Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Topsoil'

In co-operation with the Geological Survey of Norway, 395 samples of topsoil, 44 bedrock samples and 24 samples of sand from sandboxes at kindergartens taken in Oslo, the capital city of Norway, were analysed for a wide range of elements. To get a measure on the bio-availability of arsenic, a five stage sequential extraction procedure was accomplished on a subset of 98 topsoil samples and on all 24 samples of sand from sandboxes. These fractions (i.e. “Exchangeable”, “Carbonate”, “Reducible substrate”, “Organic” and “Residual”) were analysed for arsenic. Bulk concentrations in a representative subset of 10 bedrock samples were determined by XRF analysis.

For the concentrations of the elements As, B, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pb and Zn in soil, geologic sources are important, but human activity has had a large effect on concentrations in topsoil, especially in the central districts. At least 81% of the samples contain more arsenic than the Norm value for polluted soil used by the Norwegian authorities. For chromium, zinc and lead, the percentages are 65, 74 and 25 respectively. In topsoil, up to 50% of the arsenic is extractable in the exchangeable, the carbonate and the reducible substrate fractions, but only 2% of the samples exceeded the Norm value after the three extraction stages. After four stages of extraction, 69% of the samples exceeded the Norm value.

At 24 kindergartens in the central districts of Oslo, concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in topsoil samples are higher than in samples of sand from sandpits, but differences in arsenic are low. All topsoil samples and 63% of the sandbox samples exceed the arsenic Norm value for polluted soil used by the Norwegian authorities. Concentrations of at least one of the elements Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn exceed the Norm value in the topsoil. At two kindergartens all elements, except Cd, exceed the Norm value in the topsoil.

In the samples from the sandboxes, arsenic concentrations in the exchangeable, the carbonate and the reducible substrate fractions, lie at a higher level than in topsoil samples. Leakage of arsenic compounds from impregnated and painted wood have probably caused elevated concentrations of this element in the sand. At two kindergartens the cumulative arsenic content in samples from the sandboxes exceeds the Norm value of 2 mg/kg As for polluted soil already after two fractions (i.e. the “Exchangeable” and the “Carbonate” fraction). After three fractions, the arsenic content in sand at 5 kindergartens exceeds this value. After four fractions this number was still 5. Regarding soil, no kindergartens had a cumulative arsenic content after three stages of the extraction procedure. After four stages 16 kindergartens contained more arsenic than the Norwegian Norm value of 2 mg/kg As.

Bulk concentrations of metals, in the bedrock samples, are generally higher than the acid soluble concentrations. Differences are small for copper and zinc, somewhat higher for lead and nickel and considerably different for chromium. Acid soluble chromium concentrations in soil differ little when compared with acid soluble concentrations in bedrock, but are in general much lower than bulk concentrations in rock. Chromium is probably strongly incorporated in the mineral structure of rock samples and concentrated HNO3 cannot solubilize all chromium molecules. For copper, lead and zinc, the acid soluble concentrations in soil are higher than the bulk concentrations in bedrock. The parent rock material cannot be the only source for these elements in soils and various anthropogenic sources dispersed by air or water probably have major influence.

The enrichment of nickel in topsoil near highways in Oslo might be due to the bitumen content of road dust. The enrichment of chromium and copper might be due to wear and tear of cars and engine parts. There is no enrichment of cadmium and zinc in topsoil near highways. Concentrations of zinc in topsoil in Oslo are generally high, most probably because of industry. The possible addition of zinc from traffic to the topsoil is not observed, in this study.

Agricultural land available for habitat creation and restoration is of higher soil nutrient status than semi-natural habitats. This causes problems by favouring the growth of competitive species which thrive at the expense of a more diverse plant community. The depleted seed bank of ex-arable land means that target species are unlikely to be present. Even when the site is adjacent to target habitat, natural colonisation will be slow, meaning target species will need to be introduced artificially. This thesis researches the use of topsoil inversion followed by sowing a simple seed mix, as a means of improving habitat creation in comparison to conventional techniques. This was achieved by establishing a main experimental site, and surveying fifteen existing topsoil inversion sites.

Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon that can be found everywhere and that can origin from the far-away Universe, from the atmosphere, from Earth and even from our body. It consists in the stabilization of nucleus through the emission of particles and energy. Gammas photons have higher penetration power respect to the other common radiations, characteristics that makes them ideal to perform proximal and remote sensing and investigating cosmic, atmospheric and terrestrial sources of radioactivity. Using this peculiarity of gamma spectroscopy during my PhD I studied cosmic rays and 222Rn in lower atmosphere, the 214Pb in rainwater and the water content in topsoil. The results of this research are contained in 6 publications, 5 already published and 1 submitted to scientific peer-reviewed journals. There are several scientific motivations for this research. 222Rn monitoring has application in pollution studies and in the study of the diurnal mixing in lower atmosphere and 214Pb rain induced activity represents a source of background for in-situ non-stop monitoring detector. Moreover, the real-time and non-disruptive measurement of soil water content with gamma-ray spectroscopy can be exploited in the field of precision agriculture and improve the irrigation programs. With the purpose to study the cosmic rays and atmospheric 222Rn, I analyzed 4 specific flights over the sea (which shields the terrestrial radiation). An integration of the count rates in the [3-7] MeV range allowed to calibrate the airborne gamma-ray spectroscopy detector for the cosmic effective dose to the human population. The atmospheric 222Rn concentration is modelized with a two-layers vertical distribution. The 222Rn concentration in atmosphere has been estimated to (0.96 ± 0.07) Bq/m3 up to (1318 ± 22) m. A 7-months in-situ proximal gamma-ray spectroscopy experiment has been performed by installing a 1L NaI(Tl) detector and a meteorological station in an agricultural test field. This experiment permitted to acquire continuously and simultaneously environmental gamma activity and the rain amount time series. A rain-induced 214Pb and 214Bi gamma activity increase has been observed since these gamma emitters are collected by aerosol. I developed a model describing the temporal evolution of the 214Pb gamma activity in correspondence with rainfalls. Such a model demonstrates the capability of gamma-ray spectroscopy to discriminate irrigated from precipitated water and to estimate the 214Pb abundance in rainwater in function with rain intensity. The 214Pb gamma rain-induced activity model reconstruct perfectly the experimental count rate over the rain episode period. There is an inverse proportionality between soil moisture and the 40K gamma signal that could be exploited for assessing the water content in topsoil of an area of 0.2 ha in real-time for the whole data-taking period, provided that a non-constant correction due to the presence of growing vegetation is taken into account. The soil water contents from gamma and gravimetric measurements are in excellent agreement, compatible at 1σ level.
La radioattività è un fenomeno naturale che può essere trovato ovunque e che può avere origine dalle parti remote dell’universo, dall’atmosfera, dalla Terra e persino dal nostro corpo. Consiste della stabilizzazione di un nucleo attraverso l’emissione di particelle ed energia. I fotoni gamma hanno un potere di penetrazione più alto rispetto alle altre radiazioni comuni, caratteristica che li rende ideale per effettuare rilevamento da remoto o di prossimità e investigare le sorgenti di radioattività cosmiche, atmosferiche e terrestri. Usando questa peculiarità della spettroscopia gamma durante il mio dottorato ho studiato i raggi cosmici e il 222Rn nella bassa atmosfera, il 214Pb nell’acqua piovana e il contenuto d’acqua nel suolo superiore. I risultati di questa ricerca sono contenuti in 6 pubblicazioni, 5 già pubblicate e 1 sottomessa a riviste scientifiche peer-reviewed. Ci sono molte motivazioni scientifiche per questa ricerca. Il monitoraggio del 222Rn ha applicazioni negli studi dell’inquinamento e del mixing diurno nella bassa atmosfera e l’attività del 214Pb indotta dalla pioggia rappresenta una fonte di background per detector in-situ di monitoraggio non-stop. Inoltre la misura in tempo reale non distruttiva del contenuto d’acqua nel suolo con la spettroscopia gamma può essere usata nel campo dell’agricoltura di precisione e può migliorare i programmi di irrigazione. Con lo scopo di studiare i raggi cosmici e il 222Rn atmosferico, ho analizzato 4 voli specifici sopra il mare (che scherma le radiazioni terrestri). La somma dei rate dei conteggi nell’intervallo [3-7] MeV ha permesso di calibrare il detector per la spettroscopia gamma airborne per la dose efficace dai raggi cosmici sulla popolazione umana. La concentrazione di 222Rn atmosferico è stata modellizzata con una distribuzione verticale a due strati. La concentrazione di 222Rn atmosferico è stata stimata essere (0.96 ± 0.07) Bq/m3 fino a un’altezza di (1318 ± 22) m. Un esperimento in-situ di spettroscopia gamma di prossimità durato 7 mesi è stato effettuato installando un detector NaI(Tl) di 1L e una stazione meteorologica in un campo agricolo. Questo esperimento ha permesso di acquisire continuamente e contemporaneamente l’attività gamma ambientale l’ammontare di pioggia caduta. Un aumento di attività gamma di 214Pb e 214Bi è stato osservato dal momento che questi emettitori gamma sono raccolti dagli aerosol atmosferici. Ho sviluppato un modello che descrive l’evoluzione temporale dell’attività gamma del 214Pb in corrispondenza degli episodi di pioggia. Questo modello dimostra la capacità della spettroscopia gamma di discriminare l’acqua piovana dalle irrigazioni e di stimare l’abbondanza di 214Pb nell’acqua piovana in funzione dell’intensità della pioggia. Il modello di attività gamma del 214Pb indotta dalla pioggia ricostruisce perfettamente il rate di conteggi nell’intervallo temporale dell’episodio di pioggia. C’è una proporzionalità inversa tra il contenuto d’acqua nel suolo e il segnale gamma del 40K che può essere sfruttata per stimare il contenuto d’acqua nel suolo superiore in un’area di circa 0.2 ettari in tempo reale per tutto il periodo di presa dati, a patto che una correzione non costante dovuta alla presenza di vegetazione in crescita sia tenuta in considerazione. I contenuti d’acqua stimati dalla spettroscopia gamma e dalle misure gravimetriche sono in accordo eccellente, compatibile al livello di 1σ.

Global change, increasing human population growth and urbanisation represent increasing pressures on biodiversity and ecosystem function. It is now widely recognised that conservation of existing natural fragments will not be sufficient to maintain extant biodiversity or meet conservation goals. Thus there is a major and rapidly expanding need for the practice of ecological restoration whereby degraded lands are managed to increase and maintain indigenous species. A soil seed bank germination experiment was conducted over a period of 13 weeks. This aimed to evaluate restoration values of topsoil transfer, by investigating soil seed bank similarity to standing vegetation, and exploring mechanisms to improve restoration outcomes on the Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia. This was experimentally designed to make comparisons between the soil seed bank pre and post-transfer, an aspect of topsoil transfer that has not been looked at previously. In addition sampling was conducted at two depths, with treated (smoke and heat) and non-treated trials. This study examined the similarity of the soil seed bank to standing vegetation, the effect of soil transfer, and the influence of soil spreading depth and fire related germination cues. Seventy-three per cent of germinants were found in the top 5 cm of natural (pre-transfer), soil transfer leading to mixing (no depth effect) and a reduction in germinant densities (-2472.00 germinants m-2). Treatment with germination cues (heat and smoke in concert) increased germinant densities by 1537.80 germinants m-2, however no increase in transferred soils was observed. Native annuals dominated species composition of transferred soils, contributing 68% of observed richness, with woody species only accounting for 9% overall. The similarity of the soil seed bank to the standing vegetation ranged from 15% to 19%, the higher similarity found when treatment was used. Overall topsoil transfer is a useful tool for restoration; however it must be used in conjunction with other methods, such as planting and direct seeding, to return a representative set of species to a site

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O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar dois tipos de topsoil, assim como maneiras de utiliza??o dos mesmos, ou como fonte de prop?gulos, nutrientes, microorganismos, mat?ria org?nica etc., na recupera??o de diferentes ?reas degradadas. Os experimentos foram desenvolvidos em ?reas pertencentes ? empresa de minera??o de ferro Anglo American, sediada no munic?pio de Concei??o do Mato Dentro, Minas Gerais, no entanto, como a empresa ainda est? em fase de instala??o, as ?reas cedidas n?o s?o degradadas pelo processo de extra??o do min?rio, sendo uma em pilha de est?ril e a outra em pastagem degradada. O trabalho foi organizado em cap?tulos, em que o primeiro apresenta uma revis?o bibliogr?fica sobre todos os temas envolvidos no estudo. O segundo cap?tulo apresenta a avalia??o da regenera??o natural e da cobertura do solo de uma pilha de est?ril no per?odo seco e chuvoso a partir da deposi??o a lan?o de topsoil proveniente de campo rupestre ferruginoso no munic?pio de Concei??o do Mato Dentro, Minas Gerais. E o terceiro cap?tulo apresenta abordagens para o uso de topsoil na recupera??o de uma pastagem degradada. Na ?rea do cap?tulo 2, foram instaladas, sistematicamente, 26 parcelas e uma parcela controle de 1 m?, foram caracterizados os atributos f?sicos e qu?micos dos substratos com e sem topsoil. Para identifica??o flor?stica, foram realizados dois invent?rios, um em julho de 2012 (in?cio da esta??o seca) e o outro em novembro de 2012 (in?cio da esta??o chuvosa). A cobertura do solo foi estimada, visualmente, por meio da porcentagem de cobertura viva, serrapilheira e solo exposto. Foram registrados 675 indiv?duos, sendo 201 contabilizados na primeira amostragem e 474 na segunda, totalizando 24 esp?cies identificadas pertencentes a 11 fam?lias e X indeterminadas. As fam?lias com maior n?mero de esp?cies foram: Asteraceae, com 26,92%, e Melastomataceae, com 15,38%. No entanto, as fam?lias que apresentaram maior o n?mero de indiv?duos foram Poaceae (33,33%) e Verbenaceae (28,85%) na esta??o seca e Poaceae (93,03%), Portulacaceae (68,16%) e Verbenaceae (35,82%) na esta??o chuvosa. Dentre os h?bitos encontrados, as herb?ceas se destacaram com 65,63% do total, seguidas pelas arbustivas 6,22%, subarbustivas 5,48% e arb?reas 1,18%. A cobertura viva aumentou 53%, a serrapilheira e o solo exposto diminu?ram 13 e 11%, respectivamente. J? no cap?tulo 3, foram estabelecidos 14 tratamentos com tr?s repeti??es implantados em 42 parcelas de 5 x 5 m numa ?rea, anteriormente, ocupada por pastagem. O experimento foi realizado em delineamento em blocos casualizados (DBC), em esquema fatorial (3 x 2 x 2) + 2. Os tratamentos foram compostos pela combina??o das origens do topsoil (est?gio inicial e est?gio m?dio), tr?s espessuras (10, 20 e 30 cm) e aus?ncia ou presen?a de sombrite de 70% com duas testemunhas adicionais (T1 e T2). Foi realizada a caracteriza??o f?sica, qu?mica e microbiol?gica do topsoil por meio de amostras coletadas na profundidade de 0-10 cm. Determinaram-se microorganismos por meio de an?lise de DNA, cobertura do solo e a flor?stica. Os resultados mostraram que o uso do topsoil melhorou, consideravelmente, a atividade microbiana atrav?s do carbono da biomassa e da amplifica??o de DNAs para grupos de bact?rias e fungos. A cobertura vegetal desenvolvida sobre os dois tipos de topsoil apresentou um total de 2929 indiv?duos de h?bitos herb?ceo, arbustivos e subarbustivos, identificadas 33 esp?cies em 11 fam?lias e uma morfoesp?cie. A fam?lia Asteraceae foi a que apresentou o maior n?mero de esp?cies (9), seguida de Fabaceae (6), Convolvulaceae e Malvaceae (4) e Solanaceae (3). J? o levantamento flor?stico do estrato arb?reo registrou 235 indiv?duos pertencentes a 21 esp?cies e 14 fam?lias e duas esp?cies sem identifica??o. A fam?lia com maior riqueza de esp?cies foi a Fabaceae (4), seguida da Rutaceae, Solanaceae, Myrtaceae e Asteraceae, no entanto, o maior n?mero de indiv?duos foi a Siparunaceae.
Disserta??o (Mestrado) ? Programa de P?s-Gradua??o em Ci?ncia Florestal, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, 2013.
ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to evaluate two types of topsoil, as well as ways to use them as a source of propagules, nutrients, microorganisms, organic matter etc., The recovery of degraded areas different. The experiments were conducted in areas belonging to the mining company Anglo American iron headquartered in the municipality of Concei??o do Mato Dentro, Minas Gerais, however, as the company is still in the installation phase, the assigned areas are not degraded by the process of extraction of ore, one in waste dump and the other in degraded pasture. The work was organized in chapters where the first presents a literature review on all subjects involved in the study. The second chapter presents the evaluation of natural regeneration and soil cover of a waste dump in the dry and wet deposition from the haul topsoil from ferruginous rocky fields in the municipality of Concei??o do Mato Dentro, Minas Gerais. The third chapter presents approaches to the use of topsoil in the recovery of a degraded pasture. In the area of Chapter 2 were systematically installed 26 plots and a control plot 1 square meter, we characterized the physical and chemical properties of the substrates with and without topsoil. For floristic identification were two surveys one in July 2012 (early dry season) and the other in November 2012 (rainy season). The ground cover was visually estimated by the percentage of live coverage, litter and exposed soil. We recorded 675 individuals being recorded in sample 201 and 474 in the second sample, a total of 24 identified species belonging to 11 families and a group of indeterminate. The families with the largest number of species were Asteraceae and Melastomataceae with 26.92% to 15.38%. However, households that had higher number of individuals were Poaceae (33.33%) and Verbenaceae (28.85%) in the dry season and Poaceae (93.03%), Portulaca (68.16%) and Verbenaceae ( 35.82%) in the rainy season. Among the habits found the herbaceous stood out with 65.63% of the total followed by shrub 6.22%, 5.48% and woody subshrubs 1.18%. The live coverage increased by 53%, the litter and exposed soil decreased by 13 and 11%, respectively. Already in chapter 3 were established 14 treatments with three replications implanted in 42 plots of 5 x 5 m in an area previously occupied by grasslands. The experiment was conducted in randomized block design (RBD), factorial (3x 2 x 2) + 2. The treatments consisted of combinations of sources of topsoil (early stage and middle stage), three thicknesses (10, 20 and 30 cm) and presence or absence of shading 70% with two additional witnesses (T1 and T2). We performed the physical, chemical and microbiological through the topsoil samples collected at a depth of 0-10 cm. Microorganisms was determined through DNA analysis, ground cover, and flora The results showed that the use of topsoil considerably improved microbial activity through carbon and biomass DNA amplification for groups of bacteria and fungi. The vegetation developed on the two types of topsoil had a total of 2929 individuals habits herbaceous, shrubby and subarbustivos, 33 species in 11 families and one morphospecies. The family Asteraceae was the one with the highest number of species (9), followed by Fabaceae (6), Convolvulaceae and Malvaceae (4) and Solanaceae (3). Already a floristic inventory of the tree stratum recorded 235 individuals belonging to 21 species and 14 families and two unidentified species. The family with the highest species richness was the Fabaceae (4), followed by Rutaceae, Solanaceae, Myrtaceae and Asteraceae, however, the largest number of individuals was Siparunaceae.

