Journal articles: 'Tibetan and Himalayan Orography'

1

Barros, A. P., G. Kim, E. Williams, and S. W. Nesbitt. "Probing orographic controls in the Himalayas during the monsoon using satellite imagery." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 4, no. 1 (March 1, 2004): 29–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-4-29-2004.

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Abstract. The linkages between the space-time variability of observed clouds, rainfall, large-circulation patterns and topography in northern India and the Himalayas were investigated using remote sensing data. The research purpose was to test the hypothesis that cloudiness patterns are dynamic tracers of rainstorms, and therefore their temporal and spatial evolution can be used as a proxy of the spatial and temporal organization of precipitation and precipitation processes in the Himalayan range during the monsoon. The results suggest that the space-time distribution of precipitation, the spatial variability of the diurnal cycle of convective activity, and the terrain (landform and altitudinal gradients) are intertwined at spatial scales ranging from the order of a few kms (1–5km) up to the continental-scale. Furthermore, this relationship is equally strong in the time domain with respect to the onset and intra-seasonal variability of the monsoon. Infrared and microwave imagery of cloud fields were analyzed to characterize the spatial and temporal evolution of mesoscale convective weather systems and short-lived convection in Northern India, the Himalayan range, and in the Tibetan Plateau during three monsoon seasons (1999, 2000 and 2001). The life cycle of convective systems suggests landform and orographic controls consistent with a convergence zone constrained to the valley of the Ganges and the Himalayan range, bounded in the west by the Aravalli range and the Garhwal mountains and in the East by the Khasi Hills and the Bay of Bengal, which we call the Northern India Convergence Zone (NICZ). The NICZ exhibits strong night-time activity along the south-facing slopes of the Himalayan range, which is characterized by the development of short-lived convection (1–3h) aligned with protruding ridges between 1:00 and 3:00 AM. The intra-annual and inter-annual variability of convective activity in the NICZ were assessed with respect to large-scale synoptic conditions, monsoon activity in the Bay of Bengal, and the modulating role of orography. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) and canonical correlation (CC) analysis suggest that joint modes of variability of monsoon weather and topography, which we call orographic land-atmosphere interactions, modulate the space-time variability of cloudiness in the region. Finally, scaling analysis of cloudiness suggests three different scaling regimes of orographic land-atmosphere interactions: 1) a synoptic-scale regime (≥70-80km); 2) an orographic meso–β regime (30–70km) associated with the succession of wide valleys and bulky terrain features; and 3) an orographic meso–α regime (≤30km) associated with the complex succession of protruding south-facing ridges and narrow valleys that characterize the Himalayan foothills between altitudes of 3000 and 5000m elevations.

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White, R. H., D. S. Battisti, and G. H. Roe. "Mongolian Mountains Matter Most: Impacts of the Latitude and Height of Asian Orography on Pacific Wintertime Atmospheric Circulation." Journal of Climate 30, no. 11 (May 4, 2017): 4065–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-16-0401.1.

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Abstract The impacts of Asian orography on the wintertime atmospheric circulation over the Pacific are explored using altered-orography, semi-idealized, general circulation model experiments. The latitude of orography is found to be far more important than height. The Mongolian Plateau and nearby mountain ranges, centered at ~48°N, have an impact on the upper-level wintertime jet stream that is approximately 4 times greater than that of the larger and taller Tibetan Plateau and Himalayas to the south. Key contributing factors to the importance of the Mongolian mountains are latitudinal variations in the meridional potential vorticity gradient and the strength of the impinging wind—both of which determine the amplitude of the atmospheric response—and the structure of the atmosphere, which influences the spatial pattern of the downstream response. Interestingly, while the Mongolian mountains produce a larger response than the Tibetan Plateau in Northern Hemisphere winter, in April–June the response from the Tibetan Plateau predominates. This result holds in two different general circulation models. In experiments with idealized orography, varying the plateau latitude by 20°, from 43° to 63°N, changes the response amplitude by a factor of 2, with a maximum response for orography between 48° and 53°N, comparable to the Mongolian mountains. In these idealized experiments, the latitude of the maximum wintertime jet increase changes by only ~6°. It is proposed that this nearly invariant spatial response pattern is due to variations in the stationary wavenumber with latitude leading to differences in the zonal versus meridional wave propagation.

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Lutsko, Nicholas J., Jane Wilson Baldwin, and Timothy W. Cronin. "The Impact of Large-Scale Orography on Northern Hemisphere Winter Synoptic Temperature Variability." Journal of Climate 32, no. 18 (August 13, 2019): 5799–814. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-19-0129.1.

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Abstract The impact of large-scale orography on wintertime near-surface (850 hPa) temperature variability on daily and synoptic time scales (from days to weeks) in the Northern Hemisphere is investigated. Using a combination of theory, idealized modeling work, and simulations with a comprehensive climate model, it is shown that large-scale orography reduces upstream temperature gradients, in turn reducing upstream temperature variability, and enhances downstream temperature gradients, enhancing downstream temperature variability. Hence, the presence of the Rockies on the western edge of the North American continent increases temperature gradients over North America and, consequently, increases North American temperature variability. By contrast, the presence of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas on the eastern edge of the Eurasian continent damps temperature variability over most of Eurasia. However, Tibet and the Himalayas also interfere with the downstream development of storms in the North Pacific storm track, and thus damp temperature variability over North America, by approximately as much as the Rockies enhance it. Large-scale orography is also shown to impact the skewness of downstream temperature distributions, as temperatures to the north of the enhanced temperature gradients are more positively skewed while temperatures to the south are more negatively skewed. This effect is most clearly seen in the northwest Pacific, off the east coast of Japan.

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Ma, Ding, William Boos, and Zhiming Kuang. "Effects of Orography and Surface Heat Fluxes on the South Asian Summer Monsoon." Journal of Climate 27, no. 17 (August 28, 2014): 6647–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-14-00138.1.

