Books on the topic 'Top bottom vers'

While bottom-up visual processing is important, the brain integrates this information with top-down, generative expectations from very early on in the visual processing hierarchy. Indeed, our brain should not be viewed as a classification system, but rather as a generative system, which perceives something by integrating sensory evidence with the available, learned, predictive knowledge about that thing. The involved generative models continuously produce expectations over time, across space, and from abstracted encodings to more concrete encodings. Bayesian information processing is the key to understand how information integration must work computationally – at least in approximation – also in the brain. Bayesian networks in the form of graphical models allow the modularization of information and the factorization of interactions, which can strongly improve the efficiency of generative models. The resulting generative models essentially produce state estimations in the form of probability densities, which are very well-suited to integrate multiple sources of information, including top-down and bottom-up ones. A hierarchical neural visual processing architecture illustrates this point even further. Finally, some well-known visual illusions are shown and the perceptions are explained by means of generative, information integrating, perceptual processes, which in all cases combine top-down prior knowledge and expectations about objects and environments with the available, bottom-up visual information.

This chapter considers electricity as a basic good that satisfies critical basic human needs for refrigeration, light, communication, and air conditioning. It considers the widespread nature of electricity deprivation and the challenges that exist to address this deprivation. The chapter also considers the relationship of electricity with other basic goods (e.g., healthcare and food). The chapter examines the subsistence right to electricity and the very limited appearance of this right within the United Nations system of human rights. It also examines electricity provision paradigms (top-down and bottom-up approaches), renewable electricity generation (solar and wind), climate change, and electricity and growth.

Chapter 12 showed how to circumvent two major stumbling blocks of the LGCA approach: statistical noise and exponential complexity of the collision rule. Yet, the ensuing LB still remains connected to low Reynolds flows, due to the low collisionality of the underlying LGCA rules. The high-viscosity barrier was broken just a few months later, when it was realized how to devise LB models top-down, i.e., based on the macroscopic hydrodynamic target, rather than bottom-up, from underlying microdynamics. Most importantly, besides breaking the low-Reynolds barrier, the top-down approach has proven very influential for many subsequent developments of the LB method to this day.

Ainu is a typical polysynthetic language in that a single complex verb can express what takes a whole sentence in most other languages. A single verb form may include more than one heavy element: up to two applicative prefixes (out of three), two causative suffixes (out of five), two incorporated objects, one lexical prefix (out of two originating in nouns ‘head’ and ‘bottom’), one verbalizing suffix (originating in the verb ‘make’), as well as reciprocal, reflexive, and general object (=antipassive) prefixes and agreement affixes for the first/second person subject and object. The degree of combinability of voice markers and noun incorporation is spectacular. Nevertheless, it has been claimed that Ainu deviates from more typical polysynthetic languages in having less freedom of word order, interrogative phrases in situ, and unrestricted morphological causatives (Baker 1996). This chapter aims to distinguish what Ainu shares with other polysynthetic languages from what is unique.

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are made up of many interconnected units, each one capable of computing only one thing. ANNs have myriad applications, from playing the stock market and monitoring currency fluctuations to recognizing speech or faces. ANNs are parallel-processing virtual machines implemented on classical computers. They are intriguing partly because they are very different from the virtual machines of symbolic AI. Sequential instructions are replaced by massive parallelism, top-down control by bottom-up processing, and logic by probability. ‘Artificial neural networks’ considers the wider implications of ANNs and discusses parallel distributed processing (PDP), learning in neural networks, back-propagation, deep learning, and hybrid systems.

The very definition of “illusion” is elusive. Various distinct ontologies are considered. The concept is tightly bound to the understanding of reality, awareness, “God’s eye,” objectivity, subjectivity, emphatic relations, and several others. Here the distinctions between “illusion,” “ambiguity, “delusion,” and “deception,” are clarified. The very notion of illusion is closely tied to conceptual approaches to mind. Especially the dichotomy between a top-down “controlled hallucination” and a bottom-up “inverse physics” approach accounts for much confusion in the literature. It is suggested that a thoroughly biological approach might be preferable. In such an approach, experimental psychobiology would be a special sub-branch—devoted to the genus homo—of ethology. Does this help to impose a formal structure, such as a partial order, on the zoo of illusions as we know them? Unfortunately, not really. At this moment in history, we are still far from such a reasoned inventory.

