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Journal articles on the topic 'Tonsteins'

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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 10 February 2022

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1

Kokowska-Pawłowska, Magdalena, and Jacek Nowak. "Phosphorus minerals in tonstein; coal seam 405 at Sośnica-Makoszowy coal mine, Upper Silesia, southern Poland." Acta Geologica Polonica 63, no. 2 (June 1, 2013): 271–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/agp-2013-0012.

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Abstract Kokowska-Pawłowska, M. and Nowak, J. 2013. Phosphorus minerals in tonstein; coal seam 405 at Sośnica- Makoszowy coal mine, Upper Silesia, southern Poland. Acta Geologica Polonica, 63 (2), 271-281. Warszawa. The paper presents results of research on tonstein, which constitutes an interburden in coal seam 405 at the Sośnica- Makoszowy coal mine, Makoszowy field (mining level 600 m), Upper Silesia, southern Poland. The mineral and chemical compositions of the tonstein differ from the typical compositions described earlier for tonsteins from Upper Silesia Coal Basin area. Additionally, minerals present in the tonsteins include kaolinite, quartz, kaolinitised biotite and feldspars. The presence of the phosphatic minerals apatite and goyazite has been recognized. The presence of gorceixite and crandallite is also possible. The contents of CaO (5.66 wt%) and P2O5 (6.2 wt%) are remarkably high. Analysis of selected trace elements demonstrated high contents of Sr (4937 ppm) and Ba (4300 ppm), related to the phosphatic minerals. On the basis of mineral composition the tonstein has been identified as a crystalline tonstein, transitional to a multiplied one.

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2

Weiss, Z., A. Baronnet, and M. Chmielova. "Volcanoclastic minerals of some Czechoslovakian tonsteins and their alteration." Clay Minerals 27, no. 3 (September 1992): 269–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/claymin.1992.027.3.01.

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AbstractIn the Czechoslovak part of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (Ostrava-Karvina Coal Basin), only part of the Upper Carboniferous (Namurian A, B, C and Westphalian A) is well developed, and tonsteins, which are clayey rocks or claystones, occur as thin, clayey interlayers in the coal seams. Two types of primary volcanic mineral assemblages were identified in four tonstein samples from different coal seams; the first type is characterized by the presence of biotite and sanidine, and the second by the presence of biotite, bytownite and Ca-amphibole. All tonsteins studied contained kaolinite minerals, volcanic quartz grains, crystals of zircon and apatite. Separated biotite flakes with an admixture of kaolinite layers were identified as 1M polytype. The flakes without kaolinite minerals were identified as epitactic overgrowth of 1M and complex polytypes, and twinned crystals of 2M1 polytype. Kaolinization of biotite flakes was observed in all tonstein samples studied. Kaolinite single layers (7 Å) as well as two-layer polytype of kaolinite minerals (14 Å) sandwiched between biotite layers (10 Å) were identified by HRTEM imaging.

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3

Spears, D. A., and P. C. Lyons. "An update on British Tonsteins." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 82, no. 1 (1995): 137–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/gsl.sp.1995.082.01.07.

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4

Tiping, Ding. "Tonsteins: Altered Volcanic-Ash Layers in Coal-Bearing Sequences." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 58, no. 16 (August 1994): 3541. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90107-4.

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5

Triplehorn, Don M., Bruce F. Bohor, and William J. Betterton. "CHEMICAL DISAGGREGATION OF KAOLINITIC CLAYSTONES (TONSTEINS AND FLINT CLAYS)." Clays and Clay Minerals 50, no. 6 (December 1, 2002): 766–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1346/000986002762090164.

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6

Lyons, Paul C., D. A. Spears, W. F. Outerbridge, Roger D. Congdon, and Howard T. Evans. "Euramerican tonsteins: overview, magmatic origin, and depositional-tectonic implications." Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 106, no. 1-4 (January 1994): 113–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(94)90006-x.

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7

Hill, Patrick Arthur. "Tonsteins of Hat Creek, British Columbia: A preliminary study." International Journal of Coal Geology 10, no. 2 (August 1988): 155–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(88)90027-4.

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8

Thompson, Leah N., Robert B. Finkelman, and Sergey I. Arbuzov. "Water-rock interactions: the formation of an unusual mineral assemblage found in a Siberian coal." E3S Web of Conferences 98 (2019): 01050. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20199801050.

