas hospedeiras e de fatores fisiológicos dos insetos na percepção química e no comportamento quimiotáxico da espécie, visando à otimização do monitoramento e do controle comportamental da praga. Foram avaliadas as respostas eletroantenográficas (EAG) e quimiotáxicas (olfatometria) de machos ao feromônio sexual sintético em diferentes idades, virgens e não virgens, e alimentados ou em jejum. No estudo da interação dos insetos com os voláteis de planta, foram elaborados extratos de broto, fruto verde e fruto maduro de macieira (Malus domestica, var. Gala) e pessegueiro (Prunus persicae, var. Chiripá), utilizados como estímulo sobre ambos os sexos, alimentados ou não, em EAG. O comportamento quimiotáxico em resposta ao extrato de broto de pessegueiro (EBP) foi observado em fêmeas e machos virgens e fêmeas não virgens. O efeito da interação entre o feromônio e os voláteis de planta hospedeira foi avaliado em machos. As respostas eletroantenográficas, em machos, não diferiram significativamente para os todos os fatores avaliados. No entanto, o comportamento quimiotáxico dos machos parece diminuir com o avanço da idade, sem variar em função do status de cópula ou da alimentação. A percepção eletrofisiológica de machos e fêmeas aos voláteis de planta não variou com a condição alimentar. Para ambos os sexos, o extrato de broto de pessegueiro foi o que gerou as maiores respostas eletrofisiológicas. O comportamento quimiotáxico ao EBP tende a ser maior em fêmeas não virgens. Na percepção eletrofisiológica houve efeito aditivo entre o atraente sexual e o EBP em antenas de machos. No entanto, os resultados comportamentais não corroboraram o observado em eletroantenografia. O conhecimento da interferência destes fatores em G. molesta, poderá auxiliar na interpretação dos resultados provenientes do campo, possibilitando maior adequação e confiabilidade na utilização do controle comportamental com o uso de infoquímicos.
The oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Lep.: Tortricidae), stands out as one of the most important pest in Rosaceae orchards in Brazil. During feeding, caterpillars bore into shoots, branches and fruits, impairing the commercial production. This work aimed to study the influence of the host plant volatiles and physiological factors in the chemical perception and in the species chemotactic behavior, seeking to optimize monitoring and the behavioral control of this pest. Were evaluated male electroantennographical (EAG) and chemotactical (olfactometry) responses to the synthetic sexual pheromone in different ages, virgins or mated and fed or unfed. In the study of insect interaction with plant volatiles, were elaborated extracts of shoots and of ripe and unripe fruits of apple trees (Malus domestica, Gala cv.) and peach trees (Prunus persicae, Chiripá cv.), employed as stimuli upon both sexes, fed or not, in EAG. The chemotactical behavior in response to the peach tree shoots (PSE) extract was observed in virgins females and males, and mated females. The effect of interaction between pheromone and the host plant volatiles was evaluated for males. The electroantennographical responses of males did not differed significantly for all physiological evaluated factors. Nevertheless, the chemotactical behavior of males seems to decrease with ageing, not varying as a function of mating or feeding conditions. The electrophysiological perception of males and females to the plant volatiles did not varied with feeding status. For both sexes, peach tree shoot extract was the one that elicited the stronger electrophysiological responses. The chemotactical behavior to PS shows a tendency to be higher in mated females. In the electrophysiological perception, was noticed an additive effect between the sexual attractant and the PSE in males antennae. However, the behavioral results did not corroborate those obtained by electroantennography. The knowledge about the interference of these factors in G. molesta, may help to interpret the field results, allowing a better adequation and reliability of infochemicals in the behavioral control.