Polysynthesis presupposes the existence of ‘words’, a domain or unit of phonology and syntax that is extremely variable within and across languages: what behaves as a ‘word’ with respect to one phonological or syntactic rule or constraint may not behave as such with respect to other rules or constraints. Here we develop a system of variables that allows cataloguing all verb-based domains in a language in a bottom-up fashion and then determining any potential convergence of domains in an empirical way. We apply the system to case studies of Mapudungun and Chintang. These confirm earlier observations that polysynthetic languages do not operate with unified units of type ‘word’ in either phonology or syntax.

The way of laws is as much a defining feature of the modern period as the way of ideas. In one of its forms, it stands as an alternative to the moribund Aristotelian ontology. But the way of laws is hardly without its forks. Both before and after Descartes, there are philosophers using the concept of laws to carve out a very different position from his, one that is entirely disconnected from God or God’s will. This concept of law features in the work of Francis Bacon and comes to fruition in the work of Spinoza. Grasping it reshapes how we read the rest of their metaphysics and opens up a way of thinking about laws that is resolutely bottom-up.

This book examines the rise of Italian city communes in the twelfth century. Focusing on the cities of Milan, Pisa, and Rome, it explores real social and political differences in the experiences of the early city communes. It also highlights the role played by the elite of these cities and towns in the development of one of the first nonmonarchical forms of government in medieval Europe, not realizing that they were creating something altogether new. The communes of twelfth-century Italy were characterized by institutional creativity and were founded on bottom-up collaboration. These were novelties, and their very contradictions make them interesting as well as difficult to explain. The book analyzes such contradictions. This chapter explains why the emergence of communes has such importance for Italian historiography and discusses the historiographical frame for how to study communes in more detail as it has emerged in the last generation.

The Science of Writing Characters is a comprehensive handbook to help writers create compelling and psychologically-credible characters that come to life on the page. Drawing on the latest psychological theory and research, ranging from personality theory to evolutionary science, the book equips screenwriters and novelists with all the techniques they need to build complex, dimensional characters from the bottom up. Writers learn how to create rounded characters using the 'Big Five' dimensions of personality and then are shown how these personality traits shape action, relationships and dialogue. Throughout The Science of Writing Characters, psychological theories and research are translated into handy practical tips, which are illustrated through examples of characters in action in well-known films, television series and novels, ranging from Three Billboards Outside Ebbing Missouri and Game of Thrones to The Bonfire of the Vanities and The Goldfinch. This very practical approach makes the book an engaging and accessible companion guide for all writers who want to better understand how they can make memorable characters with the potential for global appeal.

China’s high-speed railway network is one of the largest infrastructure programs in human history. Despite global media coverage, we know very little about the political process that led the government to invest in the railway program and the reasons for the striking regional and temporal variation in such investments. In Localized Bargaining, Xiao Ma offers a novel theory of intergovernmental bargaining that explains the unfolding of China's unprecedented high-speed railway program. Drawing on a wealth of in-depth interviews, original data sets, and surveys with local officials, Ma details how the bottom-up bargaining efforts by territorial authorities—whom the central bureaucracies rely on to implement various infrastructure projects—shaped the allocation of investment in the railway system. Territorial authorities and their leaders engage in localized bargaining to navigate and forge consensus among the fragmented entities that comprise the central bureaucracy; those who do so effectively gain an advantage for their localities. The book demonstrates in detail how localities of different types invoke institutional and extra-institutional sources of bargaining power in their competition for railway stations. These dynamics have broader implications for our understanding of the institutional arrangements that shape modern-day China and explain such phenomena as its economic miracle and the resilience of the communist government.

After very brief historical notes, the basis of the TOF-PEPECO technique is explained and other techniques for spectra of doubly charged positive ions are described and compared with this modern method. The meaning of ionisation energies in the context of molecular double ionisation is discussed, with their relationship to electron orbital configurations. With the advent of photoelectron spectroscopy in the 1960s, new techniques allowed complete spectra of valence electron ionisations for each molecule to be revealed in a single measurement. The effects on the spectra of the different major pathways from starting molecules to final doubly ionised states are explained. Details of the experiments are given, including pulsed lamps, synchrotron radiation as light sources, and the magnetic bottle time-of-flight electron spectrometer.