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Volcanic ash is regularly found in coal and is particularly common in the Minusinsk coal basin in southern Siberia, Russia. Ash deposits in coal are usually observed in the form of thinly bedded, kaolinite-rich layers called tonsteins. The coal we studied by scanning electron microscopy with an energy dispersive detector contained many of the minerals typically found in tonsteins: kaolinite groundmass, volcanogenic phenocrysts such as K-feldspar, quartz, apatite, and zircon, along with secondary minerals such as galena, sphalerite, and REE minerals. However, in addition to these commonly observed minerals, the groundmass contains a rare calcium-bearing magnesian siderite in roughly equal proportion to the kaolinite. Ca-Mg siderite has only been reported in a few Australian coals and never at these relatively high proportions. The relative levels of K-feldspar, apatite, and quartz are consistent with a parent magma of felsic to intermediate composition. The Ca-rich-Mg siderite appears to have developed late in the diagenetic process, likely as a result of the dissolution of calcic feldspars, micas, and mafic minerals in the acidic peat waters releasing calcium, iron, and magnesium which reacted with carbon dioxide from the decomposing plant matter.

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9

MATOS, SÉRGIO LUÍS FABRIS DE, JORGE KAZUO YAMAMOTO, JORGE HACHIRO, and ARMANDO MÁRCIO COIMBRA. "TONSTEINS DA FORMAÇÃO RIO BONITO NO DEPÓSITO DE CARVÃO CANDIOTA, RS." Revista Brasileira de Geociências 30, no. 4 (December 1, 2000): 679–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.25249/0375-7536.2000304679684.

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10

Łapot, W. "Textures and chemistry of tonsteins from the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (GZW), Poland." Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Monatshefte 1994, no. 1 (February 7, 1994): 41–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/njgpm/1994/1994/41.

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11

D., D. Triplehorn. "Applications of tonsteins to coal geology: some examples from western United States." International Journal of Coal Geology 16, no. 1-3 (December 1990): 157–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(90)90026-u.

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12

Liu, Qinfu, D. A. Spears, Pengfei Zhang, and Hongliang Xu. "The origins of kaolinite-rich rocks associated with coal measures in China." Clay Minerals 36, no. 3 (September 2001): 389–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/000985501750539481.

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AbstractKaolinite-rich rocks are widespread in Chinese coal-bearing strata. Three main types of deposits are recognized. Those deposits identified as flint clays are several metres thick and show lateral variations in bed composition. The kaolinite is thought to have formed mainly on the adjacent landmass, but some crystallization of gels within the basin is not ruled out. Tonsteins, which formed from the in situ alteration of airfall volcanic ashes, are very common in the coal measures and are up to 0.5 m thick. Finally, kaolinite deposits are described where the development of kaolin is related to weathering of coals either close to or at the present land surface.

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13

Burger, Kurt, Friedrich K. Bandelow, and Gerd Bieg. "Pyroclastic kaolin coal–tonsteins of the Upper Carboniferous of Zonguldak and Amasra, Turkey." International Journal of Coal Geology 45, no. 1 (November 2000): 39–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0166-5162(00)00021-5.

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14

Li, Xiao, Shifeng Dai, Victor P. Nechaev, Ian T. Graham, David French, Xibo Wang, Lei Zhao, and Jingtao Zhao. "Mineral Matter in the Late Permian C1 Coal from Yunnan Province, China, with Emphasis on Its Origins and Modes of Occurrence." Minerals 11, no. 1 (December 25, 2020): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min11010019.

