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Journal articles on the topic "Tobacco cultivation"
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Hussain, AKM Ghulam, Abu Shara Shamsur Rouf, Shafiun Nahin Shimul, Nigar Nargis, Tara Mona Kessaram, Syed Mahfuzul Huq, Jagdish Kaur, Md Khairul Alam Shiekh, and Jeffrey Drope. "The Economic Cost of Tobacco Farming in Bangladesh." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 24 (December 17, 2020): 9447. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249447.
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The extent of tobacco cultivation remains substantially high in Bangladesh, which is the 12th largest tobacco producer in the world. Using data from a household survey of current, former, and never tobacco farmers, based on a multi-stage stratified sampling design with a mix of purposive and random sampling of households, this study estimated the financial and economic profitability per acre of land used for tobacco cultivation. The environmental effects of tobacco cultivation on land and water resources were estimated using laboratory tests of sample water and soil collected from tobacco-cultivating and non-tobacco cultivating areas. The study finds that tobacco cultivation turns into a losing concern when the opportunity costs of unpaid family labour and other owned resources, and the health effects of tobacco cultivation are included. Tobacco cultivation poses a significantly high environmental cost that causes a net loss to society. Nevertheless, the availability of unpaid family labour and the options of advanced credit as well as a buy back guarantee from the tobacco companies attract farmers to engage in and continue tobacco cultivation. Therefore, supply side interventions to curb the tobacco epidemic in Bangladesh need to address major drivers of tobacco cultivation to correct the wrong incentives and motivate tobacco farmers to switch to alternative livelihood options.
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Hong, Lin, Jia Yi, and Zhai Xujun. "Theoretical Logic of the Cultivation of New Professional Farmers in Tobacco Planting Industry in the New Era." Tobacco Regulatory Science 7, no. 5 (September 30, 2021): 2613–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.18001/trs.7.5.1.31.
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In the new era, new professional farmers are the new force to realize the modernization of rural agriculture, innovating the theoretical logic of cultivating new professional farmers is the inherent requirement to improve the quality and efficiency of cultivating new professional farmers. Due to the particularity of tobacco planting methods, On the basis of explaining the connotation of the cultivation of new professional farmers in tobacco planting industry and based on three theoretical foundations, this paper probes into the internal logic of the cultivation of new professional farmers, and constructs the theoretical framework of the cultivation of new professional farmers in tobacco planting industry. This will have important theoretical significance and practical value for speeding up the process of cultivating new professional farmers in tobacco planting industry, ensuring the quality of cultivating new professional farmers, and promoting the increase of farmers’ income and the development of modern agriculture.
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Mim, Niamah Atya, Shaikh Shamim Hasan, Muhammad Ziaul Hoque, Minhaz Ahmed, and Prabin Chakma. "Tobacco Farmers’ Perceptions of Unsafe Tobacco Cultivation and Its Effect on Health and Environment: A Case of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh." Clean Technologies 6, no. 2 (May 8, 2024): 586–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol6020031.
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As the environment is severely harmed by tobacco (like growing, processing, production, and disposal), the study was set forth to determine the tobacco cultivation status and perceptions of the tobacco farmers toward the environmental and health hazards of tobacco farmers due to tobacco cultivation. We conducted the study in Lama Upazila, Bandarban Hill District, Bangladesh. The survey method was applied to collect the necessary data, utilizing a pre-structured interview schedule, from 242 tobacco farmers who were selected randomly. The study’s results portrayed that the average tobacco cultivation farming experience of the farmers was about 10 years, and the farmers occupied about 0.97 acres of land for cultivating tobacco, while 81% of the tobacco farmers utilized the plain lands for cultivating tobacco, although the study area was a hilly one. A huge amount of fuel wood (average 5390 kg) was required for the curing of tobacco leaves. The farmers produced about 2 MT of tobacco per year and earned about BDT 89,066 (USD 810) from this production. Given that 77% of the tobacco farmers in the research area felt that tobacco production increased the risks to the environment and tobacco farmers health, their opinions ranged from somewhat to highly favorable, which meant they were concerned about the environment and health hazards. The research’s findings provide useful background knowledge on the detrimental effects of Bangladesh’s tobacco farming.
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Rahman, Md Zulfiquer, Muhammad H. Kabir, Md Mahbubul Alam, and Saiful Islam. "Determinants of tobacco cultivation in Kushtia district, Bangladesh." International Journal of Agricultural Extension 7, no. 3 (January 11, 2020): 239–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.33687/ijae.007.03.2977.
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The study was undertaken to assess the extent of the area used for tobacco cultivation and to determine some selected characteristics of tobacco farmers that significantly influence farmers’ cultivation of tobacco. The selected characteristics were- age, education, farm size, annual income, tobacco cultivation experience, family labor, time spent in tobacco cultivation, profitability, agent contact, input availability, level of pest infestation and market security perception. The study was conducted at three villages of Mirpur upazilla under Kushtia district with the help of an interview schedule from September 12 to October 3, 2018. Twenty-five percent (25%) of the farmers were randomly selected from a population of 424 tobacco farmers. Out of the total population, 106 tobacco farmers were selected as the sample of the study. Multiple linear regressions were used in order to identify the important factors for tobacco cultivation. The findings also revealed that age, education, annual income, family labor and agent contact have a significant positive contribution to tobacco cultivation. Therefore, to reduce tobacco cultivation area coverage by the farmers, the policy should be made by giving emphasize on the significant factors.
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Mahmoud, Bakhtyar Saaid. "The portray of The Cultivation of Tobacco in Sulaymaniyah Province in Peshkawtin Newspaper (1920-1922)." Twejer 4, no. 1 (May 2021): 503–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.31918/twejer.2141.12.