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Abstract A high-resolution (40 km horizontal) global model is used to examine controls on the South Asian summer monsoon by orography and surface heat fluxes. In a series of integrations with altered topography and reduced surface heat fluxes, monsoon strength, as indicated by a vertical wind shear index, is highly correlated with the amplitude of the maximum boundary layer equivalent potential temperature (θeb) over South Asia. Removal of the Tibetan Plateau while preserving the Himalayas and adjacent mountain ranges has little effect on monsoon strength, and monsoon strength decreases approximately linearly as the height of the Himalayas is reduced. In terms of surface heat flux changes, monsoon strength is most sensitive to those in the location of the θeb maximum just south of the Himalayas. These results are consistent with the recent idea that topography creates a strong monsoon by insulating the thermal maximum from dry extratropical air. However, monsoon strength is found to be more sensitive to variations in the θeb maximum when topography is altered than when surface heat fluxes are reduced, and it is suggested that free-tropospheric humidity changes lead to deviations from strict convective quasi equilibrium and cause this difference. When topography is reduced, dry extratropical air intrudes into the troposphere over the θeb maximum and is entrained by local deep convection, requiring a higher θeb to achieve convective equilibrium with a given upper-tropospheric temperature and associated balanced monsoon flow. These results illustrate potential complexities that need to be included in simple theories for monsoon strength built on strict convective quasi equilibrium.

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Qie, Xiushu, Xueke Wu, Tie Yuan, Jianchun Bian, and Daren Lu. "Comprehensive Pattern of Deep Convective Systems over the Tibetan Plateau–South Asian Monsoon Region Based on TRMM Data." Journal of Climate 27, no. 17 (August 28, 2014): 6612–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-14-00076.1.

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Abstract Diurnal and seasonal variation, intensity, and structure of deep convective systems (DCSs; with 20-dBZ echo tops exceeding 14 km) over the Tibetan Plateau–South Asian monsoon region from the Tibetan Plateau (TP) to the ocean are investigated using 14 yr of Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) data. Four unique regions characterized by different orography are selected for comparison, including the TP, the southern Himalayan front (SHF), the South Asian subcontinent (SAS), and the ocean. DCSs and intense DCSs (IDCSs; with 40-dBZ echo tops exceeding 10 km) occur more frequently over the continent than over the ocean. About 23% of total DCSs develop into IDCSs in the SHF, followed by the TP (21%) and the SAS (15%), with the least over the ocean (2%). The average 20-dBZ echo-top height of IDCSs exceeds 16 km and 9% of them even exceed 18 km. DCSs and IDCSs are the most frequent over the SHF, especially in the westernmost SHF, where the intensity—in terms of strong radar echo-top (viz., 40 dBZ) height, ice-particle content, and lightning flash rate—is the strongest. DCSs over the TP are relatively weak in convective intensity and small in size but occur frequently. Oceanic DCSs possess the tallest cloud top (which mainly reflects small ice particles) and the largest size, but their convective intensity is markedly weaker. DCSs and IDCSs show a similar diurnal variation, mainly occurring in the afternoon with a peak at 1600 local time over land. Although most of both DCSs and IDCSs occur between April and October, DCSs have a peak in August, whereas IDCSs have a peak in May.

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6

Huo, Yiling, and W. Richard Peltier. "Dynamically Downscaled Climate Simulations of the Indian Monsoon in the Instrumental Era: Physics Parameterization Impacts and Precipitation Extremes." Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology 58, no. 4 (April 2019): 831–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jamc-d-18-0226.1.

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AbstractThe complex orography of South Asia, including both the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau, renders the regional climate complex. How this climate, especially the monsoon circulations, will respond to the global warming process is important given the large population of the region. In a first step toward a contribution to the understanding of the expected impacts, a series of dynamically downscaled instrumental-era climate simulations for the Indian subcontinent are described and will serve as a basis for comparison against global warming simulations. Global simulations based upon the Community Earth System Model (CESM) are employed to drive a dynamical downscaling pipeline in which the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model is employed as regional climate model, in a nested configuration with two domains at 30- and 10-km resolution, respectively. The entire ensemble was integrated for 15 years (1980–94), with the global model representing a complete integration from the onset of Northern Hemisphere industrialization. Compared to CESM, WRF significantly improves the representation of orographic precipitation. Precipitation extremes are also characterized using extreme value analysis. To investigate the sensitivity of the South Asian summer monsoon simulation to different parameterization schemes, a small physics ensemble is employed. The Noah multiphysics (Noah-MP) land surface scheme reduces the summer warm bias compared to the Noah land surface scheme. Compared with the Kain–Fritsch cumulus scheme, the Grell-3 scheme produces an increased moisture bias at the first western rain barrier, whereas the Tiedtke scheme produces less precipitation over the subcontinent than observed. Otherwise the improvement of fit to the observations derived from applying the downscaling methodology is highly significant.

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7

Zgorzelski, Marek. "Orographic Barrier of the Great Himalayas." Miscellanea Geographica 11, no. 1 (December 1, 2004): 71–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/mgrsd-2004-0009.

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Abstract The entire geographical literature, starting with school textbooks, presents the Himalayas as a classical model of an impermeable orographic barrier, halting the masses of monsoon air and causing aridity of the Tibetan landscapes. Despite of that, however, the author, during his trips to Western and, particularly, to Central Tibet, organised exactly during the summer monsoon, always found the southern regions of these provinces flooded to a large extent with water. It is also puzzling that catastrophic floods occurring in China (connected with the high water in rivers originating in Tibet) are correlated in time with the period of the summer monsoon in the Himalayas.

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8

Tremblay, Marissa M., Matthew Fox, Jennifer L. Schmidt, Alka Tripathy-Lang, Matthew M. Wielicki, T. Mark Harrison, Peter K. Zeitler, and David L. Shuster. "Erosion in southern Tibet shut down at ∼10 Ma due to enhanced rock uplift within the Himalaya." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 39 (September 14, 2015): 12030–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1515652112.

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Exhumation of the southern Tibetan plateau margin reflects interplay between surface and lithospheric dynamics within the Himalaya–Tibet orogen. We report thermochronometric data from a 1.2-km elevation transect within granitoids of the eastern Lhasa terrane, southern Tibet, which indicate rapid exhumation exceeding 1 km/Ma from 17–16 to 12–11 Ma followed by very slow exhumation to the present. We hypothesize that these changes in exhumation occurred in response to changes in the loci and rate of rock uplift and the resulting southward shift of the main topographic and drainage divides from within the Lhasa terrane to their current positions within the Himalaya. At ∼17 Ma, steep erosive drainage networks would have flowed across the Himalaya and greater amounts of moisture would have advected into the Lhasa terrane to drive large-scale erosional exhumation. As convergence thickened and widened the Himalaya, the orographic barrier to precipitation in southern Tibet terrane would have strengthened. Previously documented midcrustal duplexing around 10 Ma generated a zone of high rock uplift within the Himalaya. We use numerical simulations as a conceptual tool to highlight how a zone of high rock uplift could have defeated transverse drainage networks, resulting in substantial drainage reorganization. When combined with a strengthening orographic barrier to precipitation, this drainage reorganization would have driven the sharp reduction in exhumation rate we observe in southern Tibet.