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This paper reports the mineralogy and geochemistry of the Late Permian C1 Coal from Bole and Laibin mines in eastern Yunnan, Southwestern China (C1 Coal in Laibin mine is composed of three layers termed B1, B2, and B3). The coals are characterized by medium-high ash yields and very low sulfur contents. Compared with average values of trace element concentrations in hard coals worldwide, the Bole and Laibin coals are enriched in V, Co, Cu, Zn, and Se, which were mainly derived from the sediment-source region of the Kangdian Upland. Major minerals in the coal samples and roof and floor strata include quartz, interstratified berthierine/chamosite (B/C), as well as kaolinite, mixed layer illite/smectite, calcite, pyrite, and anatase. Unlike a pure chamosite, the 7 Å peak of interstratified B/C is sharp and narrow, while the 14 Å peak is broad and weak, or absent in some coal samples. Interstratified B/C was largely precipitated from low-temperature Fe-rich and Mg-rich hydrothermal fluids or, in some cases, is an alteration product of kaolinite. Secondary phases of quartz, calcite, pyrite, kaolinite, chalcopyrite, gypsum, and REE-phosphates in the coal samples are the dominant authigenic minerals formed at syngenetic and early diagenetic stages. Four intra-seam partings in C1 Coal, B1, and B3 layers are identified as tonsteins derived from felsic volcanic ashes. These tonsteins consist mainly of cryptocrystalline kaolinite with graupen and vermicular textures, and minor amounts of high-temperature quartz, zircon, apatite, monazite, and anatase. The floor of the C1 Coal in the Bole mine is a tuffaceous claystone and consists of altered high-Ti basalt volcaniclastics, characterized by high concentrations of Zr, Nb, V, Co, Cu, and Zn, low Al2O3/TiO2 ratio (~4.62), high Ti/Y ratio (~900), enrichment of middle rare earth elements, and positive Eu anomalies.

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15

Lorenc, Stanislaw, and Winfried Zimmerle. "Miocene Kaolin Tonsteins from the Lignite Openpit Mine of Belchatów, SW of Lódz (Poland)." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 144, no. 1 (January 1, 1993): 187–223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/zdgg/144/1993/187.

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16

GOODARZI, F., D. A. GRIEVE, and M. LABONTÉ. "Mineralogical and Elemental Composition of Tonsteins from the East Kootenay Coalfields, Southeastern British Columbia." Energy Sources 12, no. 3 (January 1990): 265–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00908319008960206.

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17

Arbuzov, S. I., A. M. Mezhibor, D. A. Spears, S. S. Ilenok, M. V. Shaldybin, and E. V. Belaya. "Nature of tonsteins in the Azeisk deposit of the Irkutsk Coal Basin (Siberia, Russia)." International Journal of Coal Geology 153 (January 2016): 99–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2015.12.001.

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18

Erkoyun, Hülya, Selahattin Kadir, and Jennifer Huggett. "Occurrence and genesis of tonsteins in the Miocene lignite, Tunçbilek Basin, Kütahya, western Turkey." International Journal of Coal Geology 202 (February 2019): 46–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.11.015.

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19

Sanchez, J. David, J. Platt Bradbury, Bruce F. Bohor, and Donald A. Coates. "Diatoms and Tonsteins as Paleoenvironmental and Paleodepositional Indicators in a Miocene Coal Bed, Costa Rica." PALAIOS 2, no. 2 (1987): 158. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3514643.

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20

Spears, D. A., and S. I. Arbuzov. "A geochemical and mineralogical update on two major tonsteins in the UK Carboniferous Coal Measures." International Journal of Coal Geology 210 (June 2019): 103199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.05.006.

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21

Burger, Kurt, Yiping Zhou, and Dazhong Tang. "Synsedimentary volcanic-ash-derived illite tonsteins in Late Permian coal-bearing formations of southwestern China." International Journal of Coal Geology 15, no. 4 (August 1990): 341–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(90)90071-6.

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22

Spears, D. A. "The origin of tonsteins, an overview, and links with seatearths, fireclays and fragmental clay rocks." International Journal of Coal Geology 94 (May 2012): 22–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2011.09.008.

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23

Spears, D. A. "Clay mineralogy of onshore UK Carboniferous mudrocks." Clay Minerals 41, no. 1 (March 2006): 395–416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/0009855064110201.

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AbstractThe Carboniferous in Britain is diverse and this is reflected in the clay mineral assemblages. Several factors affecting the assemblages are identified including climate, rates of weathering and erosion, source rocks in the hinterland, preservation of palaeosols, whether the source rocks are nearby or distant, sorting during transportation, the presence of altered volcanic ash-falls in the depositional environment and the extent of burial diagenesis. There are temporal and geographic variations in the clay mineral assemblages in the mudrocks as a result of these controls. There are also clay-rich rocks that differ from the normal mudrocks and a knowledge of the clay mineralogy of these is a necessary prerequisite to a full understanding of their origins. Mudrocks falling in this category, and described below, include bauxitic clays, flint clays, fragmental clay rocks, tonsteins and K-bentonites and various palaeosols.