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Peshkawtin Newspaper issued during British Rule in Sulaymaniyah Province between 1920 and 1922. This newspaper is considered the first Kurdish newspaper in Southern Kurdistan. The newspaper published articles about several different subjects during this period. This paper emphasizes on the portrayal of cultivation of tobacco in Sulaymaniyah province in Peshkawtin Newspaper. It has been divided into three chapters. The first chapter is about the definition of Peshkawtin Newspaper. We believe the definition of the newspaper is necessary because we are studying part of the newspaper. The second chapter analyses the British agricultural policy in the region in general especially its policy on the cultivation of tobacco in Sulaymaniyah Province. The chapter also emphases on the reasons why the British rule promoted tobacco cultivation. The last chapter is about the portrayal of cultivation of Tobacco in Sulaymaniyah province in Peshkawtin Newspaper. The chapter presents and analyses the articles which were published in the newspaper about the cultivation of the tobacco and the situation of agriculture in Sulaymaniyah province. The tobacco cultivation was widely covered by the newspaper. Many articles were written about the cultivation of tobacco in the newspaper. It can be said that the British rule issued the newspaper because of the importance of tobacco cultivation because the British wanted to promote their economic interests in the region.
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Bin Salam, Md Tareq, SM Shahriar Zaman, SM Tanzim Hossen, and Md Asaduzzaman Nur. "Environmental Degradation due to Tobacco Cultivation in Northern Bangladesh." Dhaka University Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences 9, no. 2 (August 10, 2021): 19–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/dujees.v9i2.55086.
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A field study was conducted in Northern Bangladesh, Rangpur district to observe the impact of tobacco cultivation on the environment as well as to characterize contributing factors motivating tobacco cultivation. Information was collected from the tobacco cultivators by a questionnaire survey that was conducted in four mostly tobacco cultivated upazilas, namely Badargonj, Taragonj, Rangpur Sadar, Gangachara of Rangpur district. Information from non-tobacco cultivators was also collected from Mithapukur Upazila. Survey findings revealed that 62.16% of respondents believed that soil productivity is decreasing in the tobacco field and 70.27% of tobacco farmers were using more chemical fertilizer per year than the previous years. More than half (54.05%) of respondents reported that tobacco is replacing native food crops. Moreover, 51.30% of tobacco farmers were facing various health hazards due to tobacco cultivation. The present study also investigated that 97.14% of farmers got a high benefit along with 89.19% of respondent’s availed organizational support from tobacco marketing companies. The overall satisfaction rate with the price was 80.56%, which was the main contributory factor for tobacco cultivation in the study area. The survey results also identified that farmers from Mithapukur Upazila gave up tobacco cultivation due to health hazards and unnecessarily underestimating the grade of tobacco leaf by the buyer company. The Dhaka University Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Vol. 9(2), 2020, P 19-26
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Nayak, Nayanatara. "Alternatives to Flue Cured V irginia Tobacco Cultivation: Preliminary Observations from a Tobacco Growing Region In India." Current Agriculture Research Journal 3, no. 1 (June 23, 2015): 26–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/carj.3.1.05.
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Flue Cured Virginia (FCV) tobacco also known as cigarette tobacco is a commercial crop grown in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Maharashtra states in India. Tobacco is considered a de-merit good because of its adverse effects on the health of the consumers and there is growing concern to replace tobacco with suitable alternative crops and livelihoods in tobacco growing regions. The main purpose of undertaking this study is to make a situation analysis of the tobacco growing region with respect to cropping pattern, background of farmers growing different crops, their perceptions on tobacco cultivation, institutional benefits available for growing tobacco and, to identify economically viable alternate crops for FCV tobacco if any and examine the factors governing their adoption. The review of literature and this study suggest that farmers are interested or willing to shift from tobacco. But, this willingness is conditional or is responsive to fulfillment of demands. Although there are alternatives that are being tried out, they are backed by huge investment in infrastructure. Studies in Tanzania, Bangladesh and India reveal that institutional support is the main factor inducing continuation of tobacco cultivation. Based on the net returns per unit of cultivation, this study indicates the possibilities of promoting ginger, chilly, sugarcane and plantation crops as alternatives to tobacco. In the case of alternative livelihoods, we could not find any instances of other remunerative livelihoods taken up by tobacco growers and non tobacco growers on large scale from the sample covered in this study. The earnings from livestock rearing, which is one of the subsidiary occupations reported by farmers is at subsistence level and cannot be compared with earnings from tobacco cultivation. As observed from the field and noted from secondary sources, FCV tobacco crop in India is like a pampered child. Its cultivation is profitable because of the domestic and international demand and institutional support extended towards its cultivation. In this background the cultivation of other crops cannot be left to the providence of natural factors. Shifting from tobacco may be possible only if similar treatment on par with tobacco is given to selected alternative crops expected to get comparable returns.
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Erdokesko, Ekaterina Aleksandrovna. "The development of tobacco cultivation in Tauride Province in the late XIX – early XX centuries." Исторический журнал: научные исследования, no. 5 (May 2021): 158–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.7256/2454-0609.2021.5.36558.
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The subject of this article is the tobacco cultivation in Tauride Province in the late XIX – early XX centuries. The author provides information on the amount of land allocated for tobacco cultivation, types of tobacco, tobacco plants and their owners, manufactured tobacco products, as well as retail of tobacco products. An overview is given to the factors that affected the demand for tobacco products in this historical period and uneven level of tobacco production. The article leans on the vast array of sources, including archival materials from the State Archive of the Republic of Crimea and the Russian State Historical Archive, statistical data, as well as reference material. The scientific novelty consists in the attempt to give a broader picture of tobacco production in the territory of Tauride Province, as this topic did not receive due attention within the Russian historiography. The conclusion is made that the second half of the XIX century marks a breakthrough in the development of tobacco cultivation in Tauride Province, associated with the legislative acts on taxation, as well as construction of new transport routes. This turned tobacco cultivation into one of the leading segments of agriculture in Yalta, Simferopol and Feodosia Uyezds, which have the most favorable natural and climatic conditions for the development of this industry. However, significant decline in the number of tobacco farmers was observed by the beginning of the XX century, as well as the acres of land allocated for tobacco cultivation. This was caused by unfavorable conditions for retail of tobacco products, decrease in yield capacity, quality of tobacco, as well as excess of supply over demand for tobacco products.
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King, Michael. "Policing the illicit trade of tobacco in Australia." Journal of Financial Crime 26, no. 1 (January 7, 2019): 146–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jfc-12-2017-0121.