A mariposa-oriental, Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) é uma das principais pragas associadas às culturas da macieira e do pessegueiro na região sul do Brasil. Para o controle desta praga são utilizados, principalmente, inseticidas químicos. O emprego de feromônios sexuais para o monitoramento e controle de G. molesta, representa uma alternativa, entretanto existem lacunas de conhecimento que poderiam tornar a sua aplicação mais eficiente. Este trabalho teve como objetivos determinar o raio de ação do feromônio sexual ISCAlure Grafolita® em armadilhas Delta, em pomares de pessegueiro e avaliar o produto Splat Cida Grafo Bona® (SCGB) em relação à mortalidade por contato, à percepção eletroantenográfica e à quimiotaxia (túnel de vento), em machos de G. molesta. Para determinar a distância de alcance do feromônio em armadilhas Delta, machos de G. molesta marcados foram liberados a diferentes distâncias das armadilhas e o percentual de captura observado. Nos experimentos que avaliaram a mortalidade, a percepção eletroantenográfica e a quimiotaxia, o produto SCGB foi utilizado fresco e exposto por 30, 60 e 90 dias a condições ambientais não controladas. A mortalidade de machos de G. molesta foi registrada colocando os indivíduos em contato com estes tratamentos. As respostas eletroantenográficas foram obtidas expondo antenas de machos aos mesmos tratamentos e ao inerte da pasta. A quimiotaxia foi observada em túnel de vento e além desses tratamentos, machos também foram expostos a fêmeas virgens. O feromônio sexual contido nas armadilhas para monitoramento de G. molesta, em pomares de pessegueiro, atraiu mais machos a distâncias de até 200 m tendo uma área de cobertura de 12,56 ha; a mortalidade de adultos em contato com o SCGB foi similar entre os indivíduos submetidos a pastas com até 60 dias de exposição; a percepção eletroantenográfica ao produto SCGB não variou entre os tratamentos e a quimiotaxia foi maior quando os machos de G. molesta foram expostos a fêmeas virgens e ao produto SCGB que permaneceu no ambiente por 90 dias.
The oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) is a major pest of crops associated with apple and peach orchards in southern Brazil. In order to control this insect, it is used, mainly, chemical insecticides. Sex pheromones for monitoring and control of G. molesta, is an alternative, however there are gaps in knowledge that could make its application more efficient. This work aimed to determine the action range of the sex pheromone ISCAlure Grafolita® in Delta traps in peach orchards and evaluate the Splat Cida Grafo Bona® (SCGB) in relation to mortality (contact), electroantennographic perception and chemotaxis (wind tunnel) to male G. molesta. Marked G. molesta males were released to different traps distances and the percentage of capture was observed. To evaluate the mortality, the electroantennographic perception and the chemotaxis, fresh and exposed SCGB for 30, 60 and 90 days, were used. Mortality of male G. molesta was recorded placing individuals in contact with these treatments. The electrophysiological responses were obtained from male antennae exposed to the same treatments and to the inert emulsion. In the wind tunnel bioassays males were also exposed to virgin females. The sex pheromone traps attracted more males at distances up to 200 m with a range area of 12.56 ha; the mortality of adults in contact with SCGB was similar among individuals submitted to the emulsion, with up to 60 days of exposure; the electroantennographic perception to the product SCGB did not vary among treatments. Chemotaxis was greater when males G. molesta were exposed to virgin females and SCGB product exposed to the environment for 90 days.

Uma das principais pragas de pomares de Rosaceas na região sul do Brasil é a mariposa-oriental (MO), Grapholita molesta, (Busck, 1916) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae). Para o controle deste inseto são utilizados, principalmente, inseticidas, sendo os feromônios uma alternativa para o seu manejo. Dentro deste contexto, feromônios e inseticidas nano formulados podem potencializar o uso destas ferramentas em agroecossitemas. Sendo assim, os objetivos deste trabalho foram: a) avaliar via cromatografia gasosa (CG), a taxa de liberação de (Z)-8-acetato de dodecenila (composto feromonal majoritário) impregnado em nanofibras de policaprolactona (PCL) e polietilenoglicol (PEG) (1:1); b) observar as respostas eletrofisiológicas (EAG) de machos de MO frente às nanofibras contendo feromônio sexual específico; c) testar a atratividade de nanofibras com feromônio na captura de MO a campo e d) registrar a mortalidade por contato e a percepção eletroantenográfica de machos de MO em relação a formulação de nanofibras confeccionadas com feromônio sexual e o inseticida Nortox 250 CE (cipermetrina). Em todos os bioensaios de laboratório foram avaliadas nanofibras novas e expostas ao ambiente. Nos testes (EAG) foi avaliada a percepção de machos a nanofibras com 0,01 e 0,001% de feromônio, assim como, a formulação comercial ISCAlure®Grafolita; nanofibras com feromônio e 125mg.L-1 de cipermetrina; somente com inseticida e ao controle (sem ambos). Os experimentos de campo foram realizados em pomares de pessegueiro e ameixeira em duas safras consecutivas (2014 e 2015). Na primeira, foram avaliadas a formulação (PCL/PEG) contendo feromônio em diferentes proporções (0,01; 0,1 e 1%), além de armadilhas com fêmeas virgens. Em 2015, foram utilizadas nanofibras com 0,01 e 0,001% de feromônio e estas comparadas com a formulação comercial e o controle (sem feromônio). Ambos os experimentos de campo foram conduzidos ao longo de dez semanas. Para avaliar a mortalidade, foram realizados testes de contato e de gaiola, com nanofibras contendo 0,01% (0,87mg.L-1) de feromônio e 125mg.L-1 de cipermetrina. Nas análises em GC foi possível constatar que as taxas de liberação das nanofibras, não variaram entre 21 e 42 dias, no entanto houve uma diminuição na presença do feromônio após os 63, para ambos os tratamentos (0,01 e 0,001%). As respostas eletroantenográficas foram estatisticamente iguais entre os tratamentos contendo 0,01, 0,001% e o septo comercial de feromônio. Também não houve diferenças na percepção entre nanofibras com e sem inseticida. Em 2014 as maiores capturas foram em armadilhas iscadas com 0,01% de feromônio. No ano seguinte, este mesmo tratamento somente atraiu mais insetos nas primeiras cinco semanas, sendo o septo comercial o mais atrativo da sexta a décima. Nos bioensaios de contato tarsal, a mortalidade foi maior do que 87%, após a exposição de 84 dias e variou 28,33 a 56,67% nos testes de atrai-e-mata.