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9

Huo, Yiling, William Richard Peltier, and Deepak Chandan. "Mid-Holocene monsoons in South and Southeast Asia: dynamically downscaled simulations and the influence of the Green Sahara." Climate of the Past 17, no. 4 (August 5, 2021): 1645–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-1645-2021.

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Abstract. Proxy records suggest that the Northern Hemisphere during the mid-Holocene (MH), to be assumed herein to correspond to 6000 years ago, was generally warmer than today during summer and colder in the winter due to the enhanced seasonal contrast in the amount of solar radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere. The complex orography of both South and Southeast Asia (SA and SEA), which includes the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau (TP) in the north and the Western Ghats mountains along the west coast of India in the south, renders the regional climate complex and the simulation of the intensity and spatial variability of the MH summer monsoon technically challenging. In order to more accurately capture important regional features of the monsoon system in these regions, we have completed a series of regional climate simulations using a coupled modeling system to dynamically downscale MH global simulations. This regional coupled modeling system consists of the University of Toronto version of the Community Climate System Model version 4 (UofT-CCSM4), the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) regional climate model, and the 3D Coastal and Regional Ocean Community model (CROCO). In the global model, we have taken care to incorporate Green Sahara (GS) boundary conditions in order to compare with standard MH simulations and to capture interactions between the GS and the monsoon circulations in India and SEA. Comparison of simulated and reconstructed climates suggest that the dynamically downscaled simulations produce significantly more realistic anomalies in the Asian monsoon than the global climate model, although they both continue to underestimate the inferred changes in precipitation based upon reconstructions using climate proxy information. Monsoon precipitation over SA and SEA is also greatly influenced by the inclusion of a GS, with a large increase particularly being predicted over northern SA and SEA, and a lengthening of the monsoon season. Data–model comparisons with downscaled simulations outperform those with the coarser global model, highlighting the crucial role of downscaling in paleo data–model comparison.

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10

Trenberth, Kevin E., and Shyh-Chin Chen. "Planetary Waves Kinematically Forced by Himalayan Orography." Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 45, no. 20 (October 1988): 2934–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045<2934:pwkfbh>2.0.co;2.

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11

Cantwell, Cathy, and Peter Richardus. "Tibetan Lives: Three Himalayan Autobiographies." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5, no. 3 (September 1999): 508. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2661333.

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12

Mathou, Thierry. "Tibet and Its Neighbors: Moving toward a New Chinese Strategy in the Himalayan Region." Asian Survey 45, no. 4 (July 2005): 503–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/as.2005.45.4.503.

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This article focuses on what Chinese authorities intend to accomplish politically and diplomatically in the Himalayan region through ““development in a peaceful environment”” and on how this policy could create ties between the Tibetan Autonomous Region and other Himalayan states and regions. It analyzes the Tibetan Autonomous Region's strategic position and its potential implications for Tibet, Tibetans, and their Himalayan neighbors.

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13

Singh, Pratap, and Naresh Kumar. "Effect of orography on precipitation in the western Himalayan region." Journal of Hydrology 199, no. 1-2 (December 1997): 183–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1694(96)03222-2.

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14

Feldl, Nicole, and Roger Bilham. "Great Himalayan earthquakes and the Tibetan plateau." Nature 444, no. 7116 (November 2006): 165–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature05199.

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15

Yin, An, and T. Mark Harrison. "Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28, no. 1 (May 2000): 211–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211.

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Owen, Lewis A., Marc W. Caffee, Robert C. Finkel, and Yeong Bae Seong. "Quaternary glaciation of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen." Journal of Quaternary Science 23, no. 6-7 (September 2008): 513–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jqs.1203.

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Xiang, Yunfei, Hao Wang, Yuanyuan Chen, and Yin Xing. "GNSS Imaging of Strain Rate Changes and Vertical Crustal Motions over the Tibetan Plateau." Remote Sensing 13, no. 23 (December 4, 2021): 4937. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13234937.

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In this paper, we perform a comprehensive analysis of contemporary three-dimensional crustal deformations over the Tibetan Plateau. Considering that the coverage of continuous GNSS sites in the Tibetan Plateau is sparse, a newly designed method that mainly contains Spatial Structure Function (SSF) construction and Median Spatial Filtering (MSF) is adopted to conduct GNSS imaging of point-wise velocities, which can well reveal the spatial pattern of vertical crustal motions. The result illustrates that the Himalayan belt bordering Nepal appears significant uplift at the rates of ~3.5 mm/yr, while the low-altitude regions of Nepal and Bhutan near the Tibetan Plateau are undergoing subsidence. The result suggests that the subduction of the Indian plate is the driving force of the uplift and subsidence in the Himalayan belt and its adjacent regions. Similarly, the thrusting of the Tarim Basin is the main factor of the slight uplift and subsidence in the Tianshan Mountains and Tarim Basin, respectively. In addition, we estimate the strain rate changes over the Tibetan Plateau using high-resolution GNSS horizontal velocities. The result indicates that the Himalayan belt and southeastern Tibetan Plateau have accumulated a large amount of strain rate due to the Indian-Eurasian plate collision and blockage of the South China block, respectively.

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Harrison, T. Mark, and An Yin. "Timing and processes of Himalayan and Tibetan uplift." Himalayan Journal of Sciences 2, no. 4 (February 8, 2008): 152–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/hjs.v2i4.847.

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Post, Mark W. "Topographical Deixis in Trans‐Himalayan (Sino‐Tibetan) Languages." Transactions of the Philological Society 117, no. 2 (April 30, 2019): 234–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-968x.12155.

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Singh, S. K., B. P. Rathore, I. M. Bahuguna, and Ajai. "Snow cover variability in the Himalayan-Tibetan region." International Journal of Climatology 34, no. 2 (April 8, 2013): 446–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.3697.

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21

Wu, Guoxiong, Anmin Duan, Yimin Liu, Jiangyu Mao, Rongcai Ren, Qing Bao, Bian He, Boqi Liu, and Wenting Hu. "Tibetan Plateau climate dynamics: recent research progress and outlook." National Science Review 2, no. 1 (August 1, 2014): 100–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwu045.