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Purpose The purpose of this study is to identify factors that have led to the rebirthing of the illicit cultivation of tobacco in Australia known as chop-chop. Limited research has been conducted on the Commonwealth policing of tobacco-related criminal activity, but no prior studies have investigated domestic cultivation since the tobacco farming ceased legal production. Design/methodology/approach To fill the void of the literature, this study used data collected from Australian Government publications, court cases and newspapers to develop an understanding of the financial aspects and policing of the rebirth of chop-chop. Newspaper articles for a range of publications for a two-year period were used to examine policing efforts to disrupt criminals engaged in domestic cultivation of tobacco. Findings As tobacco was first legally grown in Australia, authorities have always faced the problems associated with the illicit cultivation of tobacco. Findings indicate that as a result of the increased number of successful interception of illicit tobacco at the border, the domestic cultivation of chop-chop is growing as criminal enterprises find alternative means to fund their activities. Originality/value The paper improves upon a neglected topic by offering a current contribution to a topic looking at the illicit tobacco, chop-chop trade.
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Suma, Asmaul Hosna, Md Sirajul Islam, Md Rafsan Jamil, Md Humayun Kabir, and Utpol Kumar. "Impact of tobacco cultivation on soil and human health in the agricultural ecosystem at Tangail region of Bangladesh." International Journal of Agricultural Research, Innovation and Technology 12, no. 2 (January 24, 2023): 27–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v12i2.64025.
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The study was conducted to determine the impact of tobacco cultivation on soil and human health in the agricultural ecosystem at Bhuapur and Kalihati upazila of Tangail region from January to December 2019. Among them, 40 soil samples were collected, each 20 from Kalihati and Bhuapur Upazila. Among 20 samples, every 10 samples were collected from tobacco and non-tobacco land at a depth of 0 to 15 cm in Bhuapur, 0 to 15 and 15 to 30 cm in Kalihati Upazila. The soil pH, organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), available sulfur (S), available zinc (Zn), exchangeable potassium (K), exchangeable magnesium (Mg) and exchangeable calcium (Ca) were analyzed in the laboratory of Soil Resource Development Institute (SRDI), Tangail. In Kalihati Upazila, tobacco land showed significantly higher content of OM, available N, available P, available Zn, exchangeable K and exchangeable Mg, whereas pH was low in non-tobacco land. Surface soil (0 to 15 cm) and tobacco land showed significantly higher content of S than sub-surface (15 to 30 cm) soil and non-tobacco land. On the other hand, there was no significant variation between tobacco and non-tobacco land on soil properties in Bhuapur Upazila. In both Upazilas, all the nutrients except exchangeable Ca and Mg were lower than optimum in tobacco and non-tobacco land, which was unsuitable for crop cultivation. The cost of production was higher in tobacco land than in non-tobacco land in both Upazilas. About 36% of farmers informed that they were suffering from various diseases due to tobacco cultivation and curing. Tobacco cultivation in these areas degrades soil health and the agricultural ecosystem and releases nicotine into the environment, hampering food safety and human health. The study indicated that tobacco cultivation should be replaced by other crops to protect soil quality and human health. Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. Tech. 12(2): 27-35, December 2022
Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Tobacco cultivation"
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Sarma, Subrata. "Economics of Tobacco cultivation in West Bengal with special reference to its constraints and prospects." Thesis, University of North Bengal, 1993. http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/274.
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Das, Jayanta. "Strategies for replacement of tobacco cultivation in Dinhata Subdivision of Koch Behar district, West Bengal, India." Thesis, University of North Bengal, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/2644.
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Jones, Bruce. "Impact of Conservation Tillage on Soil Erosion and the Agronomic Performance of Flue-Cured Tobacco." Thesis, Virginia Tech, 1998. http://hdl.handle.net/10919/40537.
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Conservation tillage tobacco production has gained little producer acceptance since introduction in the late 1960's. Yield reductions, tobacco quality issues, unacceptable weed control, and inadequate planting equipment limited practice adoption and substantiated the need for continued research. The recent developments of a Subsurface Tiller-TransplanterTM and the herbicide SpartanTM renewed producer interest in conservation tillage and led to an investigation with both flue-cured and Virginia dark-fired tobacco. Flue-cured tobacco was transplanted into rye mulch on bedded rows and subsequently cultivated at various timings. Conservation tillage significantly reduced soil erosion approximately 92 percent and tobacco yield approximately 23 percent when row cultivation was not applied. Row cultivation significantly increased tobacco yield without increasing soil erosion. The yield of conservation tillage tobacco receiving a minimum of two cultivations was similar to conventional tobacco.
The second study evaluated wheat, rye, crimson clover, and mixtures of crimson clover with either wheat or rye as cover crop mulches for conservation tillage production of Virginia dark-fired tobacco. Conservation tillage, regardless of cover crop, reduced dark-fired tobacco yields approximately 779 and 488 pounds per acre in 1996 and 1997, respectively. The removal of cover crop residue for hay did not lower tobacco yield compared to leaving residue on the soil surface. Row cultivation increased conservation tillage tobacco yield approximately 247 pounds in 1997 regardless of cover crop. The nitrogen contribution of crimson clover was minimal in both years of the study and did not affect tobacco performance.Master of Science
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Meyer, Evandro Alcir. "PRODUÇÃO DE MADEIRA EM REGIME DE TALHADIA NA FLORESTA ESTACIONAL DECIDUAL." Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 2015. http://repositorio.ufsm.br/handle/1/3785.