One of the main pests of rosacea orchards in southern Brazil is the oriental-fruit-moth Grapholita molesta (MO) (Busck, 1916) (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae). To control this insect insecticides are used mainly, pheromones are an alternative to their management. Within this context, pheromones and insecticides nanoformulations can enhance the use of these tools in agroecosystems. Thus, the objectives of this study were: a) to evaluate by gas chromatography (GC), the release rate of (Z) -8-dodecenyl acetate (majority pheromone compound) contained in polycaprolactone (PCL) and polyethyleneglycol (PEG) nanofibers (1:1); b) observe the Electroantenographical (EAG) responses of MO males front of nanofibers containing specific sex pheromone; c) testing the attractiveness of pheromone nanofibers in the capture G. molesta in field; d) record mortality by contact and EAG perception MO males compared to nanofibers formulation made with sex pheromone and insecticide Nortox 250 EC (cypermethrin). In all the laboratory bioassays were evaluated nanofibers new and exposed to the environment. In EAG tests the perception of males to nanofibers with 0.01 and 0.001% pheromone, as well as the commercial formulation ISCAlure®Grafolita was evaluated; nanofibers with pheromone and cypermethrin 125mg.L-1; only with insecticide and control (without both). Field experiments were conducted in peach and plum orchards in two consecutive seasons (2014 and 2015). At the first, the formulations (PCL / PEG) containing pheromone in different ratios (0.01, 0.1 and 1%), and traps with virgin females was evaluated. In 2015, nanofibers with 0.01 and 0.001% of pheromone were used and compared with the commercial formulation and control (without pheromone). Both field experiments were conducted over ten weeks. To assess mortality, contact and cage tests were performed using nanofiber whit 0.01% (0.87mg.L-1) pheromone and 125mg.L-1 cypermethrin. In the analysis in GC was possible to notice that the release rates of pheromone, did not vary between 21 and 42 days, however there was a decrease in pheromone presence after 63 for both treatments (0.01 and 0.001%). EAG responses were statistically similar between treatments containing 0.01, 0.001% and the commercial septum. There were also no differences in perception between the nanofibers with and without insecticide. In 2014 the largest catches were in traps baited with pheromone 0.01%. In the following year, the same treatment only attracted more insects in the first five weeks, and the commercial septum was most attractive from the sixth to tenth. Mortality in tarsal-contact tests was greater than 87%, after 84 days exposure and ranged from 28.33 to 56.67% in attract-and-kill bioassays.

The entire thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file; a non-technical public abstract appears in the public.pdf file. Title from PDF of title page (University of Missouri--Columbia, viewed on September 22, 2009). Thesis advisor: Dr. Bruce Barrett. Includes bibliographical references.