The term Mainland Scandinavian covers the North Germanic languages spoken in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and parts of Finland. There is a continuum of mutually intelligible standard languages, regional varieties, and dialects stretching from southern Jutland to Eastern Finland. Linguistically, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish are thus to be considered one language. Most syntactic patterns and features are shared among the national and regional varieties, but there are also interesting differences. This book presents the main syntactic structures of this language, with the focus on the standard languages, but some widespread or typologically interesting non-standard phenomena are included. This is mainly a descriptive work, with a minimum of technical formalities and theoretical discussion. The theoretical background and descriptive framework is generative grammar in its current version, known as ‘minimalism’. The minimalist architecture partly determines the ‘bottom-up’ organization of the book, with separate chapters or subchapters dealing with each of the phrase types, starting with the lexical phrases. After an introductory chapter, chapter 2 deals with the noun phrase and the determiner phrase. Chapters 3–5 deal with lexical phrase types with adjectives, prepositions. and verbs as their heads. Chapter 6 deals with the TP domain, and chapter 7 with the CP domain. The last three chapters deal with more specific topics, subordination, anaphor binding, and conjunction, and ellipsis.

The division of Germany separated a nation, divided communities, and inevitably shaped the life histories of those growing up in the socialist dictatorship of the East and the liberal democracy of the West. This peculiarly German experience of the Cold War has so far mostly been seen through the lens of the divided Berlin or other border communities. What has been much less explored, however, is what division meant to the millions of Germans in East and West who lived far away from the Wall and the centres of political power. This book is the first comparative study to examine how villagers in both Germanies dealt with the imposition of two very different systems in their everyday lives. Focusing on two villages, Neukirch (Lausitz) in Saxony and Ebersbach (Fils) in Baden-Württemberg, it explores how local residents experienced and navigated social change in their localities in the postwar era. Based on a wide range of archival sources as well as oral history interviews, the book argues that there are parallel histories of responses to social change among villagers in postwar Germany. Despite the different social, political, and economic developments, the residents of both localities desired rural modernization, lamented the loss of ‘community’, and became politically active to control the transformation of their localities. The book thereby offers a bottom-up history of the divided Germany which shows how individuals on both sides of the Wall gave local meaning to large-scale processes of change.

Dual Penal State: The Crisis of Criminal Law in Comparative-Historical Perspective addresses one of today’s most pressing social and political issues: the rampant, at best haphazard, and ever-expanding use of penal power by states ostensibly committed to the enlightenment-based legal-political project of Western liberal democracy. Penal regimes in these states operate in a wide field of ill-considered and little constrained violence, where radical and prolonged interference with the autonomy of the very persons upon whose autonomy the legitimacy of state power is supposed to rest has been utterly normalized. At bottom, this crisis of modern penality is a crisis of the liberal project itself; the penal paradox is merely the sharpest formulation of the general paradox of power in a liberal state: the legitimacy of state sovereignty in the name of personal autonomy. To capture the depth and range of the crisis of contemporary penality in ostensibly liberal states, Dual Penal State leaves behind customary temporal and parochial constraints, and turns to historical and comparative analysis instead. This approach reveals a fundamental distinction between two conceptions of penal power, penal law and penal police, that run through Western legal-political history, one rooted in autonomy, equality, and interpersonal respect, and the other in heteronomy, hierarchy, and patriarchal power. Dual penal state analysis illuminates how this distinction manifests itself in the history of the present of various penal systems, from the malign neglect of the American war on crime to the ahistorical self-satisfaction of German criminal law science.

Community structure refers to the taxonomic types of microbes and their relative abundance in an environment. This chapter focuses on bacteria with a few words about fungi; protists and viruses are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10. Traditional methods for identifying microbes rely on biochemical testing of phenotype observable in the laboratory. Even for cultivated microbes and larger organisms, the traditional, phenotype approach has been replaced by comparing sequences of specific genes, those for 16S rRNA (archaea and bacteria) or 18S rRNA (microbial eukaryotes). Cultivation-independent approaches based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing have revealed that natural microbial communities have a few abundant types and many rare ones. These organisms differ substantially from those that can be grown in the laboratory using cultivation-dependent approaches. The abundant types of microbes found in soils, freshwater lakes, and oceans all differ. Once thought to be confined to extreme habitats, Archaea are now known to occur everywhere, but are particularly abundant in the deep ocean, where they make up as much as 50% of the total microbial abundance. Dispersal of bacteria and other small microbes is thought to be easy, leading to the Bass Becking hypothesis that “everything is everywhere, but the environment selects.” Among several factors known to affect community structure, salinity and temperature are very important, as is pH especially in soils. In addition to bottom-up factors, both top-down factors, grazing and viral lysis, also shape community structure. According to the Kill the Winner hypothesis, viruses select for fast-growing types, allowing slower growing defensive specialists to survive. Cultivation-independent approaches indicate that fungi are more diverse than previously appreciated, but they are less diverse than bacteria, especially in aquatic habitats. The community structure of fungi is affected by many of the same factors shaping bacterial community structure, but the dispersal of fungi is more limited than that of bacteria. The chapter ends with a discussion about the relationship between community structure and biogeochemical processes. The value of community structure information varies with the process and the degree of metabolic redundancy among the community members for the process.