Magnetic survey has become increasingly important in locating and characterising sites of archaeological potential. Magnetometry and topsoil magnetic susceptibility are the principal methods employed. In recent years advances in the design of magnetometers have made their use almost universal, somewhat to the detriment of magnetic susceptibility survey. This is especially true when the efficacy of various geophysical methods in locating sites of archaeological potential is compared. Such direct comparisons are, however, open to serious question. When sealed below the soil archaeological features acquire a degree of permanence, and their relatively static nature allows them to be identified by magnetometer survey on morphological grounds. By contrast, soil is continuously exposed, and over a period of 'deep time' is subject to the vagaries of human activity. The soil itsc1fbecomcs an artefact and the information it contains at any given time need not be site - specific but extensive. The problem addressed here is that of the interpretation of such topsoil magnetic data. Through occupation, industry, and agriculture, communities have historically affected the nature and proportion of the iron minerals (mostly oxides) in the soil, which establishes its magnetic identity. The problems of identifying the cultural influences which impact on the magnetic signature are simplified here by introducing three separable dynamic agencies: viz. chemical, exotic (inclusion) and mechanical (intervention, or perturbation). The incorporation of exotic materials into the soil, and human mechanical perturbation, arc both capable of creating soil magnetic patterns without directly affecting the soil's natural minerals. A search of early agricultural literature has identified activity which aids the interpretation of otherwise enigmatic data. The results of over 200 surveys have been reviewed, and from them examples selected to illustrate the three dynamic models. The results confirm that magnetically enhances soils often indicate buries archaeology but also may have no underlying archaeological source, the historic information residing exclusively within the topsoil itself. Long-term dispersal of magnetic material within the topsoil is examined and seen to be related to both bioturbation and agricultural activity. Documentary evidence shows that historic enclosure, selective land-use, and ploughing have contributed to soil magnetic pattern formation. Far from being a poor relative of other prospecting methods, topsoil susceptibility has its own unique contribution to make. Information resides within, not only below the soil, and the full potential of the method has not yet been realised. Recently the idea of cultural soilscapes has emerged, an historical perspective gained from archaeological soil surveys increasingly aids an understanding of how soils have been utilised, exploited and, more recently, degraded.

This thesis examined the physical and chemical properties of soil mixes incorporating 25%, 50%, 75% and 88% waste rock and tested the influence of these properties on plant growth and development and early seedling growth. Results of the analysis indicate that increasing waste rock content causes an increase in soil salinity, a decline in soil water content but an improvement in soil water conservation. This study paves the way for efforts to optimise restoration practices.

A mineração causa graves impactos ambientais, sendo o solo um dos componentes do meio físico mais vulnerável durante a exploração das jazidas. O ciclo do N tem sido bastante estudado, entretanto, pouco se sabe sobre a trajetória de recuperação da sua ciclagem em florestas restauradas após a mineração de bauxita. O objetivo foi investigar de que maneira o processo de restauração florestal em área minerada para extração de bauxita interfere na ciclagem do nitrogênio no sistema solo-planta-serapilheira. Para tanto, foram mensurados nesses compartimentos a disponibilidade de N, suas razões N:P e a abundância natural do isótopo estável de N (?15N). As hipóteses propostas foram: \"A restauração florestal, conduzida pelo uso de técnicas de engenharia ecológica, plantio de espécies arbóreas nativas e adição de topsoil é suficiente para aumentar a disponibilidade de N no ecossistema\", e \"Áreas mineradas em processo de restauração florestal, com o avanço da sucessão ecológica, podem desenvolver uma dinâmica na ciclagem de N próxima ao ecossistema de referência, apresentando valores de concentrações desse nutriente nos seus compartimentos (solo-planta-serapilheira) semelhantes a esse ecossistema\". O estudo foi conduzido no município de Poços de Caldas/MG, sendo considerados três tratamentos: floresta nativa, área restaurada há aproximadamente 06 anos e área restaurada há 24 anos, com seis repetições para cada. O delineamento utilizado foi o inteiramente casualizado, no esquema de parcelas subdivididas. O ciclo do N não foi recuperado nas florestas em restauração. Entretanto, há uma tendência de a ciclagem desse elemento assemelhar-se a da floresta nativa, conforme o avanço da sucessão ecológica. Deste modo, ambas as hipóteses propostas foram confirmadas, sendo a utilização de técnicas de engenharia ecológica, plantio adensado de espécies nativas e a adição de topsoil, os principais responsáveis pelos resultados
Mining causes serious environmental impacts and the soil is the most vulnerable component of the physical environment during the exploitation of deposits. The N cycle has been extensively studied, however, little is known about the recovery trend of its cycling in forests restored after bauxite mining. The aim was to investigate how the forest restoration process in bauxite mined area interferes in the nitrogen cycling in the soil-plant-litter system. Therefore, we measured the availability of N, the N:P ratios and the natural abundance of N stable isotope (?15N) in these compartments. The hypotheses proposed were: \"Forest restoration, driven by the use of ecological engineering techniques, planting of native tree species and addition of topsoil is sufficient to increase the availability of N in the ecosystem\", and \"Mined areas in forest restoration process, with the advancement of ecological succession, can develop a dynamics in N cycling resembling to that of the reference ecosystem, presenting values of concentrations of this nutrient in their compartments (soil-plant-litter) similar to this ecosystem. The study was conducted in Poços de Caldas county, Minas Gerais state, Brazil, considering three treatments: native forest, area restored for approximately 06 years and a restored area for 24 years with six repetitions for each. The design was completely randomized in a split plot. The N cycle has not been recovered in forest restoration. However, there is a tendency of N cycling resemble that of the native forest as the advancement of ecological succession. Thus, both hypotheses were confirmed, and the use of ecological engineering techniques, dense planting of native species and the addition of topsoil, were the main responsible for these results

This study measured the effects of spoil type and amendments on Appalachian mine soil properties over time. The Controlled Overburden Placement Experiment was installed in 1982 in two parts, the Rock Mix (RM) Experiment compares mixes of sandstone (SS) and siltstone (SiS) spoils while the Surface Amendment (SA) Experiment compares a fertilized control (CON), sawdust (SD at 112 Mg ha-1), topsoil (TSâ 15 cm), and biosolids (BS) at 22, 56, 112 & 224 Mg ha-1. Both experiments were sampled in 2008 and compared with historical data. After 26 years, all RM treatments had higher silt+clay and decreased sand. Mine soil pH and electrical conductance (EC) were lower in high SS spoils and overall pH was lower and EC higher in surface layers. Fe-oxides increased over time and adversely affected extractable P. Exchangeable cations and total N increased in all treatments. Annual C-sequestration rates were 0.51 Mg ha-1 for 1:1 SS:SiS and 0.32 Mg ha-1 for SiS. In the SA experiment, extractable P and exchangeable cations increased over time in organically amended plots. The CON and TS sequestered C at 0.54 Mg ha-1 and 0.87 Mg ha-1 annually while higher BS and SD treatments lost C, but mobilized significant C into their subsoils. In the SA, an apparent C retention maximum of 30-35 Mg ha-1 was noted. Overall, rock type and amendment effects were still evident after 26 years and the long-term benefits of organic amendments were reflected in sustained higher C, exchangeable cations, total N and P levels.
Master of Science

This study investigates coal discard cover soil fertility and its potential for degradation, particularly in terms of its salinisation and acidification potential. Seven rehabilitated coal discard dumps in the Witbank, Ermelo and Newcastle regions were used as study areas. All areas were rehabilitated with a cover soil layer, revegetated and annually fertilised with nitrate fertilisers, super phosphate, kraal manure and lime. Performance guideline for pH of 5.5-(6.5 i0.5)-7.5 and electrical conductivity guideline of preferably less than 200 mS.rn-' but not higher than 400 mS.m-' were set based on literature information. Soil chemical data from a three-year fertilisation programme were used to assess the fertility of the cover soil surface (0-150mm). Data collected over a three year period as well as additional electrical conductivity and pH measurements from the cover soil surface, subsoil, cover soil/coal contact zone and underlying coal itself were used to assess the occurrence of salinisation and acidification of the cover soil. The soil fertility varied significantly among dumps as well as over the three years. Results indicated an increase in ammonium acetate extractable macro elements (calcium, magnesium and potassium). With the exception of manganese, no micro-element toxicities were recorded. Iron concentrations were slightly elevated in some of the sandy cover soil layers. No increase in soluble nitrogen (nitrate and ammonium) was found and most soluble nitrogen was in the form of nitrates. In general the Bray extractable phosphate increased during the study period. It can be predicted that with the following fertiliser programme increases of exchangeable macro-elements as well as available phosphorus can be expected. The study could not indicate an increase in adsorbed or available nitrogen. Organic carbon was initially not analysed therefore no comments can be made whether organic matter increased. Four of the seven dumps surveyed had comparably similar organic carbon levels to the background samples. Overall the fertiliser programme increased the electrical conductivity and decreased the acidity of the cover soil surface. Acidity and salinity was in general not a problem at the surface of the cover soil and pH was even slightly higher in cover soil samples. The acidity and especially salinity increased at the subsoil and so did the sulphate concentrations. Calcium and magnesium sulphate were predominantly responsible for higher electrical conductivity measurements. The percentage exchangeable sodium was also predominantly less than 2% indicating that sodicity is not currently a problem in cover soil. Soil fertility was satisfactory for vegetation growth and macroelement concentrations were in the correct ratio although calcium was slightly high. An elevated sulphate concentration, in comparison to the natural grassland soils, as well as a high salinity and high acidity in the subsoil layers indicate that salinisation and acidification could deteriorate without proper management. A slightly acidic cover soil can also be attributed partially to its natural acidic pH due to the wellweathered and leach property of burrow pit. Higher than recommended salinity levels were found in subsoil samples but the occurrence of acidification of the subsoil was more dump specific. In relation to acidity and salinity guidelines only the cover soil of one dump was concerning and the larger dumps subsoil acidity and salinity were elevated. The following management strategies are proposed: a) The acidification potential, and therefore the pyrite content of the coal discard must be considered during decisions making on the rehabilitation method (clay barriers), topsoil depth, maintenance and mine closure potential. b) The occasional monitoring of the subsoil's and coal contact acidity is recommended, although not much can be done to stop acidification after cover-soil placement. c) To ensure a more sustained from of nitrogen supplementation over the long term the use of selected legumes should be investigated. Research in Europe and Australia suggested that nitrogen fixation could contribute substantially to the nitrogen for plant uptake. d) The physical properties of the topsoil (bulk density 8 soil compaction) are also being neglected and needs to be assessed occasionally and interpreted together with chemical analyses. Observations in other studies indicate that this could be the most fundamental problem for vegetation growth and not necessarily soil fertility, since soil physical properties could have a major impact on root development. Key words: Coal discard, mine rehabilitation, soil fertility, topsoil degradation, salinisation, and acidification
Thesis (M. Environmental Management)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Current surface mine reclamation in Appalachia involves returning the land to approximate original contour by grading the surface and planting grasses and early-successional trees. This results in a greatly altered ecosystem compared to the native forest that was there prior to mining. The reclaimed land is usually degraded economically and environmentally because mine soils are usually less productive than the native soils, and because the mined sites do not provide the same level of ecosystem services. This research addressed constraints to the return of the native ecosystem by assessing how mine spoil properties and treatments affect native tree species and soil microorganisms. A 4x2x3 factorial greenhouse experiment was used to examine the growth of one-year-old Fraxinus americana, Quercus rubra, and Liriodendron tulipifera as well as herbaceous plant occurrence and microbial biomass and activity. Three mine spoils, brown, weathered sandstone (BWS), white, unweathered sandstone (WUS), and gray, unweathered shale (GUH) were compared with undisturbed forest topsoil (UFT) to determine their suitability for tree growth. Half of each of the four media was inoculated with a 2.5-cm layer of topsoil. BWS was the optimal spoil material for the growth of F. americana, Q. rubra and microbial populations. Foliar nutrient analysis indicated that L. tulipifera was highly dependent on nutrient levels and was unable to grow well on any of the spoil types due to deficiencies. Inoculation with topsoil increased tree growth on the GUH spoil, and increased microbial activity and presence of herbaceous plants across all growth media. The field study was used to determine what spoil properties most influenced three-year-old Quercus alba growth. This information was used to test a mine quality classification model. Northeast facing sites with sandy spoils high in nutrients, moderate in pH, and high in microbial populations were optimal for tree growth. These variables explained 52% of the variation in tree growth. Tree growth was also highly correlated with tree foliar nutrient levels, further suggesting that tree growth was influenced by spoil nutrients. Microbial biomass and dehydrogenase production were also regressed against soil properties and were dependant on a moderate pH, high nitrogen levels, and low salt content. These variables explained 53% of the variability in microbial biomass and 50% of the variability in enzyme production. These studies suggest that tree growth and soil microbial populations are closely linked, and both are affected by mine spoil properties. During mined land reclamation, mine spoils conducive to tree growth should be selected if return of the native ecosystem is the reclamation goal.
Master of Science