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Abstract This paper reviews progress in the study of Tibetan Plateau (TP) climate dynamics over the past decade. Several theoretical frameworks, including thermal adaptation and the TP sensible heat (SH) driving air-pump, have been developed to identify the mechanisms responsible for the circulation anomaly produced by thermal forcing of the TP. Numerical simulations demonstrate that the thermal effects of large-scale orography, including the Tibetan and Iranian Plateaus (TIP), are crucial for the formation of the East Asian and South Asian summer monsoons (SASM) because the surface SH of the TIP is the major driver of the water vapor transport required for the genesis of the north branch of the SASM. The large-scale orography of the TP affects the Asian climate through thermal forcing in spring and summer, and mechanical forcing in winter. The TP forcing can also influence the Asian summer monsoon (ASM) onset over the Bay of Bengal (BOB) by enhancing the BOB warm pool at the surface and by modulating the South Asian High (SAH) in the upper troposphere. On intra-seasonal timescales, the TP thermal forcing significantly modulates spring rainfall in southern China and generates the biweekly oscillation of the SAH in summer. Despite climate warming, the atmospheric heat source over the TP, particularly the spring SH, exhibits a clear weakening trend from the 1980s to 2000s. This weakening of the spring SH contributed to the anomalous ‘dry in the north’ and ‘wet in the south’ rainfall pattern observed over East China. Also discussed are challenges to further understanding the mechanism of TP forcing on the multi-scale variability of the ASM.

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Ge, Xiaohong, Shoumai Ren, Yongjiang Liu, and Lixiang Ma. "Initial uplift of the Tibetan Plateau and environmental implications." Himalayan Journal of Sciences 2, no. 4 (February 8, 2008): 142. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/hjs.v2i4.841.

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Tythacott, Louise, and Chiara Bellini. "Deity and Display: Meanings, Transformations, and Exhibitions of Tibetan Buddhist Objects." Religions 11, no. 3 (February 27, 2020): 106. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel11030106.

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This paper analyses the values and uses of Tibetan sacred artefacts in their original contexts as well as the transformation of meanings once placed in museums. It discusses the perception of statues, paintings, ritual instruments and books from a Tibetan Buddhist perspective, examining the iconographic and iconometric functions of the images, and asserting that a primary purpose is as a ‘support for practice’ (tib. sku rten, ‘body-support’). Sacred images represent the embodiment of the Buddhas, deities and masters and, once consecrated by lamas, are considered to have the power to confer blessings. Despite the instrumental function of such artefacts, however, it is also possible to identify and delineate a complex Himalayan concept of aesthetics. The text moves on to analyse the effects of the transition of Tibetan Buddhist images into different museological contexts, comparing the display of Tibetan material in the consecrated spaces of Himalayan monastery museums with their exhibition in secular museological sites in the West.

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LIU, Yimin, Brian HOSKINS, and Michael BLACKBURN. "Impact of Tibetan Orography and Heating on the Summer Flow over Asia." Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 85B (2007): 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.85b.1.

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Jacques, Guillaume. "Fossil Nominalization Prefixes in Tibetan and Chinese." Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics 12, no. 1 (December 17, 2019): 13–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2405478x-01201002.

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Abstract This paper shows that both Tibetan and Old Chinese preserve lexicalized traces of several nominalization prefixes which are still productive in morphologically more conservative languages of the Trans-Himalayan family such as Rgyalrongic, which can thus serve as a model for analyzing other languages.

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Zhuang, J., T. Droma, S. Sun, C. Janes, R. E. McCullough, R. G. McCullough, A. Cymerman, S. Y. Huang, J. T. Reeves, and L. G. Moore. "Hypoxic ventilatory responsiveness in Tibetan compared with Han residents of 3,658 m." Journal of Applied Physiology 74, no. 1 (January 1, 1993): 303–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1993.74.1.303.