The study examined the larval parasitoids of Cryptophlebia leucotreta (Meyrick) on citrus in South Africa and aimed to improve the existing rearing techniques of C. leucotreta with a view to mass rearing of biological control agents. The biological characteristics of Agathis bishopi Nixon (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) were studied, with an emphasis on parasitism rates in the field, host stage preference, developmental rate, life span and offspring sex ratios. Two larval parasitoids, A. bishopi and Apophua leucotretae (Wilkinson) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), and an egg parasitoid, Trichogrammatoidea cryptophlebiae Nagaraja (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), were recorded on C. leucotreta on citrus. A. bishopi was the more abundant of the larval parasitoids and exhibited density dependent parasitism. The highest parasitism rates were observed in December with up to 38% in Sundays River Valley and 34% in Gamtoos River Valley, at a time when the highest false codling moth infestations were observed. Agathis bishopi was recorded only in the Eastern Cape Province. The sex ratio of A. bishopi was biased towards females throughout the study (77% in Gamtoos River Valley and 72% in Sundays River Valley). Agathis bishopi is a solitary, koinobiont, larval-pupal endoparasitoid. The species showed a preference for 1st and 2"d instar hosts. Females regulate the sex of their progeny according to the size and larval stage of the host, ovipositing unfertilised eggs in younger, smaller larvae (1st instars) and fertilised eggs in older, larger larvae (2nd instars). The developmental rate of A. bishopi is in synchrony with that of the moth and adults emerge when adult moths that have escaped parasitism emerge. Agathis bishopi and T. cryptophlebiae compliment each other because they have different niches and strategies of attack. Integrating A. bishopi and T. cryptophlebiae into the management of citrus orchards has potential to suppress false codling moth. Larger rearing containers seemed ideal for large-scale rearing of false codling moth. A higher percentage of adults was obtained from larvae reared in larger containers than in smaller ones. The width of the sponges used as stoppers prevented escape of the larvae. Media prepared in larger containers are easier and simpler to prepare than in smaller ones, thus eliminating many precautions otherwise necessary to prevent contamination. Moth production was greatly reduced by the high concentration of Sporekill used for egg decontamination.

The false codling moth (FCM), Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is an important pest of citrus in South Africa and challenging to manage due to its inconspicuous nature. An effective method currently being employed for the area-wide suppression of the FCM is the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) and the effective dispersal of sterile moths is very important for success with SIT. This study was conducted in the Addo area of the Sundays River Valley (Eastern Cape) where the programme is commercially used. In this study, sterile male moths were released in different orchards on a citrus farm, and in nearby veld at different times of the year, and their dispersal was monitored through the use of pheromone traps. Various climatic factors were monitored. This provided insight into the local dispersal of sterile male FCM adults in response to abiotic cues (particularly climatic factors). The movement of the FCM in four citrus cultivars, namely lemons, navel and Valencia oranges and mandarins and in the nearby veld (open field), was determined at six different stages of the year. Results clearly indicated that sterile FCM movement is concentrated within citrus orchards, as very few moths were trapped beyond 30 m from the release point, particularly in navel and Valencia orchards. Of the climatic factors measured, minimum and maximum temperatures had the most significant influence on FCM dispersal, and based on the results, various recommendations are made for the releases of sterile FCM in an area-wide SIT management programmes on citrus. A better understanding of the dispersal capabilities of the FCM in an agricultural system, under different conditions and at different times of the year, is invaluable not only in improving release strategies in an SIT programme but in planning future control strategies against the FCM.

In South Africa macadamia nuts are attacked by a variety of mostly indigenous pests which can be divided into two basic complexes, namely a nut borer complex (consisting of 3 tortricid moths.) and a stink bug (Heteroptera) complex consisting of approximately 35 insect species. The Heteroptera complex causes approximately 60% damage in unsprayed orchards and the estimated annual heteropteran induced crop loss could be as high as R24 million. Gravid female tortricid moths could discriminate between various cultivars and significant differences regarding oviposition on the 17 macadamia cultivars that were evaluated became apparent. Incidence of larval damage early in the season was negligible and this complex may therefore largely be regarded as pests of large (mature) nuts. Kernel distance (combined husk and shell thickness) and early maturing cultivars were probably not the primary determinants of resistance and the presence of toxic cyanogenic secondary metabolic compounds in the nuts should be investigated as a future research priority. Hybrid cultivars as well as cultivar 800 appeared to be more prone to tortricid damage while cultivars 788, 294 and 741 were significantly less damaged. There were also significant differences amongst immature nuts regarding susceptibility of various cultivars towards the Heteroptera complex. It was speculated that kernel distance is not the primary determinant of resistance because the kernel distance in immature nuts is not large enough to offer protection for any cultivar. Stink bug induced damage to immature nuts was the highest for the cultivars 800 and 863 while cultivars 741, 816 and 788 suffered the lowest incidence of damage. When the adult nuts were evaluated, cultivar 600 and 741 suffered the lowest Heteroptera induced kernel damage. The resistance mechanism is