Topsoil is a critical component of the rehabilitation process as a source of seeds and other propagules, beneficial micro-organisms and nutrients which assist in the success of the rehabilitation project. To enhance rehabilitation success and maximum species return to a site, using fresh topsoil is preferable. However, this is not always feasible due to many reasons such as long distances between donor and recipient sites or a disturbed area not being ready for rehabilitation at the time of topsoil collection (as in open cut mines). Therefore, in iron ore mining in the Pilbara soil must be stockpiled, sometimes for extended periods of time. The process of stockpiling has been reported previously to generally cause a decline in the quality of the topsoil which has the potential to adversely affect the success of rehabilitation projects. However, there is little information on the impact of topsoil storage on the soil's physical, chemical, biological and seed bank properties in arid regions, specifically that of the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Based on this lack of knowledge, the objectives of this study were to: 1. Investigate the quality of topsoil from iron ore mines in the Pilbara in existing storage stockpiles with particular focus on the depth of material within the stockpile. 2. Investigate the effect of topsoil recovery and handling on its chemical, physical, biological and seed bank properties for revegetation. The above mentioned objectives were achieved through four experiments: Experiment one investigated the physical, chemical and biological properties of topsoil via laboratory analysis of stocked topsoil of different ages and of soil located at different depths within the stockpile. Experiment two investigated the differences in soil seed bank of stockpiled topsoil of different ages and different depths within the stockpile through a germination study in a constant temperature room. Experiment three investigated the impact of topsoil and subsoil mixtures on the germination and early growth of two test species, Acacia ancistrocarpa and Senna glutinosa in a glasshouse pot trial. Experiment four investigated the physical, chemical and seed bank impacts of the current Rio Tinto topsoil recovery and stockpiling procedure on topsoil using laboratory analysis and a seed bank study of samples collected during the recovery and windrowing stages of the recovery process. The major findings of this study were: Stockpiling does produce measurable changes in soil physical, chemical and biological properties, but the impact appears to not be as detrimental to plant growth as has been postulated previously. Depth of topsoil within the stockpile had minimal effects on the soil's physical (particle size) and chemical properties (pH, electrical conductivity, organic matter, Colwell extractable P, KCl-40 extractable S, exchangeable cations and extractable micronutrients). Low levels of P, Sand Zn in stockpiled topsoil, and in subsoil from reference sites suggest that these nutrients may restrict plant growth in revegetation. In both undisturbed topsoil and stockpiled topsoil there was a low mean seedling emergence in comparison to carrot seeds grown in the same medium. The very low levels of germinable seed suggests a limited soil seedbank is present in topsoil. However, it is possible that germination cues need to be applied to achieve seed germination. Dilution of topsoil with different proportions of subsoil (up to 95 %) produced no specific effects on shoot biomass of Senna glutinosa, while > 20 % subsoil only weakly decreased shoot growth of Acacia ancistrocarpa. However, neither legume formed effective nodules during the experiment and this may have limited the plant responses to soil mixes. - Windrowing of topsoil did not significnatly affect topsoil physical, chemical and seed bank properties. Based upon the above mentioned findings, the following courses of action are recommended to enhance the success of topsoil re-use in environmental rehabilitation: - Ensure that procedure is followed. It was noted that at one of the mine sites from which soil was sampled, two of the topsoil stockpiles were higher than the recommended height (as mentioned in both DMP and Rio Tinto guidelines) and not sign posted indicating that some aspects of the Rio Tinto topsoil handling procedure had not been followed. Therefore, closer monitoring of stockpiling activities should be in place to ensure that the stockpiles do not exceed the height limit and are signposted to assist with record keeping. - Encourage seed growth on stockpiles. Plant growth on the stockpiles will assist to replenish soil seed bank, encourage soil microbial activity and assist in the cycling of nutrients in the soil. All these factors are important to ensure the topsoil remains viable during its storage period. The more viable the topsoil is when it is re-used in rehabilitation, the more likely plant growth on the rehabilitated site will be successful. - Further research on topsoil/ subsoil mixing. This study indicated that a mixture of topsoil and subsoil at Marandoo mine did not adversely affect the emergence and early growth of the selected test species. As a result, further research should be conducted to determine if this result can be replicated in other species. If so, and if longer term plant growth is similarly unaffected by subsoil mixtures with topsoil, such mixtures could be used in rehabilitation of areas where topsoil is limited. - Seedbanks in soils and cues for seedling germination. The low levels of seedling emergence from topsoils, even the reference site at Marandoo and Tom Price mines, suggests that little seed is stored in topsoil of the vegetation complexes subject to mining. This needs to be verified by physical recovery of seed from topsoil across a wider range of sites that are likely to be mined in future. If seed exists in the topsoil, but does not germinate, the main cues for germination need to be determined. If limited seed can be recovered from topsoil, then the use of topsoil in rehabilitation switches from it being a source of seed to being a medium for plant growth. Seed collection and broadcasting technologies would then be much more important considerations for Rio Tinto in its rehabilitation planning. - Nutrient management. Low levels of P, Sand Zn were extracted by standard soil tests on topsoil in stockpiles and windrows. Even though the topsoil from reference sites was also low in these nutrients, and subsoil even lower, further consideration of these nutrients seems warranted. Leaf and soil sampling of revegetation areas previously completed on the iron ore mines in the Pilbara would be useful to ascertain whether these nutrients are limiting plant growth. From this survey, decisions could be made about the necessity of adding fertiliser in rehabilitation to ensure adequate supply of limiting nutrients. However, it is possible that the native plants are well adapted to acquisition of nutrients from soils with low availability of nutrients.

In many parts of the world, notably in South Asia, crop intensification is resulting in more crops being grown on stored soil moisture, under which conditions the topsoil commonly dries out during crop growth. In the Mediterranean climatic region also, topsoils dry out particularly during the later part of the growing season. Implications of the drying of topsoils for crop nutrition in general are poorly understood. Crop intensification in South Asia is also leading to increased mechanisation and the emergence of minimum tillage sowing of crops. The key research question for the present thesis is availability of phosphorus (P) for chickpea grown with stored residual soil water in the context where placement of P fertilizer with the seed is accomplished by mechanised planters. This study investigated the P nutrition of chickpea considering uptake from topsoil and subsoil and factors affecting P availability, distribution and remobilization throughout the growing season when P fertilizer was supplied with the seed or below the seed (in the subsoil) under well-watered and dry topsoil conditions. Short-term (up to 12 or 24 days) glasshouse studies assessed the risk of toxicity for seed emergence and early growth of chickpea when P fertilizers were placed with seed in well-watered soil. In sand, seed-placed P fertilizers (diammonium phosphate and triple superphosphate) depressed chickpea germination and seedling growth while seed-placed P was safe in sandy clay loam soil at rates equivalent to 20 kg P/ha even in the scenario where the seed was sown in wide rows (up to 60 cm) that results in higher effective P fertiliser concentration around seed. In the field when chickpea was sown in four soils (sandy clay loam- clay loam texture) with a drying surface, the seed-placed P fertilizer at 20 kg P/ha as triple superphosphate had no suppressive effect in the early growth stage of chickpea but the grain yield improvement was very small (~10% over the nil P). Under a drying topsoil, chickpea accumulated P until late pod filling stage irrespective of P fertilizer treatments. From the accumulated P, plants remobilized a substantial amount of P (52% of total in vegetative shoot parts) which contributed the equivalent of 69% of the total pod P. The remobilization of P from the vegetative parts was not sufficient for the pod P requirement but rather concurrent P uptake from the soil was needed to complete the P requirements of the pods. These results suggested that continual P uptake of chickpea depended on uptake from the subsoil P where moisture was available after drying of the topsoil. To assess the contribution of subsoil P to P uptake by chickpea under dry topsoil condition, a glasshouse study was setup by supplying P levels in the subsoil (10-30 cm). This study also showed that chickpea continued to accumulate P until late podding stage when the topsoil was completely dried; the pod P content was contributed by both remobilized P (70%) and concurrent uptake of P (30 %), but the level of P in the dry topsoil had no effect on total P content of the plant or its pods. Fractionation of P in rhizosphere soil showed that chickpea depleted sparingly-soluble 0.1 M NaOH-extractable inorganic P (NaOH Pi) in addition to labile P fractions. The drawdown of depleted P fractions was greater in the subsoil than the topsoil. The response of carboxylate exudation of chickpea under dry topsoil condition was investigated in the final glasshouse study. Under dry topsoil condition, chickpea exuded substantially higher amounts of total carboxylates in the well-watered subsoil compared to the dry topsoil. Malonate was the principal form of carboxylate followed by malate and citrate. The depletion of sparingly-soluble P forms (NaOH Pi from both the P-supplied topsoil and subsoil and the 1 M HCl extractable inorganic P from the subsoil without added P) suggests a link between the carboxylates excreted in the subsoil rhizosphere and the depletion of sparingly soluble P fractions. In conclusion, chickpea continued to take up P during the whole period of dry matter accumulation including during pod filling. Under conditions where the topsoil dried out mostly before flowering, the post-flowering P uptake is most likely to have been acquired from the subsoil. In this study, substantial root growth and carboxylate exudation by chickpea into the moist subsoil has been demonstrated suggesting a possible mechanism for mobilisation of subsoil P reserves for uptake during pod filling. The seed-placed P fertilizer had limited positive effect on chickpea grain yield in the field possibly due to shallow depth of fertilizer placement into topsoil which was dry when the plant’s P demand was high. Subsoil placement of P fertilizer showed promise for improving P uptake and grain yield of chickpea under dry topsoil condition. Further studies are required under different soils and environmental conditions to assess the contribution of subsoil P to the P nutrition of chickpea.

The science of restoration ecology seeks ways to advance the understanding of how to restore native ecosystems that have been degraded or destroyed. Ecological theory suggests that environmental filters influence the outcome of ecological restoration and ultimately long-term restoration success. In this study, three types of environmental filters: dispersal, abiotic, biotic were manipulated to improve understanding of how to successfully re-establish native plant communities. The abiotic filter was manipulated by decreasing soil compaction (ripping) and evaporation (shade). The biotic filter was addressed with control of herbivory (fencing) and weeds (herbicide). The dispersal limitation was examined by altering the application depth of the transferred topsoil (deep and shallow topsoil volume) and application of germination cues (smoke and heat). This study was located in Banksia woodland - a Mediterranean-type ecosystem restricted to the Swan Coastal Plain in Western Australia that is diminishing due to rapid urban expansion. Topsoil from Banksia woodland vegetation contains a large native soil seed bank. Here, topsoil from a newly cleared site was stripped, transferred and applied to six recipient sites within two months of vegetation clearing. The recipient sites had been grazed for about 80 years prior to purchasing for conservation as part of a biodiversity offset program. Following topsoil transfer, a fully factorial combination of three filter manipulation treatments was applied across the six sites to identify successful restoration techniques. The dispersal filter was tested by altering the volume of topsoil seed bank applied. The abiotic filter experimental manipulation was performed using topsoil ripping. The biotic filter was examined by installing herbivore exclosures. Emergence and survival of Banksia woodland species were quantified in spring and autumn for two consecutive years after topsoil transfer. Manipulation of the abiotic filter in soil ripping treatment reduced the densities of the emerging native perennials significantly (t = 4, P < 0.001). Overall, the most successful technique was the application of a high volume of unripped topsoil, with resulting mean densities of native perennials of 15.9 ± 0.2 (SE) m-2 in the first year. Similarly, high volume of unripped topsoil resulted in the highest mean densities of native perennials of 7.6 ± 0.1 (SE) m-2 in the second year after topsoil transfer. Application of plot-scale heat treatments in the second year recorded 4.5 % increase in the emergence densities of native perennials compared with site-scale control plots (t = 11.4, P < 0.001). Mean seedling survival over the 2-year sampling period was 2.44% ± 0.2 (SE). The highest survival through the first summer drought occurred within topsoil ripping treatment in combination with artificial shade (mean survival of 27.3 % ± 5.6 (SE), t=7.8, P<0.001). High mortality occurred during the second summer drought and overall mean seedling survival over the 2-year sampling period was 2.44% ± 0.2 (SE). Breaking plant species into key functional groups, the number of non-resprouters oscillated around 70% in both years. Nitrogen-fixers comprised 50% of total native flora richness in the first year after topsoil transfer and decreased markedly to 20% in the second year. Plant assemblages in the second year after topsoil transfer comprised mostly of non-native perennial grasses and perennial, small-seeded native woody shrubs. The transferred topsoil seed bank contained a close-to-reference species richness of native species propagules. Deep topsoil returned the highest mean densities of native plant species and second highest number of native plant taxa (163 on deep topsoil, 166 on fenced topsoil, of total 171 plant species recorded in this study). The recorded plant species richness comprised about 25% of total species pool recorded in Banksia woodland ecosystems in its natural distribution on Swan Coastal Plain, Western Australia and about 105% of total plant taxa recorded in the reference site before clearing. These plant taxa were mostly understorey species that suggests a high potential for mitigating environmental barriers on restoration sites with the use of transferred topsoil, but more research needs to focus on improving survival of native seedlings in their early stages of establishment.

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar o potencial do banco de sementes do solo em um ambiente controlado e sua posterior transposição no campo, bem como avaliar a influência das exposições Norte e Sul no desenvolvimento das plântulas no campo em cinco tratamentos de serapilheira e topsoil. Os tratamentos estabelecidos foram: Controle, sem material (CTR); serapilheira (SER); topsoil (TOP); topsoil coberto com serapilheira (ORG); e a serapilheira misturada com topsoil (MIS). As amostras do banco de sementes (topsoil + serapilheira) foram coletadas de um remanescente florestal do Parque Nacional Serra do Itajaí - SC e levadas ao ambiente controlado (casa de vegetação) por 51 dias e mais 28 dias de rustificação. Posteriormente o material foi transposto em uma área de pastagem. Para o ambiente controlado e campo, foram quantificados o número de plântulas das espécies arbóreas e arbustivas, e submetidos a Análise de Coordenada Principal (PCoA). Verificou-se semelhanças quanto à composição e densidade de espécies entre os tratamentos, evidenciando que manter o banco de sementes para germinação em ambiente controlado é viável, visto as condições ótimas que potencializaram a germinação (temperatura e umidade) e a manutenção da semelhança florística quando transposto o material para o campo. Para a influência da exposição Norte e Sul no desenvolvimento e germinação de plântulas do banco de sementes, foram testados 5 tratamentos diferentes em 50 módulos para cada face na pastagem, com 10 repetições para cada tratamento. A comparação entre o número de espécies, número de indivíduos, diâmetro médio e altura média nas exposições Norte e Sul, através do teste F seguido do teste T2 de Hotelling, foi significativo em alguns tratamentos, evidenciando que a área está em constante mudança. No entanto, ao comparar os parâmetros com as faces, pela análise multivariada de variância (Permanova), todos os tratamentos apresentaram diferenças significativas. A orientação sul favoreceu o surgimento e o desenvolvimento das plântulas quando comparadas à exposição no norte. As espécies Cecropia glaziovii, Solanum mauritianum, Trema micrantha e Alchornea triplinervia obtiveram maior número de indivíduos no banco de sementes.
The objective of this work was to verify the potential of the soil seed bank in a controlled environment, and its subsequent transposition in the field, as well as to evaluate the influence of the North and South exposures on the development of field seedlings in five treatments of leaflitter and topsoil. The treatments established were: Control, no material (CTR); leaflitter (SER); topsoil (TOP); topsoil covered with leaflitter (ORG); topsoil mixed with leaflitter (MIS). Seed bank samples (topsoil + leaflitter) were collected from forest remnants of Serra do Itajaí National Park - SC and taken to the controlled environment (greenhouse) for 51 days, and another 28 days of rustification. Then, this material was located into a degraded pasture area. For the controlled environment and field, the number of seedlings of the tree and shrub species that emerged were quantified and by the submition to a Principal Coordinates Analysis (PCoA), similarities were verified regarding the composition and density of the species between the treatments evidencing that maintaining the seed bank for pre-germination in a controlled environment is feasible, considering the optimal conditions that potentiate germination (temperature and humidity) and the maintenance of the floristic similarity when the material was transposed to the field. In order to investigate the influence of soil exposure on the North and South faces in the development and germination of seedlings from the seed bank, 5 different treatments were tested in 50 modules for each face in the pasture, with 10 replicates for each treatment. The comparison between the numbers of species, number of individuals, mean diameter and mean height in North and South exposures, through the F test followed by Hotelling's T2 test, produced significance in some treatments evidencing that the area is constantly changing. However, when comparing the parameters with the faces, by the multivariate analysis of variance (Permanova), all treatments presented significant differences. The southern orientation favored the emergence and development of the seedlings when compared to the northern exposure. The species Cecropia glaziovii, Solanum mauritianum, Trema micrantha and Alchornea triplinervia obtained a larger number of individuals in the seed bank.

