Academic literature on the topic 'Toe-clipping'

Toe clipping and ear clipping (also ear notching or ear punching) are frequently used methods for individual identification of laboratory rodents. These procedures potentially cause severe discomfort, which can reduce animal welfare and distort experimental results. However, no systematic summary of the evidence on this topic currently exists. We conducted a systematic review of the evidence for discomfort due to toe or ear clipping in rodents. The review methodology was pre-specified in a registered review protocol. The population, intervention, control, outcome (PICO) question was: In rodents, what is the effect of toe clipping or ear clipping, compared with no clipping or sham clipping, on welfare-related outcomes? Through a systematic search in PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and grey literature, we identified seven studies on the effect of ear clipping on animal welfare, and five such studies on toe clipping. Studies were included in the review if they contained original data from an in vivo experiment in rodents, assessing the effect of toe clipping or ear clipping on a welfare-related outcome. Case studies and studies applying unsuitable co-interventions were excluded. Study quality was appraised using an extended version of SYstematic Review Centre for Laboratory animal Experimentation (SYRCLE)’s risk of bias tool for animal studies. Study characteristics and outcome measures were highly heterogeneous, and there was an unclear or high risk of bias in all studies. We therefore present a narrative synthesis of the evidence identified. None of the studies reported a sample size calculation. Out of over 60 different outcomes, we found evidence of discomfort due to ear clipping in the form of increased respiratory volume, vocalization and blood pressure. For toe clipping, increased vocalization and decreased motor activity in pups were found, as well as long-term effects in the form of reduced grip strength and swimming ability in adults. In conclusion, there is too little evidence to reliably assess discomfort due to toe or ear clipping, and the quality of the available evidence is uncertain. Adequately powered, high-quality studies reporting reliable, relevant outcome measures are needed to accurately assess the impact of these identification techniques. Until more reliable evidence is available, any effect of toe clipping or ear clipping on animal welfare and study results cannot be confirmed or excluded.

AbstractToe clipping is a common method of marking anurans for population studies. We re-analysed data from four published studies investigating the relationship between return rate and number of toes clipped for three anuran species: Bufo fowleri, Crinia signifera and Hyla labialis. Although these studies claimed contradictory results, a re-analysis of the data with proper attention to statistical power demonstrated a statistically significant decline of 6-18% in the probability of return for each toe removed after the first, in three of the four studies examined. The probability that the fourth study would detect a statistically significant effect of toe clipping was low unless the size of the effect was overwhelming. These results provide consistent evidence that toe clipping decreases the return rate of marked anurans, and demonstrates the importance of considering statistical power during data analysis. Use of toe clipping for mark-recapture studies may produce estimates of population parameters that are biased by the same magnitude as the return rates, unless researchers control for the effect of this marking method.

A total of 68 pairs of female and 72 pairs of male voles were used to examine the effect of toe clipping on the survival of Microtus pennsylvanicus. Toe clipping did not significantly influence female life-span (average difference in life-span was 0.1 weeks) (p > 0.05), but did lower male life-span (p = 0.07). On average, toe-clipped male voles lived 2.1 weeks less than the controls. We suggest that the difference, although not statistically significant, may be biologically important. Shortening of life-span may have been a result of increased movement by toe-clipped males, brought upon by vole–vole interactions, into unfamiliar, possibly suboptimal habitats where increased mortality may have occurred.

Pups were identified by toe clipping or tattooing the plantar surface of the paws on day 4 after delivery. Their growth, maturation, and reproductive capability were not affected by either identification method. In the toe clipping group, however, the duration until fall in the suspension test was significantly shortened, indicating that this identification method may not be suitable for some behavioural tests. The clipping also disturbs the skeletal investigation of toes and is not recommended from the view point of animal welfare. Palm tattooing, on the other hand, satisfies the fundamental requirements for long-term identification of rats.

Context Toe clipping is a widely used method for permanent marking of small mammals, but its effects are not well known, despite the ethical and scientific implications. Most studies do not find any clear effects, but there is some indication that toe clipping can affect survival in specific cases. Although effects on survival are arguably the most important, more subtle effects are also plausible, yet very few studies have included body condition and none has investigated effects on mobility. Aims We analysed the effects of toe clipping on free-living Mastomys natalensis, a common, morphologically and behaviourally intermediate small rodent. Methods Using a 17-year capture–mark–recapture dataset, we compared movement, body weight and survival between newly and previously clipped animals, and tested whether any of these parameters correlated with the number of clipped toes. Key results No evidence for a correlation between total number of clips and any of the variables was found. Newly clipped animals had a slightly smaller weight change and larger travel distance than did those that were already clipped, and we show that this is most likely due to stress caused by being captured, clipped and handled for the first time rather than to the actual clipping. Conclusions The combination of trapping, handling and marking has a detectable effect on multimammate mice; however, there is no evidence for a clear effect of toe clipping. Implications Our study suggests a re-evaluation of ethical guidelines on small-mammal experiments, so as to reach a rational, fact-based decision on which marking method to use.