In the UK, belief, and faith are protected under the legal frame of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) and the Equality Act 2010 (Perfect 2016, 11), in which a person is given the right to hold a religion or belief and the right to change their religion or belief. It also gives them a right to show that belief as long as the display or expression does not interfere with public safety, public order, health or morals, or the rights and freedoms of others (Equality Act 2010). The Equality Act 2010 protects employees from discrimination, harassment and victimisation because of religion or belief. Religion or belief are mainly divided into religion and religious belief, and philosophical belief (Equality Act 2010, chap. 1). The Dialogue Society supports the Equality Act 2010 (Perfect 2016, 11). Consequently, The Dialogue Society believes we have a duty to eliminate discrimination, advance equality of opportunity, and foster good relations within our organisation and society. The Dialogue Society aims to promote equality and human rights by empowering people and bringing social issues to light. To this end, we have organised many projects, research, courses, scriptural reasoning readings/gatherings, and panel discussions specifically on interfaith dialogue, having open conversations around belief and religion. To encourage dialogue, interaction and cooperation between people working on interreligious dialogue and to demonstrate good interfaith relations and dialogue are integral and essential for peace and social cohesion in our society, the Dialogue Society has been a medium, facilitating a platform to all from faith and non-faith backgrounds. The Dialogue Society thrives on being more inclusive to those who might be overlooked in society as a group. Although women seem to be in the core of society as an essential element, the women who contravene the monotype identity tend to remain in the shadows. The media is not just used to get information but also used as a way of having a sense of belonging by the audience. The media creates collective imaginary identities for public opinion. It gathers the audience under one consensus and creates an identity for the people who share this consensus. Hence, a form of media functions as a medium for identity creation and representation. Therefore, the production and reproduction of stereotypes and a monotype representation of women and women of faith in media content are the primary sources of the public's general attitudes towards women of faith. In the context of this report, the media limits not only women's gender but also their religious identity. The monotype identity of women opposes the plurality of the concept of women. Notably, media outlets are criticised for not recognising the differences in women's identities. Women of faith are susceptible to the lack of representation or misrepresentation and get stuck between the roles constructed for their gender and religion. Women who do not fit in these policies' stereotypes get misrepresented or disregarded by the media. Moreover, policymakers also limit their scope to a single monotype of women's identity when policies are made, creating a public consensus around women of faith. As both these mediums lack representation or have very symbolic and distorted representations of women of faith, we strive to provide a platform for all women from faith and non-faith backgrounds. The Dialogue Society has organised women-only community events for women of faith to have a bottom-up approach, including interfaith knitting, reading, and cooking clubs. Several women-only courses have informed women of the importance of interfaith dialogue, promoting current best practices, and identifying and promoting promising future possibilities. We have hosted panel discussions and held women-only interfaith circles where women from different faith backgrounds came together to discuss boundaries within religion and what they believed to transgress their boundaries. Consequently, we organised a panel series to focus on the roles of women of faith within different areas of society, aiming to highlight their unique individual and shared experiences and bring to light issues of inequality that impact women of faith. Although women of faith exist within all areas of society, we chose to explore women's experiences within three different settings to give a breadth of understanding about women of faith's interactions within society. Therefore, we held a panel series titled 'Women of Faith', including three panels, each focusing on a particular area: Women of Faith in Community, Women of Faith in Public Service, and Women of Faith in Media. In this report, following the content analysis method to systematically sort the information gathered by the panel series, we have written a series of recommendations to address these issues in media and policymaking. This paper has a section on specific policy recommendations for those in decision-making positions in the community, public service, and media, according to the content and findings gathered. This report aims to initiate and provide interactive and transferable advice and guidance to those in a position. The policy paper gives insight to social workers, teachers, council members, liaison officers, academics and relevant stakeholders, policymakers, and people who wish to understand more about empowering women of faith and hearing their experiences. It also aims to inspire ongoing efforts and further action to accelerate the achievement of complete freedom of faith, gender equality in promoting, recommending, and implementing direct top-level policies for faith and gender equality, and ensuring that existing policies are gender-sensitive and practices are safe from gender-based and faith-based discrimination for women of faith. Finally, this report is to engage and illustrate the importance of allyship, the outstanding achievement through dialogue based on real-life experience, and facilitate resilient relationships among people of different religious positions. We call upon every reader of this report to join the efforts of the Dialogue Society in promoting an equal society for women of faith.