Orientador: Ricardo Ribeiro Rodrigues
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia
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Resumo: A partir dos anos 90, a conscientização da sociedade e o aumento do atendimento à legislação ambiental fizeram proliferar muitas iniciativas de recuperação de áreas degradadas. A transposição do topsoil, rica fonte de sementes nativas e de matéria orgânica, deve ser uma técnica alternativa promissora. O topsoil já vem sendo utilizado com sucesso, mas sua aplicação ainda está restrita a áreas planas. A disponibilidade de topsoil associada à necessidade de recuperação de taludes com espécies nativas, inspirou a presente pesquisa. O objetivo foi avaliar a possibilidade de uso da técnica de transposição de topsoil para a recuperação de taludes de corte e aterro, identificando os fatores atuantes na sucessão secundária inicial da comunidade de plantas e suas implicações para a recuperação. Em um talude com inclinação de 30º foi depositada a camada de topsoil proveniente de uma área de floresta recém desmatada. Foram utilizadas quatro técnicas de contenção do topsoil depositado: madeiramento formando terraços (M), sulcos horizontais (S) e cada uma, M e S, associadas a linhas de adubação verde semeada (MAV e SAV). O delineamento experimental foi o de blocos ao acaso, em que cada tratamento possui três réplicas de 12x15 m2, distribuídas em três blocos. A densidade de indivíduos regenerantes e a riqueza de formas de vida foram monitoradas por 14 meses, e a porcentagem de solo exposto foi avaliada no último mês. Após os 14 meses foram registradas 150 espécies de todas as formas de vida. Os tratamentos apresentaram densidades cinco vezes maiores que o testemunho, variando de 5,2 a 22,6 indiv/m2, mas não foram diferentes entre si. O tratamento de sulcos (S) apresentou a maior porcentagem de solo exposto (Capítulo 1). Mais do que os tratamentos as características do topsoil e a densidade do banco de sementes do topsoil, diferentes entre os blocos experimentais, determinaram padrões distintos de colonização, de estrutura e de velocidade de recuperação das comunidades (Capítulo 2). Se observada a área experimental como um todo, formou-se uma comunidade heterogênea florística e estruturalmente, o que deve ser interessante para áreas em regeneração. Os resultados indicaram que a recuperação de taludes pode ser eficiente utilizando a técnica de transposição de topsoil desde que sejam utilizadas técnicas de contenção conjuntamente. Com a metodologia proposta, ampliam-se as possibilidades de uso do topsoil e possibilita-se a recuperação de taludes de corte e aterro com espécies nativas
Abstract: After the nineties, the awareness of the society and enhancement of legal environmental requirements resulted in a greater number of initiatives on degraded lands rehabilitation. The use of topsoil, which contains the forest seed bank and high concentrations of organic matter, has been successfully used, but its application still restrict to flat or low-declivity areas. The local availability of topsoil together with the necessity to rehabilitate slopes with native species community inspired this experimental research. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the topsoil transposition technique to rehabilitate slopes, aiming to identify the main factors acting over the initial succession of these communities and its implications for the rehabilitation process. At an embankment slope with 30° declivity we spread the topsoil collected in a surrounding area just after forest clear cut. Four contention techniques were tested: wood fences forming terraces, horizontal rips, wood fences with green manure and horizontal rips with green manure. The experiment was designed in casualized blocks were each treatment has three 12 x 15m2 replicas, distributed in three blocks. We monitored the regenerating community for 14 months, measuring the individual¿s density and the life forms richness. The percentage of exposed soil was measured on the last sampling. Afther 14 months, we registered 150 species including all life forms. In all treatments, the density of individuals was at least five times higher than in the control, ranging from 5,2 to 22,6 ind/m2. The density of individuals was not different among the four treatments, but the rips treatment showed the highest percentage of exposed soil (Chapter 1). The allochtonous soil characteristics, diferent among the experimental blocks, were the main determinants of the structure and floristic composition of regenerating communities. Differences of topsoil soil fertility and seed bank density determined different initial colonization patterns, as well as the community final structure and recovery speed (Chapter 2). Analyzing the whole experimental area, the growth of distinct communities at the same rehabilitated area resulted in a community with heterogeneous structure and floristic composition, which may be interesting for regenerating areas. The results showed that, together with contention techniques, the topsoil use as a source of propagules and organic matter can be efficient on slopes¿ rehabilitation. The proposed method expands the possibilities of topsoil use, allowing the rehabilitation of slopes and embankments with native species
Mestrado
Biologia Vegetal
Mestre em Biologia Vegetal

RESUMO A restauração da cobertura vegetal de formações ferríferas do Quadrilátero Ferrífero é complexa em decorrência das características dessa vegetação, que é diversificada, rica em endemismos e constituída por espécies de difícil propagação ex situ. Ela é exigida frente a demandas de supressão de vegetação pela mineração, que são autorizadas mediante condicionantes impostas pelos órgãos competentes. Entre essas condicionantes, destaca-se a obrigatoriedade de viabilizar metodologias destinadas à restauração de vegetação nativa nas áreas mineradas. Este trabalho apresenta resultados de pesquisas realizadas nas minas de Alegria, Segredão e Sapecado, localizadas em Mariana, Sabará e Itabirito, respectivamente. O objetivo de todas elas foi realizar operações de resgate de flora e testes com uso de topsoil, precedidos de estudos florísticos para embasamento dessas operações. Os resultados de cada pesquisa propiciaram o desenvolvimento e aprimoramento de técnicas destinadas a possibilitar a recriação de condições para que comunidades ecologicamente viáveis se instalem em áreas de restauração. Na mina de Alegria, unidade em operação, as exigências ecológicas quanto ao resgate de flora puderam ser viabilizadas e iniciou-se o percurso de testes com uso de topsoil. Como aí se verificou que todas as espécies nascidas no topsoil eram relacionadas à flora dos Campos Ferruginosos e estruturadoras dessas formações, concluiu-se que o experimento fora positivo. Decidiu-se reproduzi-lo em outra unidade minerária, a mina de Segredão, de situação diversa por estar paralizada e ter sofrido revegetação por espécies exóticas. O resultado do novo experimento, precedido de levantamentos florísticos, revelou, no topsoil, a presença de espécies ausentes no meio natural, com dominância de poucas, o que foi atribuído à perda de matéria orgânica e de nutrientes, detectada na análise química do solo. Com a terceira pesquisa, realizada na mina de Sapecado, unidade em operação em Itabirito, também precedida de levantamentos florísticos, foram obtidos resultados semelhantes aos da mina de Alegria, com desenvolvimento apenas de espécies presentes no meio natural e com destribuição bastante homogênea. A análise química dos atributos do solo mostrou praticamente todos com teores inferiores ao da mina de Segredão, sugerindo não haver relação entre riqueza de espécies e riqueza do solo. Com esse resultado, concluiu-se pela necessidade de novas pesquisas sobre o uso do topsoil, que já se mostrou como instrumento crucial para o estabelecimento de condições iniciais do processo de restauração, que, para ser bem sucedido, demanda associação de diferentes procedimentos. Em complementação a essas pesquisas, aplicou-se um teste de similaridade das espécies da flora registradas em oito estudos sobre Campos Ferruginosos, obtendo-se uma lista com 820 espécies. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: mineração; cobertura vegetal; campo ferruginoso; degradação; restauração; topsoil.

Durante il triennio di dottorato è stato studiato l'effetto del cambio di temperatura sulle proprietà chimiche e biochimiche di due componenti di suoli sotto faggio (Fagus sylvatica) dell'Appennino centrale (Italia): la rizosfera e il topsoil (orizzonti organici e il primo orizzonte minerale). Il disegno sperimentale ha considerato un transetto altitudinale (800 e 1000 m), con una differenza di temperatura media annua dell'aria di 1°C, e un transetto latitudinale, dove non si hanno differenze di temperatura media annua, ma ve ne sono in termini di escursione termica estate-inverno. La ricerca è stata preceduta dalla messa a punto di un metodo strumentale per ottenere più rapidamente dati di carbonio e azoto totali (TN) che siano affidabili e non distruttivi (Paper I). Risultati significativi sono stati ottenuti analizzando la rizosfera che, soprattutto a 1000 m, ha mostrato maggiori contenuti di carbonio organico totale (TOC), di sostanza organica estraibile in acqua (WEOM) e P disponibile del suolo bulk. Con l'aumento di 1°C si potrebbe così verificare un'accelerazione del ciclo dei nutrienti negli ambienti forestali a 1000 m (Paper II). Questo risultato è stato confermato da un maggior contenuto di zuccheri, fenoli solubili e tannini nella WEOM degli stessi suoli (Paper III). Comparando i risultati lungo la latitudine, gli orizzonti minerali sottosuperficiali sono risultati molto simili. Al contrario, il topsoil ha mostrato differenze chimiche e biochimiche attribuibili all’escursione di temperatura estate-inverno, con differenti andamenti delle attività enzimatiche secondo il ruolo degli enzimi nella degradazione della lettiera. In ogni caso, nel topsoil e negli orizzonti sottosuperficiali, l'altitudine è responsabile dell’incremento del TOC, del TN e dello spessore degli orizzonti organici, confermando che l'aumento di temperatura a queste quote potrebbe accelerare la velocità di mineralizzazione della sostanza organica (Paper IV).
The research conducted during the three years doctoral activity was focused on the effect of temperature change on chemical and biochemical properties of two different soil components of beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest soils from central Apennines (Italy): i) rhizosphere, which was contrasted with the bulk soil, and ii) organic horizons (OLn, OLv, OH) and the first mineral horizon (A). In the experimental design a small altitudinal transect (800 and 1000 m) with a different mean annual air temperature of 1°C was considered, together with a latitudinal transect with no difference in the mean annual air temperature but different for the summer-winter thermal excursion. The research was preceded by the development of a method to obtain data of total carbon and nitrogen with non-destructive and less time-consuming instruments in order to develop rapid and reliable field analyses (Paper I). Significant results were obtained with the rhizosphere, which showed marked differences with respect to the bulk at 1000 m, particularly for the greater content of total organic carbon (TOC), water extractable organic matter (WEOM), and available P concentration due to rhizodeposition processes. The enriched micro-environment of the rhizosphere also fosters a rapid nutrients' cycle (Paper II). This was confirmed by the higher content of sugars, soluble phenols and tannins in the rhizosphere WEOM at 1000 m (Paper III). Comparing results along the latitudinal transect, in the subsoil only small differences were recorded. Conversely, the topsoil (O+A horizons) showed chemical and biochemical differences ascribable to the summer-winter thermal excursion trend, with different behaviors of the enzymatic activities depending on their role in litter decomposition. However, in both topsoil and subsoil, horizons thickness and the TOC and total nitrogen contents were higher at 1000 than at 800 m, so confirming that an increase of temperature at these altitudes will increase the mineralization rate (Paper IV).

A mineração é uma das atividades antrópicas mais impactantes aos recursos naturais, e que pode afetar profundamente a resiliência dos ecossistemas em função do elevado nível de degradação do solo e da paisagem. Diante disso, muitas áreas mineradas não são efetivamente recuperadas a ponto de restabelecer parte relevante da biodiversidade e dos serviços ambientais perdidos com a mineração. No entanto, novos métodos de restauração ecológica têm gerados resultados promissores mesmo em situações de degradação tão intensa como as de mineração, o que permitiria rever os níveis mínimos de qualidade ambiental exigidos de áreas que foram mineradas e que precisam passar por um processo de recuperação como forma de mitigação dos impactos causados e cumprimento de demandas legais de compensação ambiental. Assim, o objetivo geral desse estudo é avaliar a recuperação física, química e microbiológica do solo em áreas de mineração de bauxita em processo de recuperação ambiental. Avaliamos inicialmente a restauração do solo em minas de bauxita localizadas em Poços de Caldas-MG, tendo como objetivo contextualizar a melhoria do solo através de vários parâmetros químicos, físicos e microbiológicos em áreas recém-mineradas, em restauração de diferentes idades e remanescentes de floresta nativa. Encontramos que a restauração florestal foi eficiente em desencadear um processo de recuperação do solo, que resultou no restabelecimento, em poucos anos, de características químicas, físicas e microbiológicas já bem similares às do ecossistema de referência. Em seguida, avaliamos a recuperação dos teores de fósforo no solo pela restauração de florestas tropicais em minas de bauxita, e obtivemos como principais resultados a recuperação de importantes frações de P no solo, parte relevante da produção de serapilheira e da estrutura da floresta ao longo da trajetória sucessional nas jovens áreas restauradas após a mineração. A restauração ecológica mostrou-se capaz de restaurar rapidamente importantes atributos do solo, evidenciando o potencial da abordagem de restauração ecológica para mitigar os impactos ambientais negativos da mineração. Dessa maneira, destaca-se que políticas públicas voltadas para a mitigação de danos ambientais causados pela mineração podem exigir níveis mais elevados de qualidade ambiental em áreas de recuperação de minas, protegendo os interesses coletivos envolvidos na mediação de interesses entre empresas e sociedade.
Mining is one of the human activities with the highest impact in natural resources. It can profoundly affect the resilience of ecosystems due to the high level of soil degradation and landscape alteration. Thus, many mined areas are not effectively recovered enough to restore important part of biodiversity and ecosystem services lost. However, new ecological restoration methods showed promising results even in such intense degradation situations such as mining. Thus, it is needed to review the minimum levels of environmental quality required for areas that have been mined and need to recovered to mitigate the impacts and compliance with legal demands of environmental compensation. Thus, the general objective of this study is to evaluate the physical, chemical and microbiological soil in bauxite mining areas under ecological restoration. We initially evaluated soil restoration in bauxite mines located in the county of \"Poços de Caldas\", aiming to contextualize soil improvement through various chemical, physical and microbiological parameters in newly mined areas, restoration of different ages and remaining native forest. We found that forest restoration was effective in triggering a soil recovery process, which resulted in the recuperation, in a few years, of the chemical, physical and microbiological characteristics already very similar values to the references. We then evaluated the recovery of soil phosphorus for the restoration of tropical forests in bauxite mines, and obtained as main results the recovery of important fractions of soil P, litter production and forest structure along the successional trajectory in young restored areas after mining. Ecological restoration proved to be able to quickly restore important soil properties, showing the potential of ecological restoration approach to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of mining. Thus, it is emphasized that public policies to mitigate environmental damage caused by mining may require higher levels of environmental quality in mining recovery areas, protecting the collective interests involved in the mediation of interests between business and society.

Farmers living in the Kenyan highlands are exposed to the risk of being affected by landslides and they are vulnerable because of lack of resources. Vulnerability can be reduced by increasing knowledge and awareness of the risk. This thesis aims to increase knowledge of landslide-related problems. The first objective is to investigate topsoil development and to assess land cover changes in landslide scars over time (paper I). Topsoil samples were taken in previously investigated landslide scars, and analysed for chemical and physical characteristics. The results show that soil has recovered well during the 20-30 years that have passed. However, there are still higher levels of total soil organic carbon in reference topsoil than in scar topsoil. The short time for plants to produce organic material, in combination with low pH, which inhibits decomposing microorganisms, may be the explanation for this. Previous research, including photographs of the landslide scars, forms the basis for comparison over time regarding land cover changes. The results show changes in land cover where forests have been replaced by cultivated land and thereafter by plantations of Eucalyptus sp. trees or cultivation. Secondly, this study investigates the applicability of GIS-based analysis for landslide assessments in this part of the World (paper II). Commonly used data were collected and analysed in ArcGis 10.0. Documentation and field measurements from historical landslides were used as reference. The results show that (1) much information was unavailable, (2) the resolution of the Digital Elevation Model (DEM; 30 m) was too coarse to capture relevant morphometric terrain parameters and (3) land use changes were difficult to map because of low quality historical air photos, and because of lack of information about the precise timing of landslide events. Hence, landslide prone areas could not be recognised. However, we could with reasonable certainty identify sensitive conditions: landslides are most likely to occur in slopes with a gradient of 25° or more, within 80 m from roads, and during the rainy seasons.
Endogena och exogena krafter påverkar varaktigt vårt jordklot och geografiska förhållanden avgör vilken typ av förändring som kan komma att ske. Extrema naturhändelser som påverkar människor negativt kallas naturkatastrofer. I bergig terräng kan massrörelser äga rum och i den här studien behandlas en typ av massrörelse, jordskred. Jordskred sker över hela jorden och beror på försvagade mothållande krafter i förhållande till den gravitation som påverkar material i sluttningar. De vanligaste utlösande faktorerna är jordbävningar eller långvarig nederbörd som gör jorden vattenmättad, vilket leder till minskad skjuvhållfasthet. En ökad befolkning på jorden ökar kravet på matproduktion vilket har lett till att sluttningar i perifera områden har börjat utnyttjas för odling. Detta gäller i allra högsta grad i utvecklingsländer, där befolkningen i flera fall har dubblerats på kort tid. På grund av begränsade ekonomiska tillgångar, på allt från nationell till individuell nivå, påverkas människor i dessa områden hårt om en naturkatastrof inträffar. De har ofta svårt att hantera situationen, att anpassa sig till densamma eller att återhämta sig efteråt vilket gör dessa människor sårbara. Människors sårbarhet kan minskas bland annat genom ökad kunskap, eller genom att öka utsattas medvetenhet om de faror de exponeras för. Det övergripande syftet med den här studien är därför att öka kunskapen kring jordskredsrelaterade problem i ett tätbefolkat tropiskt höglandsområde. Studieområdet är beläget strax söder om ekvatorn i de centrala delarna av Kenya i den sydöstra delen av Aberdare Range. Området, som omfattar delar av Muranga och Nyeri Counties, karaktäriseras av ett undulerande landskap med korta, branta sluttningar som på grund av sina produktiva jordar dessutom är tätbefolkade. Sluttningarna i området bär spår av historiska såväl som nutida jordskredsärr. Artikel 1: För att öka kunskapen kring förändringar i marken efter att ett jordskred skett i området undersöks i den här studien hur återhämtningen i marken skett över längre tid tid, sett ur ett jordbruksperspektiv. Dessutom har marktäckningen i skreden dokumenteras. Studien skall ge svar på följande frågor (1) Hur ser återhämtningen ut i jordar i området efter att ett jordskred skett? (2) Hur har marktäckningen förändrats i skredärren över tid? För att undersöka jordens beskaffenhet togs jordprover i sju jordskredsärr och i anslutande omgivande mark. Kemiska och fysiska parametrar analyserades i laboratorium i Nairobi. Resultaten jämfördes med resultat från tidigare undersökningar i samma skredärr gjorda på 1980- och 1990-talet. Resultaten visar på en varierande positiv och negativ utveckling över tid. Jämfört med referensvärden från omgivande mark är dock skillnaderna efter > 20 år små, utom vad gäller organiskt kol som fortfarande visar lägre värden i skreden än i omgivande mark. Samtal med jordskredsdrabbade bönder i området i februari 2013, litteraturstudier och dokumentation i form av fotografier har gett en bild av hur marktäckningen och vegetationsutvecklingen i skredärren har sett ut över tid. Resultaten visar att markanvändningen har förändrats och att skogsmark ersatts av odlingsmark och därefter återigen planterats med, till stor del, eukalyptusträd. Studien bidrar med ökad kunskap om hur mark i området återhämtar sig efter att ett jordskred skett och hur marktäckningen förändrats över tid. Artikel 2: I andra delar av världen har kartor utformats för att visualisera skredkänsliga områden med hjälp av GIS. I Kenya är användningen av GIS fortfarande begränsad, då verktyget är dyrt och kräver data av hög kvalitet. I den här studien undersöks i vilken omfattning GIS är möjligt att använda för bedömning av skredrisk i ett tropiskt höglandsområde. Frågan är om relevanta data finns att tillgå och om data är av tillräckligt hög kvalité för att göra en tillförlitlig analys? Eller kan man på andra sätt identifiera de viktigaste orsakerna till jordskred och därmed medvetandegöra människor om riskabla faktorer? Parametrar som ofta använts i tidigare utförda undersökningar antogs även i denna studie. Data insamlades, dels från myndigheter i Kenya, dels genom fältarbete och dels från kommersiella företag. Vi har erhållit och arbetat med följande data; (1) en digital höjdmodell (30 m upplösning), (2) Google Earth (högupplösta bilder från Digital Globe, 2012), (3) nederbördsdata, (4) flygfoton från 1959, (5) beskrivningar från historiska jordskred från vetenskapliga artiklar, (6) fältobservationer och (7) samtal med bönder och jordbrukskunnig personal från distriktet. Datahanteringen och analyserna genomfördes i ArcGis 10.0. Beräkning av morfometriska faktorer som sluttningsvinklar, sluttningsriktningar, sluttningars konvexitet och konkavitet utfördes med hjälp av höjdmodellen. Markanvändning, vägar och vattendrag karterades i Google Earth och satellitbilder från 2012. Dessutom karterades skog i ett begränsat område utifrån flygbilder från 1959. Avstånden mellan befintliga skredärr och vägar och vattendrag uppmättes i satellitbilden, varvid en bedömning också gjordes av huruvida skreden troligen var orsakade av väg- eller vattendragsrelaterade faktorer. Analyserna jämfördes med uppmätta värden från 36 tidigare dokumenterade skred i området. Jämförelsen visade att höjdmodellen inte var tillräckligt noggrann för att fånga de branta sluttningar, sluttningsriktningar och konkaviteter som de flesta gamla skred utbildats i. Avsaknaden av information om när avskogningen skett och när de gamla skreden ägt rum gör att det inte heller går att använda markanvändningsförändringar som en parameter i vidare analyser av känsliga områden. Utifrån parametrar som kunde karteras i satellitbilder och med hjälp av information som samlades in under fältarbetet kan vi visa att jordskred i undersökningsområdet mest sannolikt sker under regnperioderna på sluttningar med en lutning på ≥ 25°, och som ligger nära en väg. Resultaten ökar dels medvetenheten kring datakvalitet vid analys av jordskredskänsliga områden i tropiska högländer, dels kunskapen om under vilka förhållanden skred kan ske.