ABSTRACT Social relationships, habitat utilisation and life history characteristics provide a framework which enables the survival of populations in fluctuating ecological conditions. An understanding of behavioural ecology is critical to the implementation of Natural Resource Management strategies if they are to succeed in their conservation efforts during the emergence of climate change. Egernia whitii from Wedge Island in the Spencer Gulf of South Australia were used as a model system to investigate the interaction of life history traits, scat piling behaviour and chemosensory communication in social lizards. Juveniles typically took ¡Ý 3 years to reach sexual maturity and the results of skeletochronological studies suggested longevity of ¡Ý 13 years. Combined with a mean litter size of 2.2, a pregnancy rate estimated at 75% of eligible females during short-term studies, and highly stable groups, this information suggests several life history features. Prolonged juvenile development and adult longevity may be prerequisite to the development of parental care. Parental care may, in turn, be the determining factor that facilitates the formation of small family groups. In E. whitii parental care takes the form of foetal and neonatal provisioning and tolerance of juveniles by small family or social groups within established resource areas. Presumably, resident juveniles also benefit from adult territorialism. Research on birds suggests that low adult mortality predisposes cooperative breeding or social grouping in birds, and life history traits and ecological factors appear to act together to facilitate cooperative systems. E. whitii practice scat piling both individually and in small groups. Social benefits arising from signalling could confer both cooperative and competitive benefits. Permanent territorial markers have the potential to benefit conspecifics, congenerics and other species. The high incidence of a skink species (E. whitii) refuging with a gecko species (N. milii) on Wedge Island provides an example of interspecific cooperation. The diurnal refuge of the nocturnal gecko is a useful transient shelter for the diurnal skink. Scat piling may release a species ¡®signature¡¯ for each group that allows mutual recognition. Scat piling also facilitates intraspecific scent marking by individual members, which has the potential to indicate relatedness, or social or sexual status within the group. The discovery of cloacal scent marking activity is new to the Egernia genus. E. Whitii differentiate between their own scats, and conspecific and congeneric scats. They scent mark at the site of conspecific scats, and males and females differ in their response to scent cues over time. Scat piling has the potential to make information concerning the social environment available to dispersing transient and potential immigrant conspecifics, enabling settlement choices to be made. This thesis explores some of the behavioural strategies employed by E. whitii to reduce risks to individuals within groups and between groups. Scents eliciting a range of behavioural responses relevant to the formation of adaptive social groupings, reproductive activity, and juvenile protection until maturity and dispersal are likely to be present in this species. Tests confirming chemosensory cues that differentiate sex, kin and age would be an interesting addition to current knowledge. The interaction of delayed maturity, parental care, sociality, chemosensory communication and scat piling highlights the sophistication of this species¡¯ behaviour. An alternative method for permanently marking lizards was developed. Persistence, reliability and individual discrimination were demonstrated using photographic identification and the method was shown to be reliable for broad-scale application by researchers. Naturally occurring toe loss in the field provided a context against which to examine this alternative identification method and revealed the need to further investigate the consequences of routine toe clipping, as this practice appears to diminish survivorship.

Toe trimming within the turkey industry has been used for over four decades as a method for controlling carcass scratching, and by doing so, achieving better grades and lower condemnation rates. The industry has changed greatly since the 1970’s, when the majority of the research on the procedure was completed. The technology used for toe trimming has switched from a hot-blade to the use of microwave energy, which will effect healing and toe length trimmed. The birds are larger now, which will impact mobility both before and after trimming, and in a consumer-driven trend, the industry is re-examining its codes of practice to ensure the highest level of welfare possible. As there is little pertinent research regarding these changes, the toe trimming procedure was re-examined under modern conditions and with focus on both production and welfare effects to determine if the practice can still be recommended. Hybrid Converter toms were raised to 140 d of age, with half (153) being toe trimmed at the hatchery using a Microwave Claw Processor (MCP) and the other half (153) left with their toes intact. The birds had feed consumption, body weight, mortality, toe length, stance, behaviour, and gait scores monitored throughout the trial with carcass damage assessed at processing. Means were considered significantly different when P≤0.05. Toe trimming caused a reduction in both feed consumption and body weight in the later stages of the experiment. Final weights for non-toe trimmed and toe trimmed toms were 21.70 kgs and 21.15 kgs, respectively. Feed efficiency with and without being corrected for mortality was unaffected by the procedure. Overall mortality and mortality by age group were also unaffected; however it was found that toe trimmed toms experienced higher levels of rotated tibia at 3.27% versus 0.65% for untrimmed birds. Toe length measurements found that trimmed toes were, on average, 91.9% the length of an intact toe, and that variability in length increased with trimming. The procedure was not found to impact stance or gait score, although behaviour at all ages measured demonstrated reduced mobility with trimming. In particular, reduced activity in poults for 5 d post-treatment indicates that the MCP treatment caused pain or discomfort. The percentage of carcasses which exhibited scratching was 15.6% for the non-trimmed treatment and 13.3% for the trimmed, which were not significantly different. Also, no significant effect of trimming was found for any other carcass damage category. Based on the negative impacts of toe trimming on both bird production and welfare found in this research, MCP treatment should not be recommended to turkey producers when raising heavy toms.