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Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e TecnológicoThe tobacco producing region of Rio Grande do Sul has a high demand for firewood for the curing of Virginia tobacco leaves. An example of species with features to supply the demand is Nectandra megapotamica which can be conducted by the coppice system for the production of firewood, and leaves for the extraction of essential oils. The objective of this study was to estimate the individual volume and biomass production for evaluating the technical viability of managing secondary forests under coppice system for the production of forest timber and non-timber products. Samples were collected on Agudo municipality in the central region of Rio Grande do Sul, in a secondary forest regenerated after the occurrence of clear-cutting of the pre-existing forest in in 1993, with removal of wood and reduction of residual biomass with fire and without soil disturbance, and cultivated a corn crop followed by fallow. A forest inventory was conducted to determine the floristic composition of the vegetation. All the trees were identified in the field, having been measured the CAP, the total height, commercial height, crown insertion height and eight canopy rays, guided by the cardinal and collateral points. Were slaughtered 16 individuals of Nectandra megapotamica, totaling 36 trunks. In each proceeded by a cubing Smalian method. Then we proceeded to separate the compartments of the biomass, which were measured with the aid of a balance of digital hook. To determine the dry mass, samples were collected, which were heavy on the spot and placed in plastic bags and taken to the Forest Management Laboratory of UFSM, which they were dried in an air forced circulation stove at a temperature of 72 ° C, until constant weight. The branches with CAP greater than 15.7 cm were used as sample for adjusting the amount of biomass and models. Also evaluated the regrowth of stumps, measuring height and CAP of the shoots, and the place of emergence of the same. At the forest inventory, 385 individuals were sampled, of which 25% have more than one stem. Nectandra megapotamica showed a percentage of 56% of individuals with more than a trunk, demonstrating that it can be conducted under the coppice system. It was found that the branches can be used as sample for volume and biomass studies because they showed similar behavior to the trees. Models were fitted that showed good fits to the data volume and biomass. Nevertheless, for the compartments of biomass canopy, the generated equations were less accurate due to the greater variation in the data. There was no difference in the production of wood and leaves in individuals with a trunk or multiple trunks. The production in the study area was 56.2 m³.0,23 ha-1, equivalent to 244 m³.ha-1. The coppice of native species can partially supply the demand for wood in the properties of the tobacco region. Finally, the management of secondary forests under coppice system for the production of forest products timber and non-timber is technically viable.
A região fumageira do Rio Grande do Sul possui uma demanda elevada de lenha para a cura das folhas de fumo Virginia. Um exemplo de espécie com características para suprir tal demanda é a canela-preta (Nectandra megapotamica), que pode ser conduzida pelo sistema de talhadia, para a produção de lenha, e folhas para a extração de óleos essenciais. O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi estimar a produção individual em volume e biomassa para avaliar a viabilidade técnica da condução de florestas secundárias no regime de talhadia, para a produção de produtos florestais madeireiros e não madeireiros. As coletas foram realizadas no município de Agudo, na região central do Rio Grande do Sul, em uma floresta secundária regenerada após a ocorrência de corte raso da floresta pré-existente, em 1993, com retirada da lenha e redução da biomassa residual com fogo e sem revolvimento do solo, sendo cultivada uma safra de milho seguida de pousio. Foi realizado um inventário florestal para determinar a composição florística da vegetação. Todos os indivíduos foram identificados a campo, tendo sido medidos o CAP, a altura total, comercial e de inserção de copa e oito raios de copa orientados pelos pontos cardeais e colaterais. Foram abatidos 16 indivíduos de canela-preta, totalizando 36 troncos. Em cada um procedeu-se uma cubagem rigorosa pelo método de Smalian. Em seguida procedeu-se a separação dos compartimentos da biomassa, que foram quantificados com auxílio de uma balança de gancho digital. Para determinar a massa seca, foram coletadas amostras, que foram pesadas in loco, e acondicionadas em sacos plásticos e levadas ao laboratório de Manejo Florestal da UFSM, onde foram secas em estufa de circulação de ar forçado, a uma temperatura de 72ºC, até atingirem peso constante. Os galhos com CAP maior que 15,7 cm foram considerados como indivíduos para o ajuste de modelos de biomassa e volume. Também foi avaliada a rebrota dos tocos, mensurando altura e CAP dos brotos, bem como o local de emergência dos mesmos. No inventário florestal, foram amostrados 385 indivíduos, dos quais 25% possuem multitroncos. A canela-preta apresentou um percentual de 56% dos indivíduos com mais de um tronco, demonstrando que a mesma pode ser conduzida pelo sistema de talhadia. Verificou-se que os galhos podem ser utilizados como amostra em estudos de volume e biomassa, pois apresentaram comportamento semelhante ao dos troncos. Foram ajustados modelos que apresentaram bons ajustes aos dados de volume e biomassa. Apesar disso, para os compartimentos da biomassa de copa, as equações geradas foram menos precisas em função da maior variação nos dados. Não houve diferença na produção de madeira e folhas em indivíduos com um tronco ou com múltiplos troncos. A produção na área estudada foi de 56,2 m³ em 0,23 ha-1, equivalente a 244 m³.ha-1. A condução da rebrota de espécies nativas pode atender parcialmente a demanda por lenha nas propriedades da região fumageira. O manejo de florestas secundárias no sistema de talhadia é viável tecnicamente para a produção de produtos florestais madeireiros e não madeireiros.
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Ranganatha. "The Geo-Economic analysis of Tobacco cultivation in Mysore District." Thesis, 1992. http://hdl.handle.net/2009/1892.
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Nelson, Nancy J. (Nancy Jo). "The Umpqua Eden site : the people, their smoking pipes and tobacco cultivation." Thesis, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/1957/33220.
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Located on the central Oregon coast, the Umpqua Eden site (35D083)
yielded an artifact assemblage which is one of the five largest assemblages from
the Oregon coast. The first aspect of the site that I looked at is the people who
lived at the site, the ancestors of the Confederated Tribes of the Coos, Lower
Umpqua and Siuslaw. In turn, I consulted with Patty Whereat, the Cultural
Resources Director for the tribes, which resulted in a more holistic view of the
site. Additionally, I attempted to uncover possible women's and men's activity
areas of the Umpqua Eden site. A wealth of information on the native peoples
of the Oregon coast was discovered, revealing that the sexual division of labor
was not extremely rigid before Euro-American contact and the social category
of "female" was expanded to more than two genders with consideration given to
the two-spirited individual. I also attempted to engender the archaeological
record by looking at the processes involved in the manufacture of smoking pipes
and the cultivation of tobacco. During the ethnographic period, women were
not smoking pipes; however, they were probably cultivating the tobacco and
possibly gathering the clay for smoking pipes. I suggest that there was an
agricultural element to the hunter-gatherer native populations of the central
Oregon coast and challenge Western assumptions of individualism in precontact
groups of the Oregon coast.