La séquestration du carbone (C) fait l'objet d'une attention scientifique et politique croissante dans le cadre de la réduction des gaz à effet de serre. Les sols géotechniques ont été négligés en raison de leur potentiel de séquestration du carbone, et l'attention étant concentrée sur les sols agricoles et naturels. Nous visons à évaluer le potentiel des talus géotechniques comme puits de carbone et, par l'étude des espèces végétales et des sols présentant des caractéristiques contrastées, à mettre en lumière les mécanismes de séquestration du carbone organique et les rôles des différents acteurs impliqués. Nous visons non seulement à quantifier le C gagné et perdu dans le sol, mais aussi son origine (nouveau C frais et ancien C préexistant) et comment il est réparti dans différents pools de C qui montrent une stabilité du C différente (qualité du C stocké). Tout d'abord, nous avons évalué la séquestration du carbone dans différents pools de carbone sous un sol semé de 12 espèces herbacées différentes sur une période de 10 mois. La caractérisation des différents traits de racine a permis de comprendre l'influence de la stratégie d'alimentation des ressources en racines (représentée par le spectre économique de la racine) sur la séquestration du carbone. Nous avons montré que les espèces dont les caractéristiques racinaires sont associées à une production élevée de C labile entraînent une augmentation plus élevée de C dans le pool stable de SILT+CLAY (<20µm). Les espèces dont les traits de racine sont associés à un faible apport de C récalcitrant favorisent plutôt l'accumulation dans la fraction POM instable. Ensuite, grâce à une expérience de marquage isotopique stable de 183 jours (CO2 constamment enrichi en 13C), nous avons pu étudier la dynamique du C dans différents pools de C sous deux espèces (L. perenne et M. sativa) sur deux sols (terre végétale, profondeur 0-30 cm et sol remonté, profondeur 110-140 cm) aux caractéristiques opposées. Nous avons mis en évidence le grand intérêt de faire le pont entre l'origine du C et les pools de C lors de l'étude des destins du C du sol, ce qui permet de dévoiler des processus que les méthodes plus traditionnelles cachent. Le nouveau C et l'ancien C présentaient une covariation synergique, avec des pertes plus faibles de l'ancien C associées à de nouvelles entrées de C plus élevées. Ceci est conforme à l'hypothèse de l'utilisation préférentielle du substrat. Cette hypothèse a également été validée par l'étude de l’effet d’amorçage et de la respiration du sol. Celle-ci a montré que la teneur en CO2 inhalé était plus élevée lorsque les entrée C de la plante étaient élevées, tout en augmentant la minéralisation de l’ancien C lorsque les entrées de C de la plante étaient faibles, c’est-à-dire dans le sous-sol. De plus, nous avons validé l'hypothèse de réconciliation entre 'l'hypothèse de l'Utilisation Préférentielle des Substrats' et 'l'hypothèse de la Concurrence', cette dernière déterminant le 'priming effect' dans le sous-sol à faible fertilité. Nous avons observé de nouveaux apports significatifs de C d'origine végétale dans la fraction SILT+CLAY (<20µm, très stable) à l'appui de la preuve de l'effet d'ensevelissement in vivo dans l'hypothèse de la pompe à carbone microbienne du sol. L'effet de l'espèce s'est produit principalement sur les entrées de nouveaux C, mais il a été maîtrisé par l'effet du sol, avec un stockage de C plus faible dans un sol de faible qualité (faible activité et biomasse d'azote et microbienne). Les conditions microbiologiques ont été le principal moteur de la nouvelle accumulation de C et de l'ancienne perte de C et ont aidé à expliquer pourquoi aucun effet de la saturation en C du sol - une théorie centrale dans des études récentes sur la séquestration de C - n'a été trouvé dans le carbone protégé. Cette compréhension fondamentale des interactions plantes-sol nous aide à mieux optimiser la gestion des sols et de la végétation des talus des routes
Carbon (C) sequestration is receiving increasing scientific and political attention in a framework of greenhouse gasses mitigation. However, geotechnical soils have been neglected for their C sequestration potential, with the global attention focusing on agricultural and natural soils. In the present thesis project we aim to assess the potential of geotechnical embankments as C sink, and, through the study of plant species and soils showing contrasting features, shed light on SOC sequestration mechanisms and the role of the different actor involved. We aim not only to quantify the C gained and lost in soil, but even its origin (fresh new C input or old preexistent C) and how it is partitioned in different C pools characterized by different C stability (quality of stored C). First, we evaluated the C storage in different pools under soil sowed with 12 different herbaceous species in a 10 months experiment. Assessing different root traits allowed understanding the influence of root economic spectrum on C storage. We showed how traits linked to high labile C are linked to a higher C increase in the stable SILT+CLAY pool (<20µm). Root traits related to a low input of recalcitrant, instead, favor accumulation in the unstable POM fraction. Thanks to a 183 days stable isotope labelling experiment (CO2 constantly enriched with 13C) we were able to study the C dynamics in different C pools under two species (L. perenne and M. sativa) sowed on two soil (topsoil, 0-30cm depth and subsoil brought to the surface, 110-140 cm depth) showing contrasting characteristics. We evidenced the great interest of bridging C origin and C pools when studying soil C fates, allowing unveiling processes those more traditional methods would hide. New C and old C showed synergetic covariation, with lower old C losses associated to higher new C inputs. This is in good accordance with the Preferential Substrate Utilization hypothesis (Cheng and Kuzyakov, 2005). The Preferential Substrate Utilization hypothesis was also validated with the study of priming effect and soil respiration, that showed higher plant derived C in respired CO2 when plant C input were high, while increasing old C mineralization when plant C input were low, i.e. in subsoil. We observed significant plant derived new C input in the SILT+CLAY fraction (<20µm, highly stable) supporting evidence of the in vivo entombing effect in the soil Microbial Carbon Pump hypothesis (Liang et al., 2017). The species effect mainly occurred on new C input, but it was overpowered by the soil effect, with lower C storage in low quality soil (low nitrogen and microbial biomass and activity). In general, microbiological conditions were the main driver for new C accumulation and old C loss, and helped to explain why no effect of soil C saturation – a central theory in recent studies on C sequestration - was find in the protected carbon. Such fundamental understanding of plant-soil interactions help us to better optimize soil and vegetation management for road embankment revegetation

Carbon (C) sequestration is receiving increasing scientific and political attention in a framework of greenhouse gasses mitigation. However, geotechnical soils have been neglected for their C sequestration potential, with the global attention focusing on agricultural and natural soils. In the present thesis project, we aim to assess the potential of geotechnical embankments as C sink, and, through the study of plant species and soils showing contrasting features, shed light on C sequestration mechanisms and the role of the different actors involved. We aim not only to quantify the C gained and lost in soil, but even its origin (fresh new C input or old preexistent C) and how it is partitioned in different C pools characterized by different C stability (quality of stored C). First, we evaluated the C storage in different pools under soil sowed with 12 different herbaceous species in a 10 months experiment. Assessing different root traits allowed understanding the influence of root economic spectrum on C storage. We showed how traits linked to high labile C are linked to a higher C increase in the stable SILT+CLAY pool (<20µm). Root traits related to a low input of recalcitrant, instead, favor accumulation in the unstable POM fraction. Thanks to a 183 days stable isotope labelling experiment (CO2 constantly enriched with 13C) we were able to study the C dynamics in different C pools under two species (Lolium perenne and Medicago sativa) sowed on two soil (topsoil, 0-30cm depth and subsoil brought to the surface, 110-140 cm depth) showing contrasting characteristics. We evidenced the great interest of bridging C origin and C pools when studying soil C fates, allowing unveiling processes those more traditional methods would hide. New C and old C showed synergetic covariation, with lower old C losses associated to higher new C inputs. This is in good accordance with the Preferential Substrate Utilization hypothesis. The Preferential Substrate Utilization hypothesis was also validated with the study of priming effect and soil respiration, that showed higher plant derived C in respired CO2 when plant C input was high, while increasing old C mineralization when plant C input was low, i.e. in subsoil. We observed significant plant derived new C input in the SILT+CLAY fraction (<20µm, highly stable) supporting evidence of the in vivo entombing effect in the soil Microbial Carbon Pump hypothesis. The species effect mainly occurred on new C input, but it was overpowered by the soil effect, with lower C storage in low quality soil (low nitrogen and microbial biomass and activity). In general, microbiological conditions were the main driver for new C accumulation and old C loss, and helped to explain why no effect of soil C saturation – a central theory in recent studies on C sequestration - was found in the protected carbon. Such fundamental understanding of plant-soil interactions helps us to better optimize soil and vegetation management for road embankment revegetation

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
Gramados são parte fundamental na composição de campos esportivos. Alguns aspectos devem ser levados em consideração no processo de escolha da espécie a ser utilizada, como a utilização do gramado (tolerância ao pisoteio), manejo do gramado, condições físico-químicas do solo e tolerância ao sombreamento. Com a realização de eventos esportivos no país, houve a necessidade de reformas e modernizações das arenas de futebol; dentre as alterações na arquitetura está a implantação de coberturas nos estádios, o que resultou em uma redução da luminosidade, afetando o desenvolvimento normal do gramado. Objetivou-se com o experimento avaliar a influência da luminosidade e de diferentessubstratos no desenvolvimento de grama bermuda (Cynodon dactylon x C. transvaalensis). Foi conduzido no Campus II - UNESP, de Ilha Solteira – SP, em esquema fatorial 5 x 4 (substratos x luminosidades), em delineamento inteiramente casualizado com 20 tratamentos e 3 repetições. Os substratos foram: S1 = Solo, S2 = Solo + areia (2:1), S3 = Solo + matéria orgânica (1:1), S4 = Solo + matéria orgânica + areia (2:1:1) e S5 = Matéria orgânica + areia (3:1), em 4 condições de luminosidade (pleno sol, 30%, 50%, 80%), durante os meses de março a outubro de 2014. Foram avaliados: altura, massa fresca e massa seca das aparas da grama, teor de clorofila e radiação solar. Concluiu-se que: o sombreamento interferiu no pleno desempenho da grama bermuda, sendo que esta tolera sombreamento intermediário (30% e 50%), e os substratos que contém maiores teores de matéria orgânica submetidos ao sombreamento tiveram o desempenho prejudicado.
Lawn is the main part of sports fields and landscaping projects, it is difficult to find a landscaping project on which the lawn is not present. Some aspects must be considered when choosing the species or cultivar, as tolerance to treading, need for irrigation, the soil physic and chemical conditions and shade tolerance. Due to the realization of the sports events in the following years, there was a need for reforms and modernization of football arenas; among the architectural changes is the implantation of roof on the arenas, resulting in a reduction in light, affecting the normal development of lawn. The aim of the presentstudy wasto evaluate the light and differentsubstrates influence in the development of Bermudagrass. The study has been conducted in Campus II - UNESP Campus of Ilha Solteira - SP, in a factorial design 5x4 (substrates x light), in a completely randomized design with 20 treatments and 3 repetitions. The treatments: substrates - S1 = Soil, S2 = Soil + sand (2:1), S3 = Soil + organic matter (1:1), S4 = Soil + organic matter + sand (2:1:1) and S5 = Organic matter + sand (3:1), in 4 lighting conditions (full sun, 30%, 50%, 80%), during the months of March to October 2014. It has been evaluated: shoot height, shoot fresh and dry matter, chlorophyll content in the leaves, solar. Conclusion: shade interfered in the full performance of bermudagrass, the grass tolerates intermediate shading (30% and 50%) and the substrates that has most quantities of organic matter in its composition and submitted to shade had the damaged performance.

Orientador: Regina Maria Monteiro de Castilho
Resumo: Gramados são parte fundamental na composição de campos esportivos. Alguns aspectos devem ser levados em consideração no processo de escolha da espécie a ser utilizada, como a utilização do gramado (tolerância ao pisoteio), manejo do gramado, condições físico-químicas do solo e tolerância ao sombreamento. Com a realização de eventos esportivos no país, houve a necessidade de reformas e modernizações das arenas de futebol; dentre as alterações na arquitetura está a implantação de coberturas nos estádios, o que resultou em uma redução da luminosidade, afetando o desenvolvimento normal do gramado. Objetivou-se com o experimento avaliar a influência da luminosidade e de diferentessubstratos no desenvolvimento de grama bermuda (Cynodon dactylon x C. transvaalensis). Foi conduzido no Campus II - UNESP, de Ilha Solteira – SP, em esquema fatorial 5 x 4 (substratos x luminosidades), em delineamento inteiramente casualizado com 20 tratamentos e 3 repetições. Os substratos foram: S1 = Solo, S2 = Solo + areia (2:1), S3 = Solo + matéria orgânica (1:1), S4 = Solo + matéria orgânica + areia (2:1:1) e S5 = Matéria orgânica + areia (3:1), em 4 condições de luminosidade (pleno sol, 30%, 50%, 80%), durante os meses de março a outubro de 2014. Foram avaliados: altura, massa fresca e massa seca das aparas da grama, teor de clorofila e radiação solar. Concluiu-se que: o sombreamento interferiu no pleno desempenho da grama bermuda, sendo que esta tolera sombreamento intermediário (30% e 50%), e os s... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo)
Abstract: Lawn is the main part of sports fields and landscaping projects, it is difficult to find a landscaping project on which the lawn is not present. Some aspects must be considered when choosing the species or cultivar, as tolerance to treading, need for irrigation, the soil physic and chemical conditions and shade tolerance. Due to the realization of the sports events in the following years, there was a need for reforms and modernization of football arenas; among the architectural changes is the implantation of roof on the arenas, resulting in a reduction in light, affecting the normal development of lawn. The aim of the presentstudy wasto evaluate the light and differentsubstrates influence in the development of Bermudagrass. The study has been conducted in Campus II - UNESP Campus of Ilha Solteira - SP, in a factorial design 5x4 (substrates x light), in a completely randomized design with 20 treatments and 3 repetitions. The treatments: substrates - S1 = Soil, S2 = Soil + sand (2:1), S3 = Soil + organic matter (1:1), S4 = Soil + organic matter + sand (2:1:1) and S5 = Organic matter + sand (3:1), in 4 lighting conditions (full sun, 30%, 50%, 80%), during the months of March to October 2014. It has been evaluated: shoot height, shoot fresh and dry matter, chlorophyll content in the leaves, solar. Conclusion: shade interfered in the full performance of bermudagrass, the grass tolerates intermediate shading (30% and 50%) and the substrates that has most quantities of organic matte... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)
Mestre