unclear at the moment but involve more than one parameter. When the effects of various control strategies (fixed interval spraying and IPM) were compared, IPM compliant farms (farms that monitored and sprayed according to threshold levels) did considerably better. These results were hardly surprising as fixed interval spraying entails spraying trees irrespective of the economic threshold level. Because damaged nuts generally do not drop early and cannot be distinguished from undamaged nuts, any damage resulting from a mistimed spray (spray after economic threshold level has been reached) must therefore be regarded as additive and will be reflected in the unsound kernel reports of processors. Increasing tree density had a important positive effect on tortricid (r2 = 0.821) and Heteroptera (r2 = 0.922) damage. An effective pruning programme is therefore an important prerequisite for high density macadamia orchards. Populations of both pest complexes were heterogeneously distributed throughout the orchard and will adversely affect the accuracy of scouting procedures based on knockdown sprays if the quantity of data trees during weekly sampling is insufficient. Two theories for the formation of hot spots exist and are briefly discussed. Tortricids cause an estimated crop loss of approximately R3 million annually in South Africa alone. Although a number of larvae can be found inside the nuts relatively soon after anthesis, the majority of early larval damage occurs from ± 14 weeks post anthesis onwards. Eggs and recently eclosed first instar larvae should therefore be more numerous during the ninth week post anthesis. This would also be the most important period when an insecticide with a contact action has to be applied (late November). Oviposition occurred when nuts reached a mean medial diameter of ± 20mm but this relationship is coincidental and is more related to the phenology of macadamia trees (end of premature nut drop). Control strategy (IPM vs. fixed interval spraying) had inconclusive results as the IPM compliant farms suffered severe infestations when compared to fixed interval sprayed farms, as well as the organic and unsprayed farms. The success of tortricid control probably pivots around the November insecticide application. Tortricid larvae feeding on the insides of the pericarp may contribute significantly towards immaturity because feeding damage invariably severs the vascular tissue connecting the developing nut to the plant. The relative seasonal occurrence of heteropteran damage indicates that levels gradually increase in spring and taper off during mid January. Exclusion trials in an unsprayed orchard confirmed this observation and the apparent reduction in damage during January could probably be ascribed to the hardening of the shell at the same time. The damage profile of Bathycoelia natalicola was calculated and indicated that mouthpart lengths of fourth and fifth instar nymphs are probably sufficient to penetrate kernels of the Beaumont cultivar up to harvest. Compensation for early crop damage was studied and where Heteroptera damage was artificially simulated by flower removal, the trees were able to compensate for early crop damage. Compensation for Heteroptera damage was confirmed when early sprays were withheld on a semi commercial field trial. Withholding early sprays had no effect on tortricids as the initial spray of this pest complex has to be applied during late November which coincided with spray applications on all three spraying regimes that were tested. Due to asynchronous flowering the first Heteroptera spray should probably be applied before the end of October each year.
Thesis (Ph.D. (Zoology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

A macieira é depreciada por muitos insetos, principalmente pela lagarta-enroladeira-da-macieira Bonagota salubricola (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Até o momento seu controle nos pomares comerciais é feito quase exclusivamente com inseticidas químicos. Alternativamente, este trabalho teve por objetivo verificar a mortalidade in vitro de larvas de segundo instar de B. salubricola frente a ação de isolados dos fungos Nomuraea, Beauveria e Metarhizium. Cada grupo foi tratado com suspensões de 2x105 a 2x109 con/mL, exceto para o grupo controle, tratado com solução Tween-80 0,1%. Também avaliou-se a sobrevivência pupal, expressão de proteases e a compatibilidade com inseticidas químicos. Uma das linhagens de Beauveria e as três de Metarhizium foram patogênicas a B. salubricola, sendo que os níveis de virulência aumentaram em função da concentração de conídios. A linhagem E6 de M. anisopliae destacou-se por proporcionar um controle de até 88% com TL50 de 1,66 dias; a maior virulência relacionou-se positivamente com o aumento da produção enzimática, sendo esta linhagem também compatível com tebufenozide. Esses resultados evidenciam o potencial dos fungos entomopatogênicos no controle de B. salubricola, visando sua aplicação principalmente nos pomares MIP.
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The apple tree is deprecated by many insects, especially by leaf-roller-apple Bonagota salubricola (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Its control in commercial orchards is done almost exclusively with chemical insecticides. Alternatively, this work aimed at the evaluation of the in vitro susceptibility of larvae of the second ínstar of Bonagota salubricola to isolates of Nomuraea, Beauveria and Metarhizium fungus. Each group was treated with suspensions ranged of 2x105 con/mL a 2x109 con/mL, except for the control group, treated with solution Tween-80 0.1%. Also was evaluated the pupal survival, expression of proteases and compatibility with chemical insecticides. One strain of Beauveria and three strain of Metarhizium were pathogenic to B. salubricola, and the levels of virulence increased depending of conidia concentration. The strain E6 of M. anisopliae stood out for marking a control up to 88% with LT50 of 1.66 days, the largest virulence related positively to the increased production enzyme, and this strain was also compatible with tebufenozide. Those results demonstrate the potential of entomopathogenic fungi in control of B. salubricola, principally on the orchards IPM.