I also provide a comparative analysis of clay, schist and steatite pipes of
the Oregon coast. The smoking pipes are all straight and tubular (9% are
shouldered) and the Umpqua Eden site pipes have the most artistic motifs. My
analysis shows that the sandstone pipe dates to approximately 2,000 years ago
and the clay smoking pipe may have replaced the sandstone pipe. Schist and
steatite pipes were also used by the people of the Oregon coast and may have
possibly been traded into the site from southern groups. Microscopic analysis
of the pipes provided evidence that people were firing their clay pipes in a low
temperature reducing atmosphere and using sand temper. In addition, I found a
wide range of pipes being used on the Oregon coast given its relatively small
geographic location.
All of the this archaeological inquiry has helped in understanding the
Umpqua Eden site and helped to give us a clearer picture of pre-contact Lower
Umpqua life.Graduation date: 2000
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Henderson, Kelley. "Oxygen mass transfer and shear sensitivity studies during cultivation of Nicotiana tabacum var. Wisconsin 38 in a stirred-tank bioreactor." Thesis, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/1957/37145.
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Ho, Chung-Han 1965. "Shear sensitivity and oxygen mass transfer studies during cultivation of tobacco cells in a stirred-tank bioreactor of impeller speeds of 100 to 325 rpm." Thesis, 1994. http://hdl.handle.net/1957/35966.
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Morris, Melissa Nicole. "Cultivating Colonies: Tobacco and the Upstart Empires, 1580-1640." Thesis, 2017. https://doi.org/10.7916/D8GX4Q1B.
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This dissertation addresses a fundamental question: how did the English, French, and Dutch establish successful colonies and trade routes in the Iberian-dominated Americas? It argues that the English, Dutch, and French (a group I refer to as the “Upstart Empires”) relied upon Iberian and indigenous knowledge and trade networks in a series of illicit commercial operations and failed colonies in South America and the Caribbean before they were able to establish themselves permanently in the Americas.
These little-studied colonial experiments all had one thing in common: tobacco. A crop in high demand that grows nearly anywhere and requires little special equipment, tobacco was an obvious choice for new colonies. The Spanish Empire was founded on mineral extraction and the subjugation of extant empires. For other colonizers, the development of plantation economies was crucial. Cultivating Colonies looks at how this came to be. This dissertation relies upon a diverse source base, using Spanish, Dutch, French, and English archives to tell a story that transcends imperial boundaries.
The dissertation begins by considering the intersection of botany and European expansion. It situates European voyages of discovery and colonization in the context of a search for plants and their products, including spices, and argues that early colonization efforts involved a close understanding of local environments. Tobacco was a plant Europeans encountered nearly everywhere they went in the Americas, but it was only a century after Columbus that smoking became fashionable in Europe. Thus, tobacco’s rise as a transatlantic commodity coincided with the Upstart Empires’ increased presence in the Americas.
Spanish colonists and Africans learned how to grow and consume tobacco from indigenous peoples. Spanish colonies on the margins of empire began to produce it to trade with the English, Dutch, and French from the late sixteenth century. Through this trade, the Upstart Empires learned more about tobacco, and also about the environment and geography of places just beyond the reach of the Spanish and Portuguese. They began to establish trading posts and colonies in such places, and especially in the Guianas—a vast stretch of land between the limits of the two Iberian powers. There, Carib, Arawak, and other indigenous groups were willing to ally with small numbers of interlopers against their Spanish enemies. In these settlements, Northern Europeans participated in indigenous warfare and traded commodities in exchange for agricultural knowledge, labor, and goods.
Even as the Upstarts established permanent colonies in North America and the Caribbean, they continued to settle in South America, too. Moreover, the Upstarts’ experiences in South America were crucial to the development of their colonies to the north. Colonies as diverse as St. Christopher, Virginia, and New Netherland all grew tobacco using methods and seeds from South America. In each settlement’s early years, the Upstarts were also reliant upon indigenous and African agricultural knowledge, an overlooked foundation of European colonization. Cultivating Colonies argues that the illicit tobacco trade and the short-lived colonies that sprang from it were crucial to the ultimate success of the English, Dutch, and French empires in the Americas.
Books on the topic "Tobacco cultivation"
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P, Singh L. Economics of tobacco cultivation, production, and exchange. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications, 1992.
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Thamphīan, Surin. Watthanatham kānplūk yāsūp phư̄nmư̄ang Lānnā =: The Lanna traditional tobacco cultivation culture. Chiang Rai]: Mahāwitthayālai Mǣ Fā Lūang, 2009.
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Padmo, Sugijanto. The cultivation of vorstenlands tobacco in Surakarta Residency and Besuki tobacco in Besuki Residency and its impact on the peasant economy and society, 1860-1960: A report submitted to the Toyota Foundation, Tokyo, Japan for the completion of a research project, 1988-1991. Yogyakarta: Aditya Media, 1994.
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Morris, Melissa Nicole. Cultivating Colonies: Tobacco and the Upstart Empires, 1580-1640. [New York, N.Y.?]: [publisher not identified], 2017.
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Clarence W. B. 1872 Dorsey. Cultivation of Tobacco. Creative Media Partners, LLC, 2018.
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Tobacco: Cultivation and control. New Delhi: Library of Congress Office, 2002.
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Chojar, A. K. Tobacco Cultivation and Marketing. Deep & Deep Publications,India, 2003.
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E, Brewer B. Cultivation of Tobacco in the Philippine Islands. Wentworth Press, 2019.
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Coin, Robert L. De. History and Cultivation of Cotton and Tobacco. HardPress, 2020.
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Bengal. Cultivation and Curing of Tobacco in Bengal. Creative Media Partners, LLC, 2018.
Find full textBook chapters on the topic "Tobacco cultivation"
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Morris, Melissa N. "Tobacco." In The Oxford Handbook of Agricultural History, 411–23. Oxford University Press, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190924164.013.22.