Le « topsoil » comme outil de restauration écologique des terrains miniers dégradés, consiste à récupérer la couche de sol naturellement riche en matières organiques, semences et micro-organismes (qui définissent le potentiel biologique de restauration), lors d'une opération qui précède l'exploitation minière, puis à l'épandre sur les sites à restaurer. Au coeur desproblématiques de restauration écologique, les topsoils apparaissent à travers la littérature comme une technique efficiente et leur utilisation est abondamment préconisée. Toutefois celle-ci ne date, en Nouvelle-Calédonie, que des années 2000. Les connaissances actuelles locales liées à cet outil sont encore fragmentaires, et les caractéristiques des topsoils, tout comme les résultats obtenus sont hétérogènes. Ce travail de recherche a permis d'améliorer notre compréhension des interactions entre les composantes biologiques des topsoils et les phénomènes intervenant dansleur évolution (banque de graines, micro-organismes, et caractéristiques physico-chimiques). Les résultats obtenus ont montré que l'utilisation des topsoils en restauration écologique peut favoriser la restauration des écosystèmes ultramafiques néo-calédoniens, et pourraient trouver une application dans la conception de nouvelles stratégies de restauration écologiques des terrains miniers dégradés du territoire. Néanmoins, il est également apparu que les topsoils ne peuvent à eux seuls restaurer la totalité de la diversité végétale qui caractérise les substrats ultramafiques du territoire, et doivent donc être associés à d'autres techniques de restauration
"Topsoil", as an ecological tool of restoration of the mines made in terraces, consist of getting back the layers full of organic matter, seeds and micro-organisms (which define the biological potential of restoration), during a procedure made following the exploitation of the mines, then could be extend to the sites which require some restoration.While the problem of ecological restoration is at the center of the debate, topsoil appears, according to the literature, as an efficient technique and their uses are well recommended. However, they only have been used in New Caledonia since the beginning of the XXI century. The actual knowledge of this specific tool is still incomplete, and the characteristics of topsoil, same as the results, remain inconsistent. The research made around this topic gave us a better understanding of the interaction between the biological components of topsoil and their way of evolving (seeds’ bank, micro-organisms and the physic and chemical characteristics). The results obtained demonstrate that the use of topsoil as an ecological restoration could be beneficial for the restoration of the ultramafic ecosystem of New Caledonia. It could, as well, find a place in the development of new strategies of ecological restoration of mines in terrace of the country. However, it has been shown in another hand that topsoil would not be sufficient to restore the entire vegetal diversity of the ultramafic bedrock of the country. For this reason, it has to be associated with different techniques of restoration

The present state and future prospect of the world's soil resources has prompted scientists and researchers to address the issue of soil quality and sustainable land management. Soil quality research has focused on intensively-managed agricultural and forest soils, but the concept and importance of soil quality is also pertinent to disturbed systems such as reclaimed mine soils. The restoration of soil function and mine soil quality is essential to long-term ecosystem stability. The objectives of this study were (i) to determine the comparative ability of topsoil, sawdust, and sewage sludge amendments, after 16 years, to positively affect mine soil quality using the following key soil quality variables: organic matter content, aggregate stability, and mineralizable nitrogen, (ii) to determine the effects of these key soil quality variables on plant productivity, and (iii) to determine the comparative ability of trees and herbaceous plants to persist and to conserve or maintain mine soil quality. In 1982, a mined site was amended with seven different surface treatments: a fertilized control (2:1 sandstone:siltstone), 30 cm of native soil + 7.8 Mg ha-1 lime, 112 Mg ha-1 sawdust, and municipal sewage sludge (SS) at rates of 22, 56, 112, and 224 Mg ha-1. Four replicates of each treatment were installed as a randomized complete block design. Whole plots were split according to vegetation type: pitch x loblolly pine hybrid (Pinus rigida x taeda) trees and Kentucky-31 tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). Soil analyses of composite samples for 1982, 1987, and 1998 were evaluated for changing levels of mine soil quality. The positive effect of these organic amendments on organic matter content, total nitrogen, and other soil parameters was most apparent and pronounced after 5 growing seasons. However, after 16 years, soil organic matter content and total nitrogen appear to be equilibrating at about 4.3 and 1.5%. There was a significant difference in organic matter content and nitrogen mineralization potential between vegetation types. Organic matter inputs by vegetation alone over the 16-yr period in the control plots resulted in organic matter and nitrogen mineralization potential values comparable to levels in the organically amended plots. The results suggest that about 15 years is needed for climate, moisture availability, and other edaphic features to have the same influence on overall organic matter decomposition, N accretion, organic nitrogen mineralization levels, system equilibrium, and overall mine soil quality as a one-time 100-Mg ha-1 application of organic amendment. Tree volume and biomass were measured as indices of the effects of organic matter content 16 years after initial amendment. Individual tree volumes of the sawdust, 22, 56, and 112 Mg ha -1 SS treatments retained 18 to 26% more volume than the control, respectively. Overall, fescue production was the same among treatments. Organic amendments improved initial soil fertility for fescue establishment, but it appears that they will have little or no long-lasting effect on plant productivity.
Master of Science

?rea de concentra??o: Conserva??o e restaura??o de ecossistemas Florestais.
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Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior (CAPES)
Funda??o de Amparo ? Pesquisa do estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG)
Instituto Estadual de Florestas (IEF)
Secretaria de Estado de Ci?ncia, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior (SECTES)
O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar diferentes t?cnicas para recupera??o de uma cascalheira, visando gerar conhecimentos para subsidiar a recupera??o de ecossistemas degradados. A disserta??o foi estruturada em quatro cap?tulos (artigos). Os dois primeiros artigos se referem ? t?cnica de resgate de pl?ntulas visando ? produ??o de mudas para a restaura??o de ecossistemas degradados. Os experimentos de peroba (Aspidosperma cylindrocarpon) e arnica (Lychnophora pohlii) foram instalados no Centro Integrado de Propaga??o de Esp?cies Florestais ? CIPEF do Departamento de Engenharia Florestal da UFVJM, em Diamantina, Minas Gerais. Foram resgatadas 240 pl?ntulas de cada esp?cie, as quais foram divididas em duas classes de altura (peroba: Classe I ? 5 a 15 cm e Classe II ? 20 a 35 e arnica: Classe I ? 2,5 a 20 cm e Classe II ? 25 a 55 cm) e submetidas a tr?s intensidades de redu??o foliar (0%, 50% e 100%). Foi verificado que para mudas de peroba ? aconselh?vel resgatar ambas as classes de altura, enquanto para a arnica o tamanho entre 2,5 e 20 cm ? o mais adequado. Os resultados evidenciaram que n?o ? necess?ria a redu??o foliar. No artigo 3 foi avaliado o potencial da candeia (Eremanthus erythropappus) na recupera??o de uma cascalheira, onde foi instalado um experimento de plantio de mudas com seis densidades (T1=1.667, T2=2.000, T3=2.500, T4=3.333, T5=5.000 e T6=10.000 plantas por hectare). Trimestralmente foram avaliados a altura total das plantas, o di?metro do colo, a cobertura de copa e a sobreviv?ncia, at? 12 meses ap?s a primeira avalia??o, que foi realizada em julho de 2010. Verificou-se que os tratamentos mais adensados, T5 e T6 foram os que apresentaram maior sobreviv?ncia, apesar da n?o diferen?a estat?stica entre os tratamentos avaliados para os atributos altura, di?metro e cobertura de copa. Assim, pode-se concluir que a candeia ? uma esp?cie com alto potencial ecol?gico para o uso em programas de recupera??o de ?rea degradadas em ecossistemas cong?neres ao estudado. No artigo 4 foi testado o potencial de uso do topsoil na recupera??o de uma cascalheira. Foram selecionados quatro ambientes onde o topsoil foi depositado em pilhas e espalhado em camadas de cerca de 20 cm. Seis meses ap?s a transposi??o do solo, foram realizados os levantamentos flor?stico e fitossociol?gicos na ?rea, nos meses de setembro de 2010, fevereiro de 2011 e setembro de 2011, al?m da avalia??o da porcentagem de cobertura de plantas pelo m?todo de Braun-Blanquet, nos meses de julho de 2010 e 2011. Foram registradas no total 55 esp?cies, pertencentes a 15 fam?lias. As fam?lias com maior representatividade foram Asteraceae (12), Poaceae (11) e Malvaceae (8). O grau de cobertura do solo foi de 66% e 82% na primeira e segunda avalia??o respectivamente, no qual verificou-se o r?pido recobrimento dos solos da cascalheira, evidenciando o grande potencial do uso do topsoil na recomposi??o da cobertura do solo, por?m, esse recurso s? deve ser usado quando a ?rea doadora n?o apresentar esp?cies invasoras.
ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to evaluate different techniques to recover from a gravel pit in order to generate knowledge to support the recovery of degraded ecosystems. The dissertation is structured in four chapters (articles). The first two articles refer to the technical rescue seedlings aiming the production of seedlings for the restoration of degraded cosystems. The experiments of peroba (Aspidosperma cylindrocarpon) and arnica (Lychnophora pohlii) were installed in the Integrated Forest Species Propagation - CIPEF Department of Forest Engineering UFVJM in Diamantina, Minas Gerais. We rescued 240 seedlings of each species, which were divided into two height classes (peroba: Class I - 5 to 15 cm and Class II - 20 to 35 and arnica: Class I - 2.5 to 20 cm and Class II - 25-55 cm) and subjected to three levels of reduction leaf (0%, 50% and 100%). It was found that for seedlings peroba is advisable to recover both the classes high, while for arnica size between 2.5 and 20 cm is optimal. The results showed that it is necessary to reduce leaf. Article 3 was evaluated the potential of the lamp (Eremanthus erythropappus) to recover from a gravel pit, where he was an experiment of planting seedlings with six densities (T1 = 1667, T2 = 2000, T3 = 2500, 3333 = T4, T5 = T6 = 5,000 and 10,000 plants per hectare). Quarterly evaluated the overall height of the plants, stem diameter, canopy cover and survival until 12 months after the first evaluation, which was held in July 2010. It was found that the more dense treatments, T5 and T6 were those with longer survival, although no statistical difference among the treatments for the attributes height, diameter and canopy. Thus, it can be concluded that the lamp is a species with high ecological potential for use in the restoration of damaged area similar to the ecosystems studied. Article 4 tested the potential use of topsoil in the recovery of a gravel pit. We selected four environments where the topsoil has been deposited in piles and spread in layers about 20 cm. Six months after the implementation of the soil, were conducted floristic and phytosociological surveys in the area, in September 2010, February 2011 and September 2011, and by evaluating the percentage of plant cover by the method of Braun-Blanquet, in July 2010 and 2011. We recorded a total of 55 species belonging to 15 families. The families were Asteraceae with the largest representation (12), Poaceae (11) and Malvaceae (8). The degree of soil cover was 66% and 82% in the first and second evaluation respectively, in which there was rapid coating of gravel soils of showing the great potential of use of topsoil in the rebuilding of ground cover, but this feature should only be used when the donor does not have invasive species.
Disserta??o (Mestrado) ? Programa de P?s-Gradua??o em Ci?ncia Florestal, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, 2012.

This thesis examines the growth response and inter-relationships between shoots and roots of plants grown in compact soil. In the field, two topsoil and two subsoil conditions were created with five vegetable crops sequentially grown. Between 6 and 12% of the root system grew in the compact subsoil, which had a soil strength of 3.1 c.f. 1.9 MPa in the loosened subsoil. Both the root length density (Lv) and the specific root length were lower in the compact subsoil (80% and 30%, respectively). This had no effect on shoot growth when water and nutrients were well supplied. Compensatory root growth in the lose soil above the compact subsoil occurred in broccoli plants. As a result plants grown in soil with or without a compact subsoil had a similar total root length but with altered root distribution. When the water and nitrogen supplied to the soil was reduced, the lower subsoil Lv in the compact subsoil did not restrict water or N acquisition. This was possibly due to a large increase in the specific uptake per unit length of root, by the fewer roots in the compact subsoil. Compared to the subsoil treatments, only small changes in topsoil physical properties occurred when tillage was ceased. From the field trials the proportion and time of root growth into compact soil appeared important in determining the plant response. In a series of split-root experiments (horizontal and vertical arrangements of compact and loose soil) compensatory root growth in the loose soil only occurred when the root system was exposed to horizontally compact soil When compensatory root growth did not occur shoot growth was reduced. This resulted in there being a close relationship between total root length and leaf area. Further test results support a direct effect of mechanical impedance on shoot growth with a rapid (within 10 minutes) and large (50%) reduction in leaf elongation occurring when roots were mechanically impeded. In the field only plants whose roots were totally exposed to compact soil had reduced shoot growth with very compact subsoil having no effect.
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
The present study evaluated the efficacy of using a soil surface layer (topsoil) to cover deposits of waste-rock piles from granite extraction in order to enable the substratum to establish a plant community. With this objective, a greenhouse experiment was conducted with seven treatments (waste-rock, waste-rock + 5.0 cm topsoil, waste-rock + 10,0 cm topsoil, waste-rock + 20.0 cm topsoil, waste-rock + 10.0 cm B horizon, waste-rock + 4 L of incorporated manure, and waste-rock + 10.0 cm topsoil stored in the previous year). The experimental units consisted of a pot holding 32 dm3 substratum where one Joannesia princeps Vell. seedling was planted as indicator plant. The experiment was monitored over the course of 120 days. In the end of this period the indicator plants were evaluated biometrically, and the dry matter of the spontaneously germinated vegetation in each pot was analyzed. Substratum samples from each pot were also collected for analyses of microbiological aspects (CBM and qMic), of total organic carbon (COT) and of total nitrogen (NT). The results did not show any significant difference between thicknesses of 5, 10 or 20 cm, or even when no topsoil at all was used, regarding the establishment of an initial community of herbaceous plants by means of spontaneous germination. Topsoil (10 cm) addition proved effective, however, to establish tree vegetation, resulting in a significant growth increment of Joannesia princeps Vell. In both situations, the treatment of incorporated manure (4 L) resulted in strongest plant growth. No positive effect was verified by the substitution of topsoil by an equally thick layer of material derived from the soil B horizon. In the case of previously stored topsoil, no quality reduction was verified after a storage time of 12 months. The chemical and microbiological analyses were not able to detect significant alterations in the microbiota of the waste-rock substratum samples, but evidenced a tendency of increased COT and NT contents of the samples with the increasing thickness of the topsoil layers.
O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a eficiência de utilização da camada superficial do solo (topsoil) como cobertura de depósitos de estéril da extração de granito de modo a proporcionar a este substrato condições para o estabelecimento de uma comunidade vegetal. Para tanto, foi executado um experimento em casa de vegetação com sete tratamentos (estéril, estéril + 5,0 cm topsoil, estéril + 10,0 cm topsoil, estéril + 20,0 cm topsoil, estéril + 10,0 cm horizonte B, estéril + 4 L de esterco de curral incorporado e estéril + 10,0 cm topsoil armazenado no ano anterior). As unidades experimentais foram constituídas por um vaso com capacidade de 32 dm3 de substrato onde foi realizado o plantio de uma muda de Joannesia princeps Vell. como planta indicadora. O experimento foi acompanhado durante 120 dias. Ao fim deste período foram realizadas as avaliações biométricas das plantas indicadoras, bem como análise da matéria seca da vegetação germinada espontaneamente em cada vaso. Também foram coletadas amostras do substrato de cada vaso para análises microbiológicas (CBM e qMic), de carbono orgânico total (COT) e de nitrogênio total (NT). Os resultados não evidenciaram diferença significativa entre as espessuras de 5, 10 e 20 cm, ou mesmo ao não uso do opsoil, para o estabelecimento de uma comunidade inicial de herbáceas através da germinação espontânea. A adição do topsoil (10 cm) mostrou-se eficiente, porém, na etapa de estabelecimento da vegetação arbórea, ao propiciar um incremento significativo no crescimento de Joannesia princeps Vell. Em ambas as situações, a incorporação de esterco de curral (4 L) foi o tratamento que acarretou maior crescimento das plantas. Não foi verificado efeito positivo na substituição do topsoil por camada de igual espessura formada por material oriundo do horizonte B do solo. Quanto à utilização de topsoil já armazenado anteriormente, não foi comprovada diminuição de sua qualidade para o tempo do armazenamento de 12 meses. As análises químicas e microbiológicas utilizadas não foram capazes de detectar significativas alterações na microbiota das amostras do substrato estéril, porém evidenciaram uma tendência de aumento dos teores de COT e NT das amostras ao aumento da espessura da camada de Topsoil.