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Lifelong high-altitude residents of North and South America acquire blunted hypoxic ventilatory responses and exhibit decreased ventilation compared with acclimatized newcomers. The ventilatory characteristics of Himalayan high-altitude residents are of interest in the light of their reportedly lower hemoglobin levels and legendary exercise performance. Until recently, Sherpas have been the only Himalayan population available for study. To determine whether Tibetans exhibited levels of ventilation and hypoxic ventilatory drives that were as great as acclimatized newcomers, we compared 27 lifelong Tibetan residents of Lhasa, Tibet, China (3,658 m) with 30 acclimatized Han ("Chinese") newcomers matched for age, body size, and extent of exercise training. During room air breathing, minute ventilation was greater in the Tibetan than in the Han young men because of an increased respiratory frequency, but arterial O2 saturation and end-tidal PCO2 did not differ, indicating similar levels of effective alveolar ventilation. The Tibetan subjects had higher hypoxic ventilatory response shape parameter A values and hypercapnic ventilatory responsiveness than the Han subjects. Among the Han subjects, duration of high-altitude residence correlated with the degree of blunting of the hypoxic ventilatory drive. Paradoxically, hyperoxia (inspired O2 fraction 0.70) increased minute ventilation and decreased end-tidal PCO2 in the Tibetan but not in the Han men. We concluded that lifelong Tibetan residents of high altitude neither hypoventilated nor exhibited blunted hypoxic ventilatory responses compared with acclimatized Han newcomers, suggesting that the effects of lifelong high-altitude residence on ventilation and ventilatory response to hypoxia differ in Tibetan compared with other high-altitude populations. Lifelong high-altitude residents of North and South America acquire blunted hypoxic ventilatory responses and exhibit decreased ventilation compared with acclimatized newcomers. The ventilatory characteristics of Himalayan high-altitude residents are of interest in the light of their reportedly lower hemoglobin levels and legendary exercise performance. Until recently, Sherpas have been the only Himalayan population available for study. To determine whether Tibetans exhibited levels of ventilation and hypoxic ventilatory drives that were as great as acclimatized newcomers, we compared 27 lifelong Tibetan residents of Lhasa, Tibet, China (3,658 m) with 30 acclimatized Han ("Chinese") newcomers matched for age, body size, and extent of exercise training. During room air breathing, minute ventilation was greater in the Tibetan than in the Han young men because of an increased respiratory frequency, but arterial O2 saturation and end-tidal PCO2 did not differ, indicating similar levels of effective alveolar ventilation. The Tibetan subjects had higher hypoxic ventilatory response shape parameter A values and hypercapnic ventilatory responsiveness than the Han subjects. Among the Han subjects, duration of high-altitude residence correlated with the degree of blunting of the hypoxic ventilatory drive. Paradoxically, hyperoxia (inspired O2 fraction 0.70) increased minute ventilation and decreased end-tidal PCO2 in the Tibetan but not in the Han men. We concluded that lifelong Tibetan residents of high altitude neither hypoventilated nor exhibited blunted hypoxic ventilatory responses compared with acclimatized Han newcomers, suggesting that the effects of lifelong high-altitude residence on ventilation and ventilatory response to hypoxia differ in Tibetan compared with other high-altitude populations. Lifelong high-altitude residents of North and South America acquire blunted hypoxic ventilatory responses and exhibit decreased ventilation compared with acclimatized newcomers. The ventilatory characteristics of Himalayan high-altitude residents are of interest in the light of their reportedly lower hemoglobin levels and legendary exercise performance. Until recently, Sherpas have been the only Himalayan population available for study. To determine whether Tibetans exhibited levels of ventilation and hypoxic ventilatory drives that were as great as acclimatized newcomers, we compared 27 lifelong Tibetan residents of Lhasa, Tibet, China (3,658 m) with 30 acclimatized Han ("Chinese") newcomers matched for age, body size, and extent of exercise training. During room air breathing, minute ventilation was greater in the Tibetan than in the Han young men because of an increased respiratory frequency, but arterial O2 saturation and end-tidal PCO2 did not differ, indicating similar levels of effective alveolar ventilation. The Tibetan subjects had higher hypoxic ventilatory response shape parameter A values and hypercapnic ventilatory responsiveness than the Han subjects. Among the Han subjects, duration of high-altitude residence correlated with the degree of blunting of the hypoxic ventilatory drive. Paradoxically, hyperoxia (inspired O2 fraction 0.70) increased minute ventilation and decreased end-tidal PCO2 in the Tibetan but not in the Han men. We concluded that lifelong Tibetan residents of high altitude neither hypoventilated nor exhibited blunted hypoxic ventilatory responses compared with acclimatized Han newcomers, suggesting that the effects of lifelong high-altitude residence on ventilation and ventilatory response to hypoxia differ in Tibetan compared with other high-altitude populations. Lifelong high-altitude residents of North and South America acquire blunted hypoxic ventilatory responses and exhibit decreased ventilation compared with acclimatized newcomers. The ventilatory characteristics of Himalayan high-altitude residents are of interest in the light of their reportedly lower hemoglobin levels and legendary exercise performance. Until recently, Sherpas have been the only Himalayan population available for study. To determine whether Tibetans exhibited levels of ventilation and hypoxic ventilatory drives that were as great as acclimatized newcomers, we compared 27 lifelong Tibetan residents of Lhasa, Tibet, China (3,658 m) with 30 acclimatized Han ("Chinese") newcomers matched for age, body size, and extent of exercise training. During room air breathing, minute ventilation was greater in the Tibetan than in the Han young men because of an increased respiratory frequency, but arterial O2 saturation and end-tidal PCO2 did not differ, indicating similar levels of effective alveolar ventilation. The Tibetan subjects had higher hypoxic ventilatory response shape parameter A values and hypercapnic ventilatory responsiveness than the Han subjects. Among the Han subjects, duration of high-altitude residence correlated with the degree of blunting of the hypoxic ventilatory drive. Paradoxically, hyperoxia (inspired O2 fraction 0.70) increased minute ventilation and decreased end-tidal PCO2 in the Tibetan but not in the Han men. We concluded that lifelong Tibetan residents of high altitude neither hypoventilated nor exhibited blunted hypoxic ventilatory responses compared with acclimatized Han newcomers, suggesting that the effects of lifelong high-altitude residence on ventilation and ventilatory response to hypoxia differ in Tibetan compared with other high-altitude populations.

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Williams-Oerberg, Elizabeth. "“Little Tibet”." Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 43, no. 1 (May 1, 2023): 10–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/1089201x-10375318.

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Abstract With the Chinese invasion of Tibet, exile-Tibetan Buddhist leaders have found new bases for their monastic endeavors in the Himalayan regions of India and Nepal. This article highlights how the northwest Himalayan region of Ladakh has become a homeland for Tibetan-led Buddhism in India. While previously an independent kingdom, Ladakh has been dubbed “Little Tibet” because of its close geographical, political, cultural, and religious association with the central Tibetan empire. Ladakhis themselves promote the region as “Little Tibet” and the “last Shangri-la” to emphasize the identity of the region as Buddhist. In this way, Ladakhis utilize the moral economy of “Tibetanness” as a means for cultural survival, but also to promote tourism and gain the economic benefits of being “Little Tibet.” By highlighting multiple and ongoing processes of Tibetanization, such as historical/political, cultural/religious, and imagined, this article illuminates the complex Ladakhi-Tibetan relations within projects of cultural preservation in India. Ladakhis are not passive recipients of the cultural domination of Tibetan religious leaders in the area; instead they adopt selective processes of Tibetanization to help safeguard their distinct religious and cultural identity as a religious and ethnic minority in India.

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Singh, Pratap, K. S. Ramasastri, and Naresh Kumar. "Topographical Influence on Precipitation Distribution in Different Ranges of Western Himalayas." Hydrology Research 26, no. 4-5 (August 1, 1995): 259–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/nh.1995.0015.

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Seasonal and annual distribution of rainfall and snowfall with elevation has been studied for outer, middle and greater Himalayan ranges of Chenab basin in the western Himalayas. Rainfall and snowfall exhibited different trends with elevation on the windward and leeward slopes of the three ranges of Himalayas. Seasonal characteristics of rainfall have shown a spill over effect on leeward side during winter, pre-monsoon, and post-monsoon seasons in the outer Himalayas. The role of orography in the middle Himalayas was found to be more pronounced for both rainfall and snowfall in comparison to other ranges of Himalayas. Variation of snowfall with elevation was more prominent in comparison to variation of rainfall. In the greater Himalayan range it is found that rainfall descreases exponentially with elevation and snowfall increases linearly. Rainfall becomes negligible at elevations beyond 4,000 m on the windward side of the greater Himalayan range. Efforts have also been made to explain whether variation in precipitation is due to changes in precipitation intensity or number of precipitation days or a combination of both.

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Al-Shehbaz, Ihsan A., Ji-Pei Yue, Tao Deng, and Hong-liang Chen. "Draba dongchuanensis (Brassicaceae), a new species from Yunnan, China." Phytotaxa 175, no. 5 (August 15, 2014): 298. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.175.5.10.