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24

Gilg, H. Albert, and Albert Ulbig. "Bentonites, volcanogenic tonsteins and refractory clays in the Upper Freshwater Molasse and Paleo-Naab system, Bavaria." Jahresberichte und Mitteilungen des Oberrheinischen Geologischen Vereins 99 (March 11, 2017): 191–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/jmogv/99/0006.

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25

Bieg, Gerd, and Kurt Burger. "Preliminary study of tonsteins of the Pastora formation (stephanian B) of the Ciñera-Matallana coalfield, northwestern Spain." International Journal of Coal Geology 21, no. 3 (August 1992): 139–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(92)90021-n.

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26

Zhou, Yiping, Youliang Ren, Dazong Tang, and Bruce Bohor. "Characteristics of zircons from volcanic ash-derived tonsteins in Late Permian coal fields of eastern Yunnan, China." International Journal of Coal Geology 25, no. 3-4 (April 1994): 243–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(94)90018-3.

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27

DUSAR, Michiel, Eva PAPROTH, Maurice STREEL, and Martin J. M. BLESS. "Palaeogeographic and palaeoenvironmental characteristics of major marine incursions in northwestern Europe during the Westphalian C (Bolsovian)." Geologica Belgica 3, no. 3-4 (October 1, 2001): 331–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.20341/gb.2014.036.

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The Westphalian C was a time of marked tectonic and climatic changes within the Variscan Foreland, but our understanding of these changes is hampered by a poor appreciation of large-scale palaeogeography and palaeogeographic evolution within this key stratigraphic interval. The distribution of tonsteins, marine bands and faunal occurrences related to marine incursions or the proximity of marine conditions in Britain and on the European mainland during the Westphalian C (Bolsovian) is briefly summarised. The favoured environmental conditions of some selected fossil taxa (Lingula, arenaceous foraminifers, Geisina, conchostracan faunas and Torispora producing tree ferns) are highlighted. A palaeogeographic model shows the relationship between major sedimentary facies belts in the Westphalian C of western Europe and the influence of major marine incursions on the distribution pattern of incursion-related faunas. The frequent succession of transgressive-regressive faunal phases in beds with marine faunas and the close correlation between the distribution of these beds and the distribution of upper delta plain environments in the Westphalian C of northwestern Europe suggest that marine incursions were long-lived, related to glacio-eustatic events, and cannot be regarded as catastrophic « flash floods ».

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28

Knight, John A., Kurt Burger, and Gerd Bieg. "The pyroclastic tonsteins of the Sabero Coalfield, north-western Spain, and their relationship to the stratigraphy and structural geology." International Journal of Coal Geology 44, no. 3-4 (September 2000): 187–226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0166-5162(00)00011-2.

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29

Guerra-Sommer, Margot, Miriam Cazzulo-Klepzig, João Orestes Schneider Santos, Léo Afraneo Hartmann, João Marcelo Ketzer, and Milton Luis Laquintinie Formoso. "Radiometric age determination of tonsteins and stratigraphic constraints for the Lower Permian coal succession in southern Paraná Basin, Brazil." International Journal of Coal Geology 74, no. 1 (March 2008): 13–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2007.09.005.

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30

Burger, Kurt, Yiping Zhou, and Youliang Ren. "Petrography and geochemistry of tonsteins from the 4th Member of the Upper Triassic Xujiahe formation in southern Sichuan Province, China." International Journal of Coal Geology 49, no. 1 (February 2002): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0166-5162(01)00053-2.

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31

Webster, James D., Roger D. Congdon, and Paul C. Lyons. "Determining pre-eruptive compositions of late Paleozoic magma from kaolinized volcanic ashes: Analysis of glass inclusions in quartz microphenocrysts from tonsteins." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59, no. 4 (February 1995): 711–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)00356-q.

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32

Dai, Shifeng, Tian Li, Vladimir V. Seredin, Colin R. Ward, James C. Hower, Yiping Zhou, Mingquan Zhang, Xiaolin Song, Weijiao Song, and Cunliang Zhao. "Origin of minerals and elements in the Late Permian coals, tonsteins, and host rocks of the Xinde Mine, Xuanwei, eastern Yunnan, China." International Journal of Coal Geology 121 (January 2014): 53–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2013.11.001.