Ecossistemas campestres encontram-se fortemente impactados por conversão de hábitat e por espécies exóticas invasoras. É necessário restaurar os ecossistemas campestres ao redor do globo. Entretanto, para os ecossistemas campestres brasileiros há poucas experiências de restauração e precisamos testar a viabilidade de técnicas normalmente empregadas em outros lugares. O objetivo deste estudo foi testar diferentes combinações de técnicas para restauração de campos invadidos por Urochloa decumbens nos Campos Sulinos, sul do Brasil. Combinaram-se duas técnicas de controle da espécie invasora (aplicação de herbicida e remoção superficial de solo) e duas técnicas de introdução de espécies nativas (transposição de feno e semeadura direta). Foram estabelecidos oito blocos em um experimento bifatorial no Morro Santana, Porto Alegre, combinando dois fatores e cada um com três tratamentos (duas técnicas mais o controle). A cobertura de vários grupos de espécies, riqueza de espécies e composição de espécies foram avaliadas por análises de variância, e então também por análise de coordenadas principais. Adicionalmente, a relação entre a cobertura da invasora e das espécies nativas foi investigada. As técnicas de controle da invasora mostraram-se eficientes tanto na redução da cobertura da espécie, como em permitir a entrada de espécies nativas na comunidade. Comparando as duas técnicas, aplicação de herbicida pareceu ser melhor do que a remoção superficial de solo, pois parcelas que tiveram a aplicação tiveram menor cobertura da invasora e maior riqueza de espécies. Já as técnicas de introdução de espécies mostraram-se insuficientes para adicionar espécies nativas na comunidade para competir com U. decumbens. Padrões de composição de espécies diferiram entre os tratamentos. Técnicas de controle do invasor diferiram grandemente do seu controle, que foi dominado por U. decumbens. Uma clara relação existe entre a cobertura da invasora e a presença e cobertura de espécies nativas. Então o controle da espécie invasora é fundamental para uma maior recuperação da vegetação. Entretanto, os resultados aqui apresentados correspondem a apenas oito meses após a finalização da implementação do experimento, e ações futuras de manejo na área deverão combinar novamente o controle da invasora com introdução de espécies nativas.
Grasslands ecosystems are strongly impacted by land use and invasive species. It is necessary restore these ecosystems around the world. However, there are few experiences with ecological restoration for the Brazilian grasslands and we need to test the viability of techniques normally used in others grasslands ecosystems. The aim of this study was to test different combinations of techniques to the ecological restoration of grasslands invaded by Urochloa decumbens in Campos, Southern Brazil. We combine two techniques to control the invasive species (herbicide application and topsoil removal) and two techniques to introduce native species (hay transfer and direct sowing). We established nine blocks in a bi-factorial experiment on Morro Santana, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, combining two factors and each one with three treatments (two techniques plus the control). The coverage of various groups of species, species richness, and species composition were evaluated by variance analyses, and the later also by a principal ordination analysis. Additionally, the relation between invader coverage and native species was investigated. Both techniques to control invasive species have shown to be efficient to reduce the coverage of the invasive species, as well as to allow the arrival of native species. Specifically comparing them, the herbicide application seems to be a better treatment than the topsoil removal, once plots with herbicide had lower invasive species coverage and higher species richness. However, the species introduction techniques failed efficiently to add native species to the community composition and to compete with U. decumbens. Species composition patterns differed among the treatments. The invader control techniques greatly differed from their control, which was dominated by U. decumbens. A clear relationship exists between the invader coverage and the presence and coverage of native species. Thus, the control of the invasive species is fundamental to further vegetation recovery. Nevertheless, results here presented correspond to just eight months from the experiment implantation and future monitoring and management actions on the area should combine once more the control of the invasive species and the introduction of native species.

Thesis (MScAgric (Soil Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
Includes bibliography.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The natural resource condition or health has been accepted as a valuable indicator of sustainable land use. The assessment of soil health (quality) has become a valuable tool in determining the sustainability of land management systems. This work aims to evaluate the sustainability of soil management practices in agricultural extension for vineyards in Robertson, South Africa based, on the current approach of the concept of soil health and soil quality, as well as to briefly explore the present reservations regarding the definition of the concept. The soil management treatments include a mechanical weed control, chemical weed control, annual addition of straw mulch, annual cover crop and perennial cover crop. The objective of study is to (i) identify suitable soil health (quality) indicators for vineyards in the study area; (ii) analyze the soil health (quality) indicators for different soil management treatments; (iii) evaluate the effect of various soil management treatments on the overall soil functionality, by comparing measured indicators to the soil property threshold values, for optimal vine growth; iv) establish a more consistent understanding and use of the terms health and quality, as understood and used in the general science community, with particular reference to the public health system. The soil physical, chemical and biological properties which were selected as indicators of soil health (quality) based on specific criteria similar to previous work done on the concept. The properties selected include soil texture, gravimetric water content, bulk density, soil aeration, water aggregate stability, soil pH, EC, available N,P,K , soil organic matter content, soil microbial biomass, potential mineralizable nitrogen and soil respiration. The study makes use of methods of analysis previously used for soil health and soil quality assessments, as well as soil analytical methods as accepted by experienced soil scientist within the study area. The soil was sampled on three separate events to depths of 0-200 mm for initial characterization of soil and 0-50 mm to compare soil health (quality) Between tracks and In tracks of treatment plots. The values obtained for each property were compared with the optimum for vineyards and ranked accordingly. The treatment that resulted in the most desirable soil health (quality) was the straw mulch and perennial cover crop treatments.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die toestand of gesondheid van natuurlike hulpbronne is aanvaar as `n waardevolle aanduiding van volhoubare grondgebruik. Die assessering van grond gesondheid (kwaliteit) is 'n waardevolle hulpmiddel in die bepaling van die volhoubaarheid van grond bestuur stelsels. Hierdie werkstuk poog om die volhoubaarheid van grond bestuurs praktyke te evalueer vir wingerde in Robertson, Suid-Afrika wat baseer is op die huidige benadering van grond gesondheid en kwaliteit. Die tesis dek ook die huidige onsekerhede oor die konsep en definisies van terme wat gebruik word in die konsep. Die grond bestuur praktyke sluit in 'n meganiese onkruidbeheer, chemiese onkruidbeheer, jaarlikse toevoeging van `n strooi deklaag, jaarlikse en meerjarige dekgewas dekgewasse. Die doel van die studie was om (i) die geskikte grond gesondheid (kwaliteit) indikators vir wingerde in die studie area te identifiseer, (ii) die grond gesondheid (kwaliteit) indikators vir verskillende bogrond bestuur praktyke te identifiseer; (iii) die effek van verskillende grond bestuur praktyke op die algehele grond funksies te evalueer, deur dit te vergelyk met die gemete indikators vir drempelwaardes vir optimale wingerd groei; iv) 'n meer konsekwente begrip en gebruik van die terme “gesondheid” en “kwaliteit” vas te stel, soos dit verstaan en gebruik word in die algemene wetenskaplike gemeenskap, met spesifieke verwysing na die openbare gesondheidsisteem. Die grond fisiese, chemiese en biologiese eienskappe wat as indikators van grond gesondheid (kwaliteit) geselekteer was, word gebaseer op spesifieke kriteria soortgelyk aan dié wat in vorige werk op die konsep gedoen was. Die eienskappe wat geselekteer is sluit in grondtekstuur, gravimetriese waterinhoud, bulk digtheid, grond deurlugting, totalle water stabiliteit, grond pH, electriese geleiding, toeganklike N, P, K, grond organiese materiaal inhoud, grond mikrobiese massa, potensiële mineraliseerbare stikstof en grond respirasie. Die studie maak gebruik van analitiese metodes wat voorheen gebruik was vir grond gesondheid en kwaliteit, sowel as die grond analitiese metodes soos gebruik deur ervare grondkundiges binne die studie gebied. Die grondmonsters was geneem op drie afsonderlike geleenthede oor dieptes van 0-200 mm vir die aanvanklike karakterisering van grond en 0-50 mm, om grond gesondheid (kwaliteit) Tussen trekkerspore en In trekkerspore van die persele te vergelyk. Die waardes verkry vir elke eienskap was vergelyk met die optimum vir wingerde en verdeel volgens kwaliteit. Die behandeling wat die mees optimale grond gesondheid (kwaliteit) getoon het, was die strooi deklaag en meerjarige dekgewas behandelings.

In einem für das Erzgebirge (Sachsen, Südostdeutschland) typischen Wirtschaftswald aus ca. 60-jähriger Fichte (Picea abies [L.] KARST.), in den Sand-Birken (Betula pendula Roth) eingemischt sind, sollte die Wirkung der Baumartenmischung auf den Oberbodenzustand erfasst und bewertet werden. Die Befunde stammen aus einem Bestand, der sowohl hinsichtlich der Altersstruktur, des Bodentyps als auch der Stoffeinträge und der Kalkung für das Erzgebirge repräsentativ ist. Analysiert wurden photosynthetisch aktive Strahlung, Bodenvegetation, Streumenge und -verteilung, Dynamik der Streuzersetzung, Humuskörpermorphologie sowie chemische und mikrobiologische Oberbodeneigenschaften. Dabei fand ein einzelbaumweiser Ansatz in Kopplung mit Transekten Anwendung. Es wurden eindeutige Effekte durch einzelbaumweise eingemischte Birken nachgewiesen. Mit Hilfe des Einzelbaumansatzes und davon ausgehenden Transekten wurden reine Fichtenbereiche und Mischungsbereiche untersucht. Zusätzlich wurden für die Auswertung drei Straten gebildet. Die Zuordnung dafür war die folgende: Probepunkte unter der Birkenkrone ergaben das Birken-Stratum, Probepunkte unter der Fichte das Fichten-Stratum und Probepunkte im Übergangsbereich zwischen Birke und Fichte das Fichten-Birken-Stratum. Im Bereich der Birkenkronen waren überwiegend höhere Strahlungswerte festzustellen als unter den Fichtenkronen. Gezeigt wurde aber auch, dass die höheren Strahlungswerte, die unter den Birkenkronen auftraten, auch in lichteren bzw. lückigeren Partien des reinen Fichtenbestandes zu finden waren. Die Sippenanzahl der Bodenvegetation erhöhte sich sowohl unter reiner Fichte als auch in Mischung von Fichte und Birke vor allem mit zunehmender Annäherung zum Kronenrand. Insgesamt waren aber bei der Mischung von Fichte und Birke ähnlich hohe Sippenanzahlen wie im reinen Fichtenbereich zu finden. Allerdings gab es Sippen, die nur auf einer der beiden Flächen auftraten. Es waren höhere Deckungsgrade bei der Mischung von Fichte und Birke im Vergleich zur reinen Fichte sichtbar. Die Befunde der Streusammler ließen erkennen, dass in einer Entfernung von > 16 m vom Birkenstamm kaum noch Birkenstreu auftrat. Nennenswerte Trockenflussdichten wurden nur in einem Radius von 10 m festgestellt. In diesem Bereich ist ein Effekt der Birkenstreu auf die Oberbodeneigenschaften zu erwarten. Die Gesamttrockenmasse einer relativ vitalen Birke mit rund 38 cm Brusthöhendurchmesser betrug im Untersu-chungsjahr rund 8 kg. Die Modellierung unter Hinzunahme weniger vitaler Birken reduzierte die Gesamttrockenmasse auf 6,3 kg. Der Massenverlust der Birkenblätter in den Litter-Bags war in allen drei Straten bei der Mischung der Birkenblätter mit Fichtennadeln im Verhältnis 5:1 am größten. Bei den Fichtennadeln zeigten sich die höchsten Trockenmassenverluste in den reinen Nadel-Litter-Bags. Die Litter-Bags unter der Birkenkrone wiesen für alle Varianten die beste Zersetzung der Birkenblätter und der Fichtennadeln auf. Die C/N-Verhältnisse der Streu ließen keine eindeutigen positiven Effekte der Birkenkrone erkennen. Sie waren aber bei den Birkenblättern in allen Varianten, in allen Straten und zu allen Terminen deutlich enger als die der Fichtennadeln. Desweiteren war der Abfall der C/N-Kurven bei den Birkenblättern steiler als bei den Fichtennadeln. Die Mächtigkeit des Of-Horizontes wies sowohl in der Mischsituation als auch in der reinen Fichtenfläche deutlichere räumliche Muster auf als im Oh-Horizont. Im Of waren dadurch deutliche, vom Einzelbaum abhängige, Muster zu erkennen. Die höchsten Mächtigkeiten traten in Stammnähe auf. Die größten Gesamtmächtigkeiten existierten unter reiner Fichte. Beim Vergleich der Mächtigkeiten in den Straten war in der Of-Lage vor allem das Birken-Stratum signifikant verschieden vom Fichten-Stratum. Für die Oh-Mächtigkeit und somit auch die Gesamtmächtigkeit zeigte zusätzlich das Fichten-Birken-Stratum signifikante Unterschiede im Vergleich zum Birken-Stratum. Als Humusform trat der rohhumusartige Moder auf. Dabei überwog im Fichtenstratum der feinhumusreiche rohhumusartige Moder, im Fichten-Birken-Stratum und im Birken-Stratum dagegen der feinhumusarme rohhumusartige Moder. Signifikante Unterschiede zwischen Straten konnten in der Of-Lage für den pH-Wert, Cges-Vorrat, Ccarbonat-Gehalt, Nges-Gehalt, Nges-Vorrat, und den metabolischen Quotienten erfasst werden. In der Oh-Lage waren es die nachstehenden Oberbo-deneigenschaften: Corg/N-Verhältnis, Cges-Gehalt, Nmik-Gehalt, Cmik/Nmik-Verhältnis, Basalatmungsaktivität, sowie der metabolische Quotient, die sich zwischen den Straten signifikant unterschieden. Im A-Horizont zeigten sich signifikante Unterschiede der Straten beim Corg/N-Verhältnis, Cges-Gehalt, Ccabonat-Gehalt, Corg-Gehalt sowie dem Nges-Vorrat. Mit Hilfe der multivariaten Ordination (mit verschiedenen Elementgehalten und pH-Werten) ist die Stratenbildung erneut bestätigt worden. Dabei hatten die Elemente C, Mg, Ca und N den größten Einfluss. Die Auswertung der Daten der effektiven Kationenaustauschkapazität ließ vor allem für den A-Horizont Unterschiede zwischen den Straten erkennen. Dabei war die Akeff im Fichtenstratum am kleinsten und der prozentuale Anteil der sauren Kationen an der Akeff am größten. Die höchste Akeff besaß das Birken-Stratum. Eine Reihe der untersuchten Größen ließen eindeutige Baumarteneffekte erkennen. Alles in allem wurde der Nachweis erbracht, dass die Effekte in dem Bereich zu finden sind, der durch die Laubstreu der Birken geprägt ist. Bei den Oberbodeneigenschaften wurden keine Veränderungen an Punkten, die mehr als 10 m vom Birkenstamm entfernt waren, festgestellt. Aus den Ergebnissen war abzuleiten, dass für ähnliche Bedingungen wie im Untersuchungsbestand ein Mischungsanteil der Birke von mindestens 10 % zu empfehlen ist. Die Ergebnisse sind aber durch zukünftige Forschung noch zu verifizieren. Dafür sollten vor allem die Produktionsziele und die waldbaulichen Behandlungskonzepte für Mischbestände aus Fichte und Birke in Deutschland erneut konkretisiert werden. Um dafür eindeutige ökologische und ökonomische Kriterien festlegen zu können, wird eine Zusammenführung wichtiger Ergebnisse aus den verschiedenen forstlichen Forschungsbereichen (z. B. Standortskunde, Vegetationskunde, Waldwachstumskunde, Ökonomie, Zoologie, Waldbau) empfohlen
In a typical managed forest of the Ore Mountains (Saxony, SE Germany), consisting of 60 years old Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] KARST.) admixed with silver birches (Betula pendula Roth) the impact of the admixture on topsoil properties was quantified and evaluated. This study was conducted in a stand which is representative for the Ore Mountains regarding the soil type, deposition and liming. Photosynthetic active radiation, the layer of herbs and mosses, the mass and distribution of the litter fall, the dynamics of litter decom-position, and morphology of the humus layer as well as the chemical and microbiological topsoil properties were all analyzed. The study was based on a single-tree-approach where samples were collected along transects from selected sample trees of birch and spruce. Transects were established within areas of pure spruce as well as within areas of spruce and birch mixture. Three different strata were defined based on the situation of the examined points in relation to the crowns of birch and spruce: the birch stratum, the spruce stratum and the spruce-birch stratum with measurements from underneath the crowns of birches, spruces and the transition area between spruce and birch crowns, respectively. Higher photosynthetic active radiation values were detected in the area underneath the crowns of birch crowns in comparison with the area underneath the crowns of spruce. Higher values of photosynthetic active radiation were also registered within areas of light foliage and in gaps in the pure spruce stand. The number of ground vegetation species underneath pure spruce and in the mixture of spruce and birch was negatively correlated with the distance to the crown edge. But altogether the same number of ground vegetation species was found in the mixed stand and in the pure spruce stand. A few species were, however, specific for each stand type. A higher coverage of ground vegetation was found in the mixture of spruce and birch in comparison to the pure spruce. The results of the litter traps show marginal densities of birch leaves at a distance of more than 16 m from the birch stem. The majority of the dry flux density was found within a radius of 10 m around the birch stem. Within this area an effect of the birch litter on top soil properties was expected. The whole dry litter mass was measured in the study time of a relative vital birch with a diameter at breast high of ca. 38 cm and was ca. 8 kg. Modeling the amount of litter for birches with lower vitality indicated a dry litter mass of 6.3 kg. The mass lost of the birch leaves in the litter bags was in each stratum the highest at a ratio of 5 to 1 of birch leaves to spruce needles. The greatest loss of dry mass for spruce needles was registered in litter-bags with pure needles. The litter-bags under the birch crowns exhibited the best decomposition rate of birch leaves and spruce needles for all variants. The C/N-ratios of the litter showed no clear positive effects of the birch crown. But they were clearly smaller for the birch leaves in contrast to the spruce needles in all variants, in each stratum and at all dates. Furthermore the C/N-curves drop away more for the birch leaves in contrast to the spruce needles. The thickness of the Of-horizon in contrast to the Oh-horizon showed clear spatial patterns for the mixed situation and the pure spruce area. Thus in the Of-horizon a clear spatial pattern in connection to the single tree was apparent. The highest thickness was found close to the stem. The highest total thickness of the Of- and Oh-horizon was found underneath the pure spruce stand. When comparing the thickness of the humus layers between the stratums, significant differences where found for the Of-layer between the birch stratum and the spruce stratum. In addition, for the thickness of the Oh-layer as well as for the total thickness of all layers, significant differences were observed between the spruce-birch stratum and the birch stratum. The humus form was a mor-like moder. In the spruce stratum more fine-humus-rich variants of the mor-like moder was found, in the spruce-birch stratum and in the birch stratum it was more fine-humus-poor variants of the mor-like moder. Significant differences between the stratums in the Of-layer were found with respect to acidification, the pool of Ctot and Ntot, the content of Ccarbonat and Ntot and the metabolic quotient. For the Oh-layer significant differences between the stratums were found for the ratio of Corg and N, the content of Ctot and Nmic, the ratio of Cmic and Nmic, the basal respiration activity and the metabolic quotient. In the A-horizon significant differences between the stratums were found for the ration of Corg and N, the content of Ctot, Ccarbonat and Corg and the pool of Ntot. The results of multivariate ordination confirm the formation of stratums again. Thereby the contents of C, Mg, Ca and N had the greatest influence. The data analysis of the effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) showed differences between the stratums mainly for the A horizon. In the spruce stratum the ECEC was lowest and the percentage of acid cations at the ECEC was greatest. The highest ECEC was in the birch stratum. Different results showed clear tree effects. These were only found in areas, which are influenced by birch leaves. In this study, a minimum tree admixture of 10% was required before an impact on the ground conditions of the whole stand was observed. Therefore, based on the results of this study, an admixture of birch of 10% is recommended. These results however must be verified through future research. These findings can be used to assist in meeting the goals of silvicultural management for mixed spruce and birch forests in Germany. Definition of explicit ecological and economic criteria created from a combination of results from different forest research sectors (e. g. Site ecology, Vegetation science, Forest Growth, Economy, Zoology, Silviculture) is recommended