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Draba dongchuanensis is described, illustrated, and compared with several, primarily Himalayan and Tibetan species, including D. amplexicaulis, D. draboides, D. mongolica, D. polyphylla, D. setosa, and D. surculosa. From these, it is readily distinguished from all of the Himalayan species of Draba by a combination of strongly dilated filament bases, setose basal leaves, and auriculate middle cauline leaves.

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Kellett, Dawn A., John M. Cottle, and Kyle P. Larson. "The South Tibetan Detachment System: history, advances, definition and future directions." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 483, no. 1 (July 18, 2018): 377–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sp483.2.

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AbstractRecognition and subsequent study of the syn-convergent low-angle normal faults and shear zones – the South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) – that form the upper boundary of the Himalayan mid-crust fundamentally changed views of how the Himalayan orogenic system developed. This paper reviews the past four decades of discovery and major advances in our understanding of the detachment system. Significantly conflicting maps of the fault trace, as well as proposed extensions of the detachment system up to hundreds of kilometres both up and down dip of the main fault trace, call for a unifying definition of the detachment system based on structural criteria. The different proposed models for the formation of the STDS during tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen are compared. Finally, critical outstanding questions about the origin, extent and character of the detachment system are identified and point to future directions for research.

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Sagaster, Klaus, and Stan Royal Mumford. "Himalayan Dialogue: Tibetan Lamas and Gurung Shamans in Nepal." Asian Folklore Studies 53, no. 1 (1994): 187. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1178573.

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Shen, Xian-Jie, and Ladislaus Rybach. "A kinematics-uplift model for the Himalayan-Tibetan region." Acta Seismologica Sinica 7, no. 3 (August 1994): 415–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02650679.

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Owen, Lewis A. "Landscape development of the Himalayan–Tibetan orogen: a review." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 338, no. 1 (2010): 389–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/sp338.18.

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34

Blöch, C., W. B. Dickoré, R. Samuel, and T. F. Stuessy. "MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY OF THE EDELWEISS (LEONTOPODIUM, ASTERACEAE – GNAPHALIEAE)." Edinburgh Journal of Botany 67, no. 2 (May 28, 2010): 235–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960428610000065.

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Leontopodium is a genus of approximately 30 species with a conspicuous Asian–European disjunct distribution. In this study samples from the Himalayan/Tibetan centre of diversity of the genus, as well as from Europe, were analysed to infer a phylogeny of the genus using sequences of nuclear ribosomal (ITS and ETS) and plastid (matK and trnL/F) DNA. The Southeast Tibetan monotypic Sinoleontopodium [Leontopodium lingianum (Y.L.Chen) Dickoré, comb. nov.] falls into Leontopodium. Monophyly of Leontopodium, including Sinoleontopodium, is supported. Due to low rates of sequence divergence, intrageneric relationships in general are weakly supported, a pattern frequently observed in plant groups centred in the Tibetan Plateau. Three phylogenetic groups can be identified, however, and these are also supported by morphology. The low levels of nucleotide divergence suggest a young age for the group, which has been influenced by the turbulent geological history of the Tibetan Plateau. Leontopodium is a characteristic Sino-Himalayan element that appears to have found its way into the mountains of Europe in geologically recent times. The two European taxa, Leontopodium alpinum and L. nivale, form a genetically distinct group, which, considering the wide geographic disjunction, shows surprisingly little divergence from its Asian relatives.

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Zhang, S., S. Hou, X. Ma, D. Qin, and T. Chen. "Culturable bacteria in Himalayan ice in response to atmospheric circulation." Biogeosciences Discussions 3, no. 3 (June 26, 2006): 765–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-3-765-2006.

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Abstract. Only recently has specific attention been given to culturable bacteria in Tibetan glaciers, but their relation to atmospheric circulation is less understood yet. Here we investigate the seasonal variation of culturable bacteria preserved in a Himalayan ice core. High concentration of culturable bacteria in glacial ice deposited during the pre-monsoon season is attributed to the transportation of continental dust stirred up by the frequent dust storms in Northwest China during spring. This is also confirmed by the spatial distribution of culturable bacteria in Tibetan glaciers. Culturable bacteria deposited during monsoon season are more diverse than other seasons because they derive from both marine air masses and local or regional continental sources. We suggest that microorganisms in Himalayan ice can be used to reconstruct atmospheric circulation.

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Sinha, P., U. C. Mohanty, S. C. Kar, and S. Kumari. "Role of the Himalayan Orography in Simulation of the Indian Summer Monsoon using RegCM3." Pure and Applied Geophysics 171, no. 7 (May 17, 2013): 1385–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00024-013-0675-9.

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Lan, Tianying, Stephanie Gill, Eva Bellemain, Richard Bischof, Muhammad Ali Nawaz, and Charlotte Lindqvist. "Evolutionary history of enigmatic bears in the Tibetan Plateau–Himalaya region and the identity of the yeti." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 284, no. 1868 (November 29, 2017): 20171804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.1804.

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Although anecdotally associated with local bears ( Ursus arctos and U. thibetanus ), the exact identity of ‘hominid’-like creatures important to folklore and mythology in the Tibetan Plateau–Himalaya region is still surrounded by mystery. Recently, two purported yeti samples from the Himalayas showed genetic affinity with an ancient polar bear, suggesting they may be from previously unrecognized, possibly hybrid, bear species, but this preliminary finding has been under question. We conducted a comprehensive genetic survey of field-collected and museum specimens to explore their identity and ultimately infer the evolutionary history of bears in the region. Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences determined clade affinities of the purported yeti samples in this study, strongly supporting the biological basis of the yeti legend to be local, extant bears. Complete mitochondrial genomes were assembled for Himalayan brown bear ( U. a. isabellinus ) and black bear ( U. t. laniger ) for the first time. Our results demonstrate that the Himalayan brown bear is one of the first-branching clades within the brown bear lineage, while Tibetan brown bears diverged much later. The estimated times of divergence of the Tibetan Plateau and Himalayan bear lineages overlap with Middle to Late Pleistocene glaciation events, suggesting that extant bears in the region are likely descendants of populations that survived in local refugia during the Pleistocene glaciations.

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Kelly, Sean, Christopher Beaumont, and Jared P. Butler. "Inherited terrane properties explain enigmatic post-collisional Himalayan-Tibetan evolution." Geology 48, no. 1 (October 28, 2019): 8–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g46701.1.