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Abstract Tobacco is perhaps the most important plant native to the Americas. Before Europeans arrived, it was an integral part of a number of Indigenous cultures. The rise of Atlantic empires made it a global commodity, yet despite its popularity, authorities initially met it with suspicion, and they sometimes banned its cultivation and consumption. Demand for it nonetheless rose, giving rise to vast plantations where enslaved Africans grew it. Beyond the Americas, peasant farmers often raised it. All cultivators came to see tobacco as a crop that required particular attention and skill to grow properly. This perception persisted into the modern era and led to widespread resistance to mechanization. The dangers of tobacco consumption became more well-known in the twentieth century, but global use still rose. For farmers in the southern United States, increased worldwide competition, combined with an end to government subsidies, led to a sharp decline in the cultivation of a crop that had long been an important part of its economy and culture.
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Warner, Kenneth E. "The Economics of Tobacco." In Nicotine Addiction: Principles and Management, 46–58. Oxford University PressNew York, NY, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195064414.003.0003.
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Abstract The leading cause of premature mortality and avoidable morbidity, tobacco, is also the fuel of a powerful economic engine. The financial yield from sales of tobacco products, primarily cigarettes, marks the cultivation of tobacco and the manufacture, distribution, marketing, and retailing of tobacco products as one of this nation’s leading economic activities. The relationship between tobacco’s health toll and its economic yield is not coincidental. The profitability of the enterprise-both its absolute magnitude and its rate of re-turn-have provided the tobacco industry with economic incentive and political clout that have contributed to high rates of addiction to nicotine, and hence to tobacco’s unique burden of disease (Taylor 1984; White 1988). Given the role of economics in the etiology of nicotine addiction and dis-ease, this chapter examines essential ingredients in the economics of tobacco and tobacco products.
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Winger, Gail, James H. Woods, and Frederick G. Hofmann. "Tobacco and Nicotine." In A Handbook on Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 17–34. Oxford University PressNew York, NY, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195172782.003.0002.
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Abstract The tobacco plant Nicotiana tabacum is native to America. In his first voyage in 1492, Christopher Columbus found the Arawaks of the West Indies smoking crude cigars of tobacco leaf. These people had probably learned about the cultivation and use of tobacco from the Mayans, who inhaled the smoke of burning, dried tobacco leaves over 2000 years ago. The purpose of smoking tobacco may have been primarily medicinal for Native Americans, and for that reason the seeds of the tobacco were taken or sent to Europe for cultivation. Nicotine and the plant genus are named for Jean Nicot, the French ambassador to Portugal, who sent tobacco seeds to France in 1556. Sir Walter Raleigh was in part responsible for the popularity of tobacco smoking in Great Britain in the sixteenth century. James I, however, presciently condemned the practice as dirty and unhealthy and prohibited tobacco production in Britain during his reign (1566-1625).
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MORRIS, MELISSA N. "Spanish and Indigenous Influences on Virginian Tobacco Cultivation." In Atlantic Environments and the American South, 157–75. University of Georgia Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvr43h9n.12.
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Starks, Tricia. "Condemned." In Smoking under the Tsars, 162–200. Cornell University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501722059.003.0005.
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Anti-tobacco arguments existed in Russia from the seventeenth century, but the explosion in cultivation, production, and consumption meant the reviled habit was now ubiquitous and the sensory assault proved particularly objectionable for many. Pamphlet literature on the dangers of smoking exploded coming not only from doctors but also from religious leaders, moral pundits, and public intellectuals. Authorities worried that the smoker, poisoned by tobacco, became instead of valorous, morally corrupt and physically degenerate connecting Russian tobacco to anxieties of neurasthenic decline and influencing therapies and conceptions of the smoker for decades to come.
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Bakalis, Christos. "The Impact of Tobacco in Greece (Cultivation, Processing, Manufacturing, and Trade)." In Tabak und Gesellschaft, 237–64. Nomos, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/9783845256696-237.
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Karen, Ruth. "The Haggar Group: Cultivation of Tea, Coffee, and Tobacco in Southern Sudan." In Agribusiness and the Small-Scale Farmer A Dynamic Partnership for Development, 95–109. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429035814-6.
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V. Yemelyanov, Vladislav, Roman K. Puzanskiy, Mikhail S. Burlakovskiy, Lyudmila A. Lutova, and Maria F. Shishova. "Metabolic Profiling of Transgenic Tobacco Plants Synthesizing Bovine Interferon-Gamma." In Metabolomics - Methodology and Applications in Medical Sciences and Life Sciences. IntechOpen, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96862.
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Interferon-gamma belongs to a large family of cytokines – multifunctional secreted proteins involved in animal non-specific immune response. Previously inbred lines of Nicotiana tabacum L. plants harboring a heterologous gene of bovine interferon-gamma Bt-sIFNG under the control of a constitutive 35S CaMV promoter have been created by Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation. The antiviral and immunomodulatory activities of plant-produced interferon-gamma in bovine cell culture and laboratory animals (mice) were observed. A state-of-the-art GS-MS technique has been used to identify the possible effect of the transformation on the plant’s metabolome. Total profiles included 350 metabolites from leaves, among which 150 substances were identified up to their class and 80 up to the exact metabolite. Metabolite profiling revealed that plants able to synthesize interferon-gamma are characterized by a higher level of amino acids and other substances involved in nitrogen metabolism. In transgenic plants intensification of the secondary metabolism was also detected. Some alterations were distinguished in plant metabolome depending on cultivation conditions.
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Truxes, Thomas M. "Emergence, 1603–1650." In The Overseas Trade of British America, 52–94. Yale University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300159882.003.0003.
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Chapter 2 of The Overseas Trade of British America depicts the birth pangs of long-distance trade in each of four regions where England struggled to gain a foothold in the New World: Newfoundland, the Chesapeake, the English Caribbees, and New England. Although England’s Newfoundland cod fishery was gaining strength, it was beset by international rivalry and political insecurity at home. Problems elsewhere were even more severe. Investors in the Virginia Company of London poured vast sums into the Jamestown project in the Chesapeake, the first permanent English colony in North America, but with little results. In the English Caribbees, the first settlers on Barbados, St. Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat likewise struggled to establish a foothold. And the export economy of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was undermined by reverse migration and the chaos of the English Civil War. Before the cultivation of tobacco in the Chesapeake, sugar in the English Caribbees, and the opening of the Atlantic islands of Spain and Portugal to Massachusetts cod, each of these American bridgeheads teetered on the edge of extinction. The Dutch, who introduced the labor of enslaved Africans to English America, opened European markets to American tobacco and sugar.