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33

Dai, Shifeng, Xibo Wang, Yiping Zhou, James C. Hower, Dahua Li, Wenmei Chen, Xingwei Zhu, and Jianhua Zou. "Chemical and mineralogical compositions of silicic, mafic, and alkali tonsteins in the late Permian coals from the Songzao Coalfield, Chongqing, Southwest China." Chemical Geology 282, no. 1-2 (March 7, 2011): 29–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2011.01.006.

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34

Zhong, Yuting, Roland Mundil, Jun Chen, Dongxun Yuan, Steven W. Denyszyn, Adam B. Jost, Jonathan L. Payne, Bin He, Shuzhong Shen, and Yigang Xu. "Geochemical, biostratigraphic, and high-resolution geochronological constraints on the waning stage of Emeishan Large Igneous Province." GSA Bulletin 132, no. 9-10 (February 3, 2020): 1969–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/b35464.1.

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Abstract The initiation and peak magmatic periods of the Emeishan Large Igneous Province (LIP) are well constrained by both biostratigraphic and radioisotopic dating methods; however, the age of cessation of volcanism is poorly constrained and continues to be debated. Marine carbonates interbedded with volcanic ashes across the Guadalupian–Lopingian boundary (GLB) are widespread in south China, and these ashes provide an opportunity to study its timing, origin, and potential relationship with the Emeishan LIP. Here we present biostratigraphic constraints, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics, and high-resolution geochronology of ash layers from the Maoershan and Chaotian sections. Stratigraphic correlation, especially conodont biostratigraphy, confines these ashes to the early Wuchiapingian. Those altered ashes are geochemically akin to alkali tonsteins from the coal seams of the lower Xuanwei/Lungtan Formation in southwest China. The ashes postdating the GLB yield a coherent cluster of zircon U-Pb ages with weighted mean 206Pb/238U ages of 258.82 ± 0.61 Ma to 257.39 ± 0.68 Ma, in agreement with the ages of intrusive rocks (259.6 ± 0.5 Ma to 257.6 ± 0.5 Ma) in the central Emeishan LIP. Moreover, the ɛHf(t) values of zircons from the ashes vary from +2.5 to +10.6, a range consistent with that of the Emeishan LIP. The results collectively suggest that the early Wuchiapingian volcanic ashes are a product of extrusive alkaline magmatism and most likely mark the waning stage of the Emeishan volcanism, which may have continued until ca. 257.4 Ma in the early Wuchiapingian.

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35

Zhou, Yiping, Bruce F. Bohor, and Youliang Ren. "Trace element geochemistry of altered volcanic ash layers (tonsteins) in Late Permian coal-bearing formations of eastern Yunnan and western Guizhou Provinces, China." International Journal of Coal Geology 44, no. 3-4 (September 2000): 305–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0166-5162(00)00017-3.

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36

Zhao, L., and I. Graham. "Origin of the alkali tonsteins from southwest China: Implications for alkaline magmatism associated with the waning stages of the Emeishan Large Igneous Province." Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 63, no. 1 (January 2, 2016): 123–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2016.1133456.

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37

Shen, Minglian, Shifeng Dai, Ian T. Graham, Victor P. Nechaev, David French, Fenghua Zhao, Longyi Shao, et al. "Mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of altered volcanic ashes (tonsteins and K-bentonites) from the latest Permian coal-bearing strata of western Guizhou Province, southwestern China." International Journal of Coal Geology 237 (March 2021): 103707. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2021.103707.

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38

Hong, Hanlie, Xiaoxue Jin, Miao Wan, Kaipeng Ji, Chen Liu, Thomas J. Algeo, and Qian Fang. "Occurrence of anatase in reworking altered ash beds (K-bentonites and tonsteins) and discrimination of source magmas: a case study of terrestrial Permian–Triassic boundary successions in China." Clay Minerals 55, no. 4 (December 2020): 329–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1180/clm.2021.2.