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Abstract Observations highlight the complex tectonic, magmatic, and geodynamic phases of the Cenozoic post-collisional evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen and show that these phases migrate erratically among terranes accreted to Asia prior to the Indian collision. This behavior contrasts sharply with the expected evolution of large, hot orogens formed by collision of lithospheres with laterally uniform properties. Motivated by this problem, we use two-dimensional numerical geodynamical model experiments to show that the enigmatic behavior of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogeny can result from crust-mantle decoupling, transport of crust relative to the mantle lithosphere, and diverse styles of lithospheric mantle delamination, which emerge self-consistently as phases in the evolution of the system. These model styles are explained by contrasting inherited mantle lithosphere properties of the Asian upper-plate accreted terranes. Deformation and lithospheric delamination preferentially localize in terranes with the most dense and weak mantle lithosphere, first in the Qiangtang and then in the Lhasa mantle lithospheres. The model results are shown to be consistent with 11 observed complexities in the evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. The broad implication is that all large orogens containing previously accreted terranes are expected to have an idiosyncratic evolution determined by the properties of these terranes, and will be shown to deviate from predictions of uniform lithosphere models.

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Post, Mark W. "The distribution, reconstruction and varied fates of topographical deixis in Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan)." Diachronica 37, no. 3 (August 3, 2020): 368–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/dia.19018.pos.

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Abstract Topographical deixis refers to a variety of spatial-environmental deixis, in which typically distal reference to entities is made in terms of a set of topographically-anchored referential planes: most often, upward, downward, or on the same level. This article reviews the genealogical and geographic distribution of topographical deixis in Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan) languages, reviews the conditions in which topographical deixis in Trans-Himalayan languages may be gained or lost, and concludes that (a) topographical deixis is overwhelmingly found in languages spoken in montane environments, and (b) topographical deixis most likely reconstructs to a deep level within Trans-Himalayan. The language spoken at that level – whose precise phylogenetic status cannot yet be specified – was overwhelmingly likely to have been spoken in a montane environment.

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Chetri, Madhu. "First camera-trap confirmation of Tibetan Brown Bear Ursus arctos pruinosus Blyth, 1854 (Mammalia: Carnivora: Ursidae) with a review of its distribution and status in Nepal." Journal of Threatened Taxa 14, no. 9 (September 26, 2022): 21797–804. http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.7797.14.9.21797-21804.

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The Tibetan Brown Bear Ursus arctos pruinosus is a large mammalian carnivore of high-altitude environments that is closely associated with the pastoral landscape. Limited information is available on this species, probably due to its rarity in the Himalaya. To date, scientific evidence of the presence of Tibetan Brown Bears has not been reported officially. The information presented here is based on data collected in the central Himalayan region of Nepal in 2003–2014 during biodiversity surveys and other research. Methods included random walks along livestock trails, transect surveys, opportunistic camera trapping, and herders’ reports & interviews. This is the first camera-trap confirmation of the Tibetan Brown Bear in the central Himalaya. The distribution map was updated based on direct observation, signs and field reports gathered from reliable sources. The presence of signs (diggings, footprints, and feces) and direct observation in the Annapurna-Manaslu landscape reveal that bears are closely associated with Himalayan marmots and other small rodents. Local folklore, legends, and cultural beliefs have played important roles in Brown Bear conservation in the central Himalaya.

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Wang, Ming-Shan, Sheng Wang, Yan Li, Yadvendradev Jhala, Mukesh Thakur, Newton O. Otecko, Jing-Fang Si, et al. "Ancient Hybridization with an Unknown Population Facilitated High-Altitude Adaptation of Canids." Molecular Biology and Evolution 37, no. 9 (May 11, 2020): 2616–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msaa113.

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Abstract Genetic introgression not only provides material for adaptive evolution but also confounds our understanding of evolutionary history. This is particularly true for canids, a species complex in which genome sequencing and analysis has revealed a complex history of admixture and introgression. Here, we sequence 19 new whole genomes from high-altitude Tibetan and Himalayan wolves and dogs and combine these into a larger data set of 166 whole canid genomes. Using these data, we explore the evolutionary history and adaptation of these and other canid lineages. We find that Tibetan and Himalayan wolves are closely related to each other, and that ∼39% of their nuclear genome is derived from an as-yet-unrecognized wolf-like lineage that is deeply diverged from living Holarctic wolves and dogs. The EPAS1 haplotype, which is present at high frequencies in Tibetan dog breeds and wolves and confers an adaptive advantage to animals living at high altitudes, was probably derived from this ancient lineage. Our study underscores the complexity of canid evolution and demonstrates how admixture and introgression can shape the evolutionary trajectories of species.

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Chen, Yuxin, and Kyungchul Lee. "The Origin of Old-Chinese Tones." Institute of Humanities at Soonchunhyang University 41, no. 3 (September 30, 2022): 35–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.35222/ihsu.2022.41.3.35.

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In this papaer, I researched on Old-Chinese tones around three mainstream theories in academia. There are "The Voiced codas and Voiceless codas hypothesis", "The Long vowels and Short vowels hypothesis" and “The codas hypothesis”. I believe that "The codas hypothesis" is more persuasive among the three theories. Because "The codas hypothesis" can not only explain the internal problems of Old-Chinese, but also explain the correspondence between the Sino-Tibetan languages such as Written Tibetan and Written Burmese, the loanwords of the neighboring languages such as Korean and Japanese, the translated materials such as Sanskrit-Chinese. So I think that the departing tone(去聲) is derived from -s in Old-Chinese. This conclusion is consistent with other scholars who advocate “The codas hypothesis”. On the other hand, most scholars who advocate "The codas hypothesis" believe that rising tone(上聲) is derived form -ʔ. But I think the rising tone(上聲) is derived from -q and -ɦ in Trans Himalayan(Proto-Sino-Tibetan). Because this point of view can better explain the internal and external problems of Old-Chinese. However, the codas -q and-ɦ in Trans Himalayan(Proto- Sino-Tibetan), have been merged into -q in Old Chinese.

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VANNAY, JEAN-CLAUDE, and BERNHARD GRASEMANN. "Himalayan inverted metamorphism and syn-convergence extension as a consequence of a general shear extrusion." Geological Magazine 138, no. 3 (May 2001): 253–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756801005313.