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Elhaddadi, Mounia. "The Social Role of Sugar Cane Cultivation in the Fertile Gharb Region of Morocco." In Sugarcane - Its Products and Sustainability [Working Title]. IntechOpen, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.107475.
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A special report had been achieved in the GHARB region of Morocco; known as a large plain with abundant pure water sources especially rivers such as the SEBOU permanent river and others, very heavy clay soil sometimes so dark, and a Mediterranean climate; those conditions ameliorate the rate of agricultural activities including unique ones such as Sugar cane/Rice/Tobacco, etc. Sugar cane plays a crucial role in the population’s lifestyle’s amelioration and stability by improving their social and economic conditions besides sustainable development. The report that designed four categories of population afterward chose one best representative of each category to interrogate. The analysis of the statements showed similarities with universal values harvested from sugar cane cultivation in addition to unique ones related to the unicity of the geographic, cultural, and demographic data.
Conference papers on the topic "Tobacco cultivation"
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Plotnikova, T. V., L. M. Soboleva, N. V. Sidorova, E. M. Tyutyunnikova, S. V. Gvozdetskaya, and M. Yu Sanin. "MODERN TRENDS IN TOBACCO CULTIVATION AND PROTECTION TECHNOLOGIES." In Состояние и перспективы мировых научных исследований по табаку, табачным изделиям и инновационной никотинсодержащей продукции. Краснодар: Государственное научное учреждение Всероссийский научно-исследовательский институт табака, махорки и табачных изделий Российской академии сельскохозяйственных наук, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.48113/496_2020_142-154.
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Fratini, Fabio, Silvia Rescic, Mara Camaiti, and Manuela Mattone. "Traditional buildings for tobacco processing in Val Tiberina (Tuscany-Italy)." In HERITAGE2022 International Conference on Vernacular Heritage: Culture, People and Sustainability. Valencia: Universitat Politècnica de València, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/heritage2022.2022.14373.
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This paper focuses on the analysis of buildings used for tobacco processing, built in the first half of the 20th century in Tuscany (province of Arezzo), by studying construction techniques, materials, and preservation issues. Since the 16th century, in Tuscany, the sites involved in the cultivation of tobacco are both the upper Val Tiberina and Val di Chiana (in particular Arezzo and Siena areas). At first, tobacco was used either for medical purposes or as snuff and pipe powder. It soon became the most renowned cultivation throughout the Tiberina Valley, due to the excellent quality of the tobacco produced. The first significant crops date back to the early 17thcentury. The drying process took place in specific buildings named "tabaccaie", where tobacco leaves were placed over an oak wood fire to dry. This process was adopted until the 1970s. Subsequently, a profound crisis in the agricultural sector determined the falling into disuse and abandonment of numerous "tabaccaie". In some cases, these buildings have been reused as luxury hotels for tourism purposes, but many of them have been demolished or are in a state of ruin. They represent the testimony of agro-industrial vernacular architectures nowadays at great risk. Indeed, most of the recovery interventions have often completely obliterated the original structure to make the former “tabaccaie” able to satisfy housing and comfort requirements. The study aims to deepen the knowledge of these buildings to preserve cultural identities and transfer inherited values.
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"Effects of Marigold Cultivation on Microbial Diversity of Tobacco-planting Soil." In 2018 International Conference on Biomedical Engineering, Machinery and Earth Science. Francis Academic Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.25236/bemes.2018.005.
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Soboleva, L. M., and T. V. Plotnikova. "The use of soil herbicides Commands and Stomp in the cultivation of tobacco in seedlings." In Scientific achievements of the third millennium. LJournal, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.18411/scienceconf-09-2019-27.
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Polyakova, N. V., and S. V. Koroleva. "THE RESULTS OF THE EVALUATION OF HETEROTIC F1 HYBRIDS OF LATE-RIPENING WHITE CABBAGE FOR RESISTANCE TO TOBACCO THRIPS IN THE CONDITIONS OF SOUTHERN RUSSIA." In Ecological and genetic bases of breeding and cultivation of agricultural crops. FGBNU "Federal Research Center of Rice", 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.33775/conf-2022-200-204.
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Chen, Gong, Yonghua Xiong, Wei Chen, and Hao Zhou. "Design and Application of a Web-based Comprehensive Evaluation and Decision Support System for Tobacco Cultivation Process." In 2018 37th Chinese Control Conference (CCC). IEEE, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.23919/chicc.2018.8483444.
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Chaturvedi, Shivani, Santosh Satya, Geetanjali Kaushik, and Arvind Chel. "Viable Tailored Organic Fertilizer Alternatives From Waste Produced by Bio-Diesel Extraction Process and Tobacco Industry." In ASME 2008 2nd International Conference on Energy Sustainability collocated with the Heat Transfer, Fluids Engineering, and 3rd Energy Nanotechnology Conferences. ASMEDC, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/es2008-54177.
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Rapid depletion of conventional sources of energy and the growing environmental concern of their use warrant urgent attention to look for suitable energy alternatives. In this regard the seeds of Jatropha curcas, constituting 40–50% bio-crude oil are considered as one of the most promising alternatives for the production of bio-diesel. It is estimated that about 1.5 tons de-oiled cake is produced from seeds obtained from one hectare of plantation, utilized for bio-diesel extraction process. Being non-edible due to its toxic contents, cost effective safe disposal of this by-product can only be possible if there is a meaningful utilization. India’s tobacco industry is the second largest in the world after China, having vast area under tobacco cultivation. The wastes from tobacco industry lead to significant environmental pollution that has severe impacts on both flora and fauna. A few studies on this aspect have revealed that Jatropha and tobacco bio-wastes have potential to be used as organic fertilizers. The present study aims at developing appropriate bio-processes and formulation that utilize Jatropha seed cake and waste of tobacco industry as organic fertilizer for improving the growth of Chrysanthemum, a flower variety valued for its beauty and fragrance and having wide applications in cosmetic and perfumery products. Pot experiments were carried out by adding specific proportions of Jatropha de-oiled cake and tobacco waste to normal garden soil. The growth and morphological parameters of Chrysanthemum plants grown in pots prepared by the treated soil were monitored for 4–5 months and the results were recorded. The results have been encouraging as the treatments lead to a significant enhancement in flower growth as well as yield. 11.5% increase in number of buds per plant was recorded for treated soil as compared to the control soil. The number of flowers per plant also recorded an increase of 16% to 24% due to the effect of formulation applied to the soil. Similar trends were observed for other parameters like flower size, flower head size, flower weight and ray floret number. Through experimentation new composted organic fertilizer formulations, tailored to specific commercial crop has been developed. The research findings would enable these bio-wastes to be used as a viable alternative to the energy intensive chemical fertilizers for floriculture, thus contributing to the mitigation of global climate change. This addition in the value chain would improve the financial viability of bio-diesel extraction process. This new synergistic organic fertilizer formulation when used as an alternative to nitrogenous chemical fertilizers would also provide an opportunity to earn carbon credits which is estimated to be € 67904 millions/year.