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O objetivo deste trabalho foi gerar conhecimento sobre a aplica??o de diferentes t?cnicas na restaura??o de ambientes degradados pela minera??o de ferro. A disserta??o foi estruturada em tr?s cap?tulos, sendo o primeiro uma revis?o de literatura, com intuito de retratar os temas abordados na disserta??o. No segundo, avaliou-se o espa?amento de plantio para Vellozia ramosissima e Pseudobombax campestre no modelo de plantio em Leque, visando gerar conhecimento sobre o manejo dessas esp?cies resgatadas na reintrodu??o a ambientes degradados. Para tal depositou-se sobre uma pilha de est?ril de canga ferruginosa uma camada de topsoil associado ? canga ferruginosa, onde foi instalado o experimento em delineamento sistem?tico tipo ?Leque?, conforme o modelo (IA) proposto por Nelder (1962), em que se avaliou oito espa?amentos de plantio, variando de 2 m?/planta a 9,3 m?/planta. As vari?veis analisadas foram o incremento em altura e di?metro de P. campestre, al?m da sobreviv?ncia de V. ramosissima e P. campestre aos quatro, oito e doze meses ap?s o replantio. Para avaliar os melhores tratamentos foram realizadas an?lises de vari?ncia (ANOVA) a 5% de signific?ncia. Para a sobreviv?ncia realizou-se o teste n?o-param?trico de Kruskal-Wallis a 5% de signific?ncia. As duas esp?cies estudadas apresentaram nos per?odos avaliados sobreviv?ncia acima de 80%. O incremento em altura e di?metro de P. campestre foi crescente ao longo do per?odo avaliado, apresentando uma m?dia geral 34,3 cm e 16,6 mm, respectivamente, durante os doze meses ap?s o replantio. Ressalta-se que os espa?amentos de plantio testados para as esp?cies deste estudo n?o apresentaram diferen?as significativas para todas as vari?veis analisadas. O terceiro cap?tulo teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial do uso da camada superficial de solo ?topsoil? associado ? canga ferruginosa, como alternativa na recomposi??o da cobertura vegetal de uma pilha de est?ril de canga ferruginosa. A comunidade regenerante foi amostrada aos 10 e 18 meses, ap?s a deposi??o do topsoil. Assim, determinou-se a densidade de plantas, composi??o e diversidade flor?stica, al?m de avaliar a din?mica de popula??es e cobertura do solo. A cobertura vegetal proveniente do topsoil ao final do per?odo avaliado apresentou um total de 19.485 indiv?duos pertencentes a 26 fam?lias com 82 esp?cies e seis morfoesp?cies. As fam?lias com maior n?mero de esp?cies foram Asteraceae (16), seguidas de Fabaceae (11) e Poaceae (8). A cobertura m?dia do solo na ?rea experimental foi de 58%, ap?s 18 meses. A utiliza??o do topsoil mostrou-se como uma t?cnica promissora e de extrema import?ncia na indu??o da restaura??o da pilha de est?ril de canga ferruginosa, uma vez que proporcionou a regenera??o natural, recomposi??o da vegeta??o com esp?cies aut?ctones, crescimento satisfat?rio dos indiv?duos e r?pida cobertura do solo ao longo do per?odo avaliado.
Disserta??o (Mestrado) ? Programa de P?s-Gradua??o em Ci?ncia Florestal, Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri, 2015.
This work aimed at generating knowledge on the application of different techniques in the restoration of degraded environments due the iron mining. The master's thesis was structured into three chapters, where the first is a literature review which portrays the issues addressed in the thesis. In the second chapter we evaluated the planting spacing for Vellozia ramosissima and Pseudobombax campestre in fan-shaped planting model, aiming at generating knowledge on the management of the two species when reintroduced in degraded environments. For this purpose we deposited on a pile of sterile ferruginous yoke one topsoil layer associated with the ferruginous yoke, where we conducted the experiment in a fan-shaped systematic design, according to the model (IA) proposed by Nelder (1962), in which were evaluated eight planting spacings ranging from 2 m?/plant to 9.3 m?/plant. We analyzed as variables the increase in height and diameter of P. campestre and the survival of V. ramosissima and P. campestre in the fourth, eighth, and twelveth months after replanting. In order to evaluate the best treatments we performed variance analysis (ANOVA) at 5% significance level. For survival we used the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test at 5% significance level. Both the studied species showed survival above 80% in the evaluated periods. The increment in height and diameter of P. campestre was increasing over the studied period, presenting an overall average of 34.3 cm and 16.6 mm, respectively, during the twelve months after replanting. We point out that the plant spacings for the species tested in this study presented no significant differences for all variables. The third chapter aimed at evaluating the potential use of the surface layer of "topsoil" associated with ferruginous yoke, as an alternative in the vegetation cover restoration of a waste pile of ferruginous yoke. The regenerating community was sampled in the 10th and 18th months after the deposit of topsoil. Therefore, we determined the plant density, the composition and the floristic diversity, and we also evaluated the dynamics of populations and soil coverage. The vegetation provided by the topsoil by the end of the studied period showed a total of 19,485 individuals which belong to 26 families with 82 species and six morphospecies. The families with the highest number of species were Asteraceae (16), followed by Fabaceae (11), and Poaceae (8). The average coverage of the soil in the experimental area was 58% after 18 months. The use of topsoil was shown as a promising and extremely important technique in inducing the restoration of the waste pile of ferruginous yoke, once it provided natural regeneration, vegetation restoration with native species, satisfactory growth of individuals, and quick soil coverage over the studied period.

A major argument for incorporating deciduous tree species in coniferous forest stands is their role in the amelioration and stabilisation of biogeochemical cycles. Current forest management strategies in central Europe aim to increase the area of mixed stands. In order to formulate statements about the ecological effects of mixtures, studies at the stand level are necessary. In a mixed stand of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) in the Ore Mountains (Saxony, Germany), the effects of these two tree species on chemical and microbial parameters in the topsoil were studied at one site in the form of a case study. Samples were taken from the O layer and A horizon in areas of the stand influenced by either birch, spruce or a mixture of birch and spruce. The microbial biomass, basal respiration, metabolic quotient, pH-value and the C and N contents and stocks were analysed in the horizons Of, Oh and A. Significantly higher contents of microbial N were observed in the Of and Oh horizons in the birch and in the spruce-birch strata than in the stratum containing only spruce. The same was found with respect to pH-values in the Of horizon and basal respiration in the Oh horizon. Compared to the spruce stratum, in the birch and spruce-birch strata, significantly lower values were found for the contents of organic C and total N in the A horizon. The findings of the case study indicated that single birch trees have significant effects on the chemical and microbial topsoil properties in spruce-dominated stands. Therefore, the admixture of birch in spruce stands may distinctly affect nutrient cycling and may also be relevant for soil carbon sequestration. Further studies of these functional aspects are recommended.

A major argument for incorporating deciduous tree species in coniferous forest stands is their role in the amelioration and stabilisation of biogeochemical cycles. Current forest management strategies in central Europe aim to increase the area of mixed stands. In order to formulate statements about the ecological effects of mixtures, studies at the stand level are necessary. In a mixed stand of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) in the Ore Mountains (Saxony, Germany), the effects of these two tree species on chemical and microbial parameters in the topsoil were studied at one site in the form of a case study. Samples were taken from the O layer and A horizon in areas of the stand influenced by either birch, spruce or a mixture of birch and spruce. The microbial biomass, basal respiration, metabolic quotient, pH-value and the C and N contents and stocks were analysed in the horizons Of, Oh and A. Significantly higher contents of microbial N were observed in the Of and Oh horizons in the birch and in the spruce-birch strata than in the stratum containing only spruce. The same was found with respect to pH-values in the Of horizon and basal respiration in the Oh horizon. Compared to the spruce stratum, in the birch and spruce-birch strata, significantly lower values were found for the contents of organic C and total N in the A horizon. The findings of the case study indicated that single birch trees have significant effects on the chemical and microbial topsoil properties in spruce-dominated stands. Therefore, the admixture of birch in spruce stands may distinctly affect nutrient cycling and may also be relevant for soil carbon sequestration. Further studies of these functional aspects are recommended.

La restauration écologique est considérée comme un des moyens susceptibles d’enrayer la perte de la biodiversité. Les changements d’occupation du sol peuvent être des opportunités pour restaurer des écosystèmes dégradés par les activités agricoles. C’est notamment le cas du projet participatif du domaine du Cassaïre, situé dans le delta du Rhône, qui vise à recréer sur d’anciennes rizières des écosystèmes méditerranéens favorables à l’activité cynégétique. Deux écosystèmes sont plus particulièrement visés, les marais temporaires et les pelouses méso-xériques. Les objectifs de la thèse sont de mettre en évidence les principaux mécanismes concourant à l’installation d’une communauté végétale, de tester des techniques de restauration et d'en évaluer les conséquences pour les communautés végétales mais aussi pour d'autres compartiments de l'écosystème. En l’absence d’espèces cibles dans le pool régional d’espèces, l’introduction de ces espèces est nécessaire en addition de la restauration des conditions abiotiques. L’étrépage et le transfert de sol pour la communauté des marais permettent une augmentation des espèces cibles et de la similarité avec la communauté de référence. Cette technique apparaît moins pertinente pour la communauté d’invertébrés aquatiques. Le succès contrasté du transfert de sol souligne les risques à ne pas privilégier qu’un nombre restreint d’indicateurs de restauration, ne reflétant pas l’ensemble de l’écosystème. L’étrépage de sol suivi d’un transfert de foin semble être une combinaison pertinente pour recréer la communauté végétale de pelouses, même si les résultats obtenus, probablement en raison d’une compétition élevée, sont moins convaincants que pour les marais temporaires. Nos résultats obtenus pour la grande majorité en mésocosmes, s’ils ne concernent que les premières étapes de la restauration, mettent cependant en évidence des techniques de restauration qui paraissent pertinentes pour installer certaines composantes des deux écosystèmes de référence. Ces résultats, par leurs limites, suggèrent néanmoins de privilégier la conservation in situ des habitats naturels plutôt que de chercher à les restaurer après qu’ils aient été détruits
Ecological restoration is considered as one approach to slow down the loss of biodiversity. Changes in land-uses may be an opportunity to restore ecosystems degraded by agricultural activities. This is the case of the participatory project of the Cassaïre site, located in the Rhône delta, which aims at recreating Mediterranean ecosystems favorable to hunting on former ricefields. Two ecosystems are targeted, temporary wetlands and meso-xeric grasslands. The aims of the thesis are to highlight the main drivers of plant community establishment, to test restoration techniques and to evaluate their effects on plant communities but also on other compartments of the ecosystem. In the absence of target species in the regional species pool, the introduction of these species is necessary in addition to the restoration of abiotic conditions. Topsoil removal and soil transfer for wetland communities allow an increase of target species and of similarity with the reference community. This technique appears to be less relevant for aquatic invertebrate community. The contrasted successful of soil transfer highlights the risks of favoring some indicators of restoration success, as they may not reflect the entire ecosystem. Topsoil removal and hay transfer seem to be a relevant combination to recreate grassland plant community, although the results obtained are less convincing than for temporary wetland, probably due to high competition. Our results, obtained in mesocosms, even if they relate only to the early stages of recovery, provide restoration techniques that seem relevant to establish some components of the two reference ecosystems. These results, by their limitations, however, suggest focusing on in situ conservation of natural habitats rather than trying to restore them after they were destroyed.Keywords: Biodiversity, Community ecology, Restoration

This thesis examines the growth response and inter-relationships between shoots and roots of plants grown in compact soil. In the field, two topsoil and two subsoil conditions were created with five vegetable crops sequentially grown. Between 6 and 12% of the root system grew in the compact subsoil, which had a soil strength of 3.1 c.f. 1.9 MPa in the loosened subsoil. Both the root length density (Lv) and the specific root length were lower in the compact subsoil (80% and 30%, respectively). This had no effect on shoot growth when water and nutrients were well supplied. Compensatory root growth in the lose soil above the compact subsoil occurred in broccoli plants. As a result plants grown in soil with or without a compact subsoil had a similar total root length but with altered root distribution. When the water and nitrogen supplied to the soil was reduced, the lower subsoil Lv in the compact subsoil did not restrict water or N acquisition. This was possibly due to a large increase in the specific uptake per unit length of root, by the fewer roots in the compact subsoil. Compared to the subsoil treatments, only small changes in topsoil physical properties occurred when tillage was ceased. From the field trials the proportion and time of root growth into compact soil appeared important in determining the plant response. In a series of split-root experiments (horizontal and vertical arrangements of compact and loose soil) compensatory root growth in the loose soil only occurred when the root system was exposed to horizontally compact soil When compensatory root growth did not occur shoot growth was reduced. This resulted in there being a close relationship between total root length and leaf area. Further test results support a direct effect of mechanical impedance on shoot growth with a rapid (within 10 minutes) and large (50%) reduction in leaf elongation occurring when roots were mechanically impeded. In the field only plants whose roots were totally exposed to compact soil had reduced shoot growth with very compact subsoil having no effect.

A major argument for incorporating deciduous tree species in coniferous forest stands is their role in the amelioration and stabilisation of biogeochemical cycles. Current forest management strategies in central Europe aim to increase the area of mixed stands. In order to formulate statements about the ecological effects of mixtures, studies at the stand level are necessary. In a mixed stand of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) in the Ore Mountains (Saxony, Germany), the effects of these two tree species on chemical and microbial parameters in the topsoil were studied at one site in the form of a case study. Samples were taken from the O layer and A horizon in areas of the stand influenced by either birch, spruce or a mixture of birch and spruce. The microbial biomass, basal respiration, metabolic quotient, pH-value and the C and N contents and stocks were analysed in the horizons Of, Oh and A. Significantly higher contents of microbial N were observed in the Of and Oh horizons in the birch and in the spruce-birch strata than in the stratum containing only spruce. The same was found with respect to pH-values in the Of horizon and basal respiration in the Oh horizon. Compared to the spruce stratum, in the birch and spruce-birch strata, significantly lower values were found for the contents of organic C and total N in the A horizon. The findings of the case study indicated that single birch trees have significant effects on the chemical and microbial topsoil properties in spruce-dominated stands. Therefore, the admixture of birch in spruce stands may distinctly affect nutrient cycling and may also be relevant for soil carbon sequestration. Further studies of these functional aspects are recommended.