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AbstractPotential secondary influences on titanium distribution should be evaluated when using ash beds as volcanic source indicators and for correlation purposes. In this study, well-correlated altered ash beds in Permian–Triassic boundary (PTB) successions of various facies in South China were investigated to better understand their use in source discrimination and stratigraphic correlation. The ash beds deposited in lacustrine and paludal facies contain significantly more Ti relative to deposits in marine facies. Neoformed anatase grains nanometres to micrometres in size are associated closely with clay minerals, whereas detrital anatase was observed in the remnants of altered ash beds of terrestrial facies. Extraction of the clay fraction of altered ash beds may exclude significantly detrital accessory minerals such as anatase and rutile added during sediment reworking, and the concentrations of immobile elements in the clay fraction may therefore be used to interpret more effectively their source igneous rocks.

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39

Batchelor, Richard A. "Volcaniclastic deposit (tonstein) in the Balcomie Beds, Lower Carboniferous, East Fife." Scottish Journal of Geology 57, no. 1 (February 15, 2021): sjg2020–019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sjg2020-019.

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A volcanogenic clay bed (tonstein) has been identified in the Balcomie Beds of the Inverclyde Group near Crail, East Fife. Its chemical composition suggests an undersaturated alkaline magma source. This horizon may be contemporaneous with the early Carboniferous Garleton Hills trachytic lavas of East Lothian (346 Ma). This would make it the earliest expression of Carboniferous volcanism preserved in Fife, and also the earliest occurrence of a tonstein in Fife.

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40

Jasper, André, Dieter Uhl, Margot Guerra-Sommer, Abdalla M. B. Abu Hamad, and Neli T. G. Machado. "Charcoal remains from a tonstein layer in the Faxinal Coalfield, Lower Permian, southern Paraná Basin, Brazil." Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 83, no. 2 (June 2011): 471–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0001-37652011000200009.

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Fossil charcoal has been discovered in the Faxinal Coalfield, Early Permian, Rio Bonito Formation, in the southernmost portion of the Paraná Basin, Brazil. Three types of pycnoxylic gymnosperm woods recovered from a single tonstein layer are described and confirm the occurrence of paleowildfire in this area. A decrease of the charcoal concentration from the base to the top within the tonstein layer indicates that the amount of fuel declined during the deposition probably due to the consumption of vegetation by the fire. The presence of inertinite in coals overlying and underlying the tonstein layer indicates that fire-events were not restricted to the ash fall interval. The integration of the new data presented in the current study with previously published data for the Faxinal Coalfield demonstrates that volcanic events that occurred in the surrounding areas can be identified as one potential source of ignition for the wildfires. The presence of charcoal in Permian sediments associated with coal levels at different localities demonstrates that wildfires have been relatively common events in the peat-forming environments in which the coal formation took place in the Paraná Basin.

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41

Spears, D. A., P. McL D. Duff, and P. M. Caine. "The West Waterberg tonstein, South Africa." International Journal of Coal Geology 9, no. 3 (March 1988): 221–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(88)90014-6.

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42

Anggara, Ferian, Mutiara Cikasimi, Basuki Rahmat, Sigit Arso Wibisono, and Rita Susilawati. "KARAKTERISTIK DAN GENESA PENGAYAAN UNSUR-UNSUR TANAH JARANG PADA BATUBARA LAPANGAN BATUBARA MUARA TIGA BESAR UTARA, TANJUNG ENIM, CEKUNGAN SUMATERA SELATAN." Buletin Sumber Daya Geologi 14, no. 3 (November 30, 2019): 198–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.47599/bsdg.v14i3.288.

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Batubara telah menjadi salah satu sumber alternatif unsur-unsur tanah jarang (UTJ) seiring dengan meningkatnya permintaan terhadap kebutuhan unsur-unsur tersebut. Kondisi geologis spesifik menyebabkan pengayaan konsentrasi UTJ pada batubara. Keterdapatan lapisan tipis material vulkanik (tonstein) pada Lapangan Batubara Muara Tiga Besar Utara, Formasi Muara Enim, Cekungan Sumatera Selatan menjadi salah satu indikasi terdapatnya pengayaan UTJ. Penelitian dilakukan menggunakan metode petrografi sayatan poles, analisis-analisis X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), proksimat, dan geokimia; Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass/Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-MS/AES). Analisis geokimia menunjukkan pola distribusi UTJ didominasi oleh tipe UTJ Berat (Heavy Rare Earth Elements, HREE). Plot diagram nilai Coutl dan REOash menunjukkan prospek pengayaan UTJ termasuk ke dalam daerah prospek. Pola distribusi UTJ dan anomali redox sensitive dan redox non-sensitive menunjukkan tipe genetik pengayaan UTJ adalah tufaan. Pengayaan UTJ terjadi oleh proses pencucian alkaline tonstein yang terendapkan pada fase penggambutan dalam pembentukan batubara.