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Two paradoxical geological features of the Himalaya are the syn-convergence extension and the inverted metamorphic isograds observed in the crystalline core zone of this orogen. This High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence corresponds to an up to 40 km thick sequence of amphibolite to granulite facies gneiss, bounded by the Main Central Thrust at the base, and by the extensional faults of the South Tibetan Detachment System at the top. Geochronological and structural data demonstrate that coeval movements along both the Main Central Thrust and South Tibetan Detachment System during Early to Middle Miocene times were related to a tectonically controlled exhumation of these high-grade metamorphic rocks. The High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence systematically shows an inverted metamorphic zonation, generally characterized by a gradual superposition of garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite + muscovite and sillimanite + K-feldspar isograds, from the base to the top of the unit. Recent kinematic flow analyses of these metamorphic rocks demonstrate the coexistence of both simple shear and pure shear during the ductile deformation. The simple shear component of such a general non-coaxial flow could explain a rotation of isograds, eventually resulting in an inversion. The pure shear component of the flow implies a thinning of the metamorphic sequence that must be balanced by a perpendicular stretching of the unit parallel to its boundaries. Inasmuch as seismic data show that both the Main Central Thrust and South Tibetan Detachment System converge at depth, a thinning of the wedge-shaped High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence should induce a ductile extrusion of these high-grade rocks toward the surface. Rapid extension at the top of the sequence could thus be the consequence of a general shear extrusion of this unit relative to its hanging wall. Moreover, this extensional movement should decrease with depth to become zero where the boundaries of the unit meet, accounting for the paradoxical convergence of the South Tibetan Detachment System toward the Main Central Thrust. Furthermore, a general flow combining simple shear and pure shear can reconcile inverted isograds with the lack of inverted pressure field gradient across the High Himalayan Crystalline Sequence, despite an intense non-coaxial deformation. In good agreement with the seismic, kinematic and P–T–t constraints on the Himalayan tectono-thermal evolution, general shear extrusion provides a consistent model accounting for both inverted isograds and rapid extension in a compressional orogenic setting.

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Saha, Sourav, Lewis A. Owen, Elizabeth N. Orr, and Marc W. Caffee. "High-frequency Holocene glacier fluctuations in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen." Quaternary Science Reviews 220 (September 2019): 372–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.021.

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Salick, Jan, Zhendong Fang, and Anja Byg. "Eastern Himalayan alpine plant ecology, Tibetan ethnobotany, and climate change." Global Environmental Change 19, no. 2 (May 2009): 147–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.01.008.

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46

Harris, Nigel. "Channel flow and the Himalayan–Tibetan orogen: a critical review." Journal of the Geological Society 164, no. 3 (May 2007): 511–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492006-133.

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47

Wang, Xiaoming, Zhijie Jack Tseng, Qiang Li, Gary T. Takeuchi, and Guangpu Xie. "From ‘third pole’ to north pole: a Himalayan origin for the arctic fox." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281, no. 1787 (July 22, 2014): 20140893. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.0893.

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The ‘third pole’ of the world is a fitting metaphor for the Himalayan–Tibetan Plateau, in allusion to its vast frozen terrain, rivalling the Arctic and Antarctic, at high altitude but low latitude. Living Tibetan and arctic mammals share adaptations to freezing temperatures such as long and thick winter fur in arctic muskox and Tibetan yak, and for carnivorans, a more predatory niche. Here, we report, to our knowledge, the first evolutionary link between an Early Pliocene (3.60–5.08 Myr ago) fox, Vulpes qiuzhudingi new species, from the Himalaya (Zanda Basin) and Kunlun Mountain (Kunlun Pass Basin) and the modern arctic fox Vulpes lagopus in the polar region. A highly hypercarnivorous dentition of the new fox bears a striking resemblance to that of V. lagopus and substantially predates the previous oldest records of the arctic fox by 3–4 Myr. The low latitude, high-altitude Tibetan Plateau is separated from the nearest modern arctic fox geographical range by at least 2000 km. The apparent connection between an ancestral high-elevation species and its modern polar descendant is consistent with our ‘Out-of-Tibet’ hypothesis postulating that high-altitude Tibet was a training ground for cold-environment adaptations well before the start of the Ice Age.

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48

Luitel, Prakash, and Suman Panthee. "Geological study in Tal - Talekhu section of Manang District along the Besisahar – Chame Road." Bulletin of the Department of Geology 22 (December 15, 2020): 25–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/bdg.v22i0.33411.

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The section between Tal to Talekhu of Manang District lacks the detailed geological study. The geological mapping in the scale of 1:50,000 followed by the preparation of geological cross-section and lithostratigraphic column has been done in the present study. The studied area lies partially in the Higher Himalayan Crystalline and the Tibetan Tethys Sequence. The units of the Higher Himalayan Group from Tal to Talekhu consists mainly of vigorous to faintly calcareous gneiss, migmatitic gneiss, quartzite, granite, etc. They are named as the Calc. Silicate Gneiss and Paragneiss and the Orthogneiss and Granite units. The lowermost part of the Tibetan Tethys consisted of metamorphosed calcareous rocks containing silicates and feldspar, so this unit is termed as the Marble and Calc. Gneiss. The section is about 9 km in thickness and is highly deformed with presence of igneous rocks at many places.

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Luitel, Prakash, and Suman Panthee. "Geological study in Tal - Talekhu section of Manang District along the Besisahar – Chame Road." Bulletin of the Department of Geology 22 (December 15, 2020): 25–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/bdg.v22i0.33411.

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The section between Tal to Talekhu of Manang District lacks the detailed geological study. The geological mapping in the scale of 1:50,000 followed by the preparation of geological cross-section and lithostratigraphic column has been done in the present study. The studied area lies partially in the Higher Himalayan Crystalline and the Tibetan Tethys Sequence. The units of the Higher Himalayan Group from Tal to Talekhu consists mainly of vigorous to faintly calcareous gneiss, migmatitic gneiss, quartzite, granite, etc. They are named as the Calc. Silicate Gneiss and Paragneiss and the Orthogneiss and Granite units. The lowermost part of the Tibetan Tethys consisted of metamorphosed calcareous rocks containing silicates and feldspar, so this unit is termed as the Marble and Calc. Gneiss. The section is about 9 km in thickness and is highly deformed with presence of igneous rocks at many places.

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Zuza, Andrew V., Chen Wu, Zengzhen Wang, Drew A. Levy, Bing Li, Xiaosong Xiong, and Xuanhua Chen. "Underthrusting and duplexing beneath the northern Tibetan Plateau and the evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen." Lithosphere 11, no. 2 (December 20, 2018): 209–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/l1042.1.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Tibetan and Himalayan Orography'

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