Reports on the topic "Tobacco cultivation"
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Granot, David, Richard Amasino, and Avner Silber. Mutual effects of hexose phosphorylation enzymes and phosphorous on plant development. United States Department of Agriculture, January 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2006.7587223.bard.
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Research objectives 1) Analyze the combined effects of hexose phosphorylation and P level in tomato and Arabidopsis plants 2) Analyze the combined effects of hexose phosphorylation and P level in pho1 and pho2 Arabidopsis mutants 3) Clone and analyze the PHO2 gene 4) Select Arabidopsis mutants resistant to high and low P 5) Analyze the Arabidopsis mutants and clone the corresponding genes 6) Survey wild tomato species for growth characteristics at various P levels Background to the topic Hexose phosphorylating enzymes, the first enzymes of sugar metabolism, regulate key processes in plants such as photosynthesis, growth, senescence and vascular transport. We have previously discovered that hexose phosphorylating enzymes might regulate these processes as a function of phosphorous (P) concentration, and might accelerate acquisition of P, one of the most limiting nutrients in the soil. These discoveries have opened new avenues to gain fundamental knowledge about the relationship between P, sugar phosphorylation and plant development. Since both hexose phosphorylating enzymes and P levels affect plant development, their interaction is of major importance for agriculture. Due to the acceleration of senescence caused by the combined effects of hexose phosphorylation and P concentration, traits affecting P uptake may have been lost in the course of cultivation in which fertilization with relatively high P (30 mg/L) are commonly used. We therefore intended to survey wild tomato species for high P-acquisition at low P soil levels. Genetic resources with high P-acquisition will serve not only to generate a segregating population to map the trait and clone the gene, but will also provide a means to follow the trait in classical breeding programs. This approach could potentially be applicable for other crops as well. Major conclusions, solutions, achievements Our results confirm the mutual effect of hexose phosphorylating enzymes and P level on plant development. Two major aspects of this mutual effect arose. One is related to P toxicity in which HXK seems to play a major role, and the second is related to the effect of HXK on P concentration in the plant. Using tomato plants we demonstrated that high HXK activity increased leaf P concentration, and induced P toxicity when leaf P concentration increases above a certain high level. These results further support our prediction that the desired trait of high-P acquisition might have been lost in the course of cultivation and might exist in wild species. Indeed, in a survey of wild species we identified tomato species that acquired P and performed better at low P (in the irrigation water) compared to the cultivated Lycopersicon esculentum species. The connection between hexose phosphorylation and P toxicity has also been shown with the P sensitive species VerticordiaplumosaL . in which P toxicity is manifested by accelerated senescence (Silber et al., 2003). In a previous work we uncovered the phenomenon of sugar induced cell death (SICD) in yeast cells. Subsequently we showed that SICD is dependent on the rate of hexose phosphorylation as determined by Arabidopsis thaliana hexokinase. In this study we have shown that hexokinase dependent SICD has many characteristics of programmed cell death (PCD) (Granot et al., 2003). High hexokinase activity accelerates senescence (a PCD process) of tomato plants, which is further enhanced by high P. Hence, hexokinase mediated PCD might be a general phenomena. Botrytis cinerea is a non-specific, necrotrophic pathogen that attacks many plant species, including tomato. Senescing leaves are particularly susceptible to B. cinerea infection and delaying leaf senescence might reduce this susceptibility. It has been suggested that B. cinerea’s mode of action may be based on induction of precocious senescence. Using tomato plants developed in the course of the preceding BARD grant (IS 2894-97) and characterized throughout this research (Swartzberg et al., 2006), we have shown that B. cinerea indeed induces senescence and is inhibited by autoregulated production of cytokinin (Swartzberg et al., submitted). To further determine how hexokinase mediates sugar effects we have analyzed tomato plants that express Arabidopsis HXK1 (AtHXK1) grown at different P levels in the irrigation water. We found that Arabidopsis hexokinase mediates sugar signalling in tomato plants independently of hexose phosphate (Kandel-Kfir et al., submitted). To study which hexokinase is involved in sugar sensing we searched and identified two additional HXK genes in tomato plants (Kandel-Kfir et al., 2006). Tomato plants have two different hexose phosphorylating enzymes; hexokinases (HXKs) that can phosphorylate either glucose or fructose, and fructokinases (FRKs) that specifically phosphorylate fructose. To complete the search for genes encoding hexose phosphorylating enzymes we identified a forth fructokinase gene (FRK) (German et al., 2004). The intracellular localization of the four tomato HXK and four FRK enzymes has been determined using GFP fusion analysis in tobacco protoplasts (Kandel-Kfir et al., 2006; Hilla-Weissler et al., 2006). One of the HXK isozymes and one of the FRK isozymes are located within plastids. The other three HXK isozymes are associated with the mitochondria while the other three FRK isozymes are dispersed in the cytosol. We concluded that HXK and FRK are spatially separated in plant cytoplasm and accordingly might play different metabolic and perhaps signalling roles. We have started to analyze the role of the various HXK and FRK genes in plant development. So far we found that LeFRK2 is required for xylem development (German et al., 2003). Irrigation with different P levels had no effect on the phenotype of LeFRK2 antisense plants. In the course of this research we developed a rapid method for the analysis of zygosity in transgenic plants (German et al., 2003).