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Lempp, Christof, Flora Menezes, and Simon Sachwitz. "Tonstein als Wirtsgestein: Ein geomechanischer Beitrag über Opalinuston." geotechnik 39, no. 4 (December 2016): 235–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gete.201500025.

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Huff, W. D., and D. A. Spears. "A tonstein from the Lower Limestone Group of Arran." Scottish Journal of Geology 25, no. 2 (October 1989): 161–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sjg25020161.

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LYONS, PAUL C., WILLIAM F. OUTERBRIDGE, D. M. TRIPLEHORN, HOWARD T. EVANS, JR., ROGER D. CONGDON, MIRTHA CAPIRO, J. C. HESS, and WILLIAM P. NASH. "An Appalachian isochron: A kaolinized Carboniferous air-fall volcanic-ash deposit (tonstein)." Geological Society of America Bulletin 104, no. 11 (November 1992): 1515–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1992)104<1515:aaiakc>2.3.co;2.

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Machlus, M., S. Bowring, S. Hemming, T. Rasbury, C. Swisher, and B. Turrin. "Testing the Carboniferous Fire Clay Tonstein as a sanidine 40Ar/39Ar standard." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 70, no. 18 (August 2006): A380. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.06.769.

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Kosmoswska-Ceranowicz, Barbara, Michał Sachanbiński, and Barbara Łydżba-Kopczyńska. "Analytical characterization of “Indonesian amber” deposits: evidence of formation from volcanic activity." Baltica 30, no. 1 (June 12, 2017): 55–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.5200/baltica.2017.30.06.

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In this study the new mineralogical and geochemical evidence for the reason behind intensive resin production in trees and the formation of Indonesian resin deposits is presented. The analysed specimens of the “Indonesian amber” were subjected to the following comprehensive investigations: PAS, IR, RS XRD and SEM-EDS. It was found that the resins are originated due to intensive volcanic activity. Based on spectroscopic investigations, “Indonesian amber” was assigned to the glessite group. The investigations revealed that the traces of volcanic activity have survived in the studied specimens in their structure were the presence of tonstein and inorganic minerals are related to volcanic phenomena. “Floating” in opaque solid–foam resin indicated that resinous substance was strongly heated trough volcanic activity.

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GUERRA-SOMMER, MARGOT. "Padrões Epidérmicos de Glossopteridales da Tafoflora do Faxinal (Formação Rio Bonito - Artinskiano-Kunguriano, Bacia do Paraná, Brasil)." Pesquisas em Geociências 19, no. 1 (June 30, 1992): 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.22456/1807-9806.21320.

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A tafoflora da mina do Faxinal (Formação Rio Bonito, Bacia do Paraná, RS) constitui-se em uma orictocenose preservada sob forma de compressões carbonificadas em um nível de “tonstein” intermediário a uma camada de carvão. Na associação evidencia-se o nítido predomínio de fragmentos foliares de Glossopteridales (78%) em relação aos demais elementos (Cordaitales, Pteridophylla). As análises epidérmicas e morfográficas das formas relacionadas a Glossopteridales revelaram uma associação muito homogênea, permitindo a identificação de três agrupamentos taxonômicos, definidos em nível de espécie: Glossopteris papillosa sp. nov., Glossopteris similis intermittens sp. nov., Glossopteris brasiliensis sp. nov. A semelhança nos padrões encontrados leva a sugerir que este grupamento estaria vinculado, talvez em nível de família, adaptado a nicho ecologicamente restrito dentro do espectro higrófilo-mesófilo.

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Burger, Kurt, and Michael Billig. "Volcanogenic Glass Splinter Remnants in Coal Tonstein 3 of the Saar-Lorraine Carboniferous." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 138, no. 1 (January 1, 1987): 103–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1127/zdgg/138/1987/103.

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ZIELINSKI, ROBERT A. "Element mobility during alteration of silicic ash to kaolinite-a study of tonstein." Sedimentology 32, no. 4 (August 1985): 567–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1985.tb00471.x.

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