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Journal articles on the topic 'Threats and promises'

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Published: 30 May 2022

Last updated: 31 May 2022

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1

Egan, Suzanne M., and Ruth M. J. Byrne. "Inferences From Counterfactual Threats and Promises." Experimental Psychology 59, no. 4 (May 1, 2012): 227–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000147.

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We examine how people understand and reason from counterfactual threats, for example, “if you had hit your sister, I would have grounded you” and counterfactual promises, for example, “if you had tidied your room, I would have given you ice-cream.” The first experiment shows that people consider counterfactual threats, but not counterfactual promises, to have the illocutionary force of an inducement. They also make the immediate inference that the action mentioned in the “if” part of the counterfactual threat and promise did not occur. The second experiment shows that people make more negative inferences (modus tollens and denial of the antecedent) than affirmative inferences (modus ponens and affirmation of the consequent) from counterfactual threats and promises, unlike indicative threats and promises. We discuss the implications of the results for theories of the mental representations and cognitive processes that underlie conditional inducements.

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2

Macdonald, Ken. "Threats and Promises." Index on Censorship 37, no. 3 (August 2008): 94–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03064220802306812.

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3

Wood, Jeffrey S., Matthew Haigh, and Andrew J. Stewart. "“This Isn’t a Promise, It’s a Threat”." Experimental Psychology 63, no. 2 (March 2016): 89–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000315.

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Abstract. Participants had their eye movements recorded as they read vignettes containing implied promises and threats. We observed a reading time penalty when participants read the word “threat” when it anaphorically referred to an implied promise. There was no such penalty when the word “promise” was used to refer to an implied threat. On a later measure of processing we again found a reading time penalty when the word “threat” was used to refer to a promise, but also when the word “promise” was used to refer to a threat. These results suggest that anaphoric processing of such expressions is driven initially by sensitivity to the semantic scope differences of “threats” versus “promises.” A threat can be understood as a type of promise, but a promise cannot be understood as a type of threat. However, this effect was short lived; readers were ultimately sensitive to mismatched meaning, regardless of speech act performed.

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4

McNamara, John M., and Alasdair I. Houston. "Credible threats and promises." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 357, no. 1427 (November 29, 2002): 1607–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2002.1069.

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We consider various implications of information about the other player in two–player evolutionary games. A simple model of desertion shows that information about the partner's behaviour can be disadvantageous, and highlights the idea of credible threats. We then discuss the general issue of whether the partner can convince the focal player that it will behave in a specific way, i.e. whether the focal player can make credible threats or promises. We show that when desertion decisions depend on reserves, a player can manipulate its reserves so as to create a credible threat of desertion. We then extend previous work on the evolution of trust and commitment, discussing conditions under which it is advantageous to assume that a partner will behave in a certain way even though it is not in its best interest.

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5

Ellingsen, Tore, and Magnus Johannesson. "Promises, Threats and Fairness." Economic Journal 114, no. 495 (April 1, 2004): 397–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2004.00214.x.

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6

Eylon, Yuval. "Just Threats." Journal of Moral Philosophy 6, no. 1 (2009): 94–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/174552409x365946.

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AbstractThe paper argues that Rawls's account of the obligation to keep promises entails that inasmuch as we are obliged to keep promises, we are also obliged to carry out threats. On the basis of the principle of fairness, Rawls claimed that a social practice creates a moral obligation if it is just, and one has benefited from it or entered it voluntarily. A practice of threats meets Rawls's first principle of justice. We may reasonably assume that immoral threats, just like immoral promises, are not socially obliging. Threats meet Rawls's second principle of justice mainly because weaker parties benefit from drawing red lines, backed by credible threats. Finally, threats create social benefits: they contribute to social cooperation and collaboration. The argument entails that we must either accept the counterintuitive claim that threats are morally binding, or reject Rawls's account of the obligation to keep promises.

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7

Beller, Sieghard, Andrea Bender, and Gregory Kuhnmünch. "Understanding conditional promises and threats." Thinking & Reasoning 11, no. 3 (August 2005): 209–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546780442000141.

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8

Heath, Joseph. "Threats, Promises and Communicative Action." European Journal of Philosophy 3, no. 3 (December 1995): 225–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0378.1995.tb00052.x.

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9

Chung, Bobby W., and Daniel H. Wood. "Threats and promises in bargaining." Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 165 (September 2019): 37–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2019.07.002.

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10

Fauziah, Mira. "Janji dan Ancaman Sebagai Metode Dakwah Alquran." Jurnal Ilmiah Al-Mu'ashirah 15, no. 1 (January 1, 2018): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.22373/jim.v15i1.5454.

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Al-Quran is a reference book of Islamic propagation. The Qur'an has its own way of conveying propaganda to man. There are several methods of da'wah submitted by the Qur'an, among them with methods of promise and threats. The terms promises and threats have been discussed by experts among the Mu'tazila with the concept of wa'ad and wa'id. In the book of al-Milal wa al-Nihal by AsySyahrastani mentions what is meant by wa'ad and wa'id according to ahlussunnah including the original Kalam Allah. Allah promises rewards for those who carry out His commands and threaten with torment for everyone who transgresses. Everyone who carries out his command is entitled to reward according to the promise of goodness and every wretched person has the right to be tortured for doing a prohibited act. It has nothing to do with reason. Meanwhile the Mu'tazila argue that wa'ad and wa'id are not = Allah's kalam at the time of the Azaan but the command and the prohibition, the promise of reward and the threat of punishment based on the new kalam. Whoever survives because he executes the command and gets the reward. Whoever loses because he violates the threat. As a result he got the punishment and all that was obtained through reason. Many examples of verses about promises and threats are spreading in the Qur'an. The expression of promises and threats in the Qur'an has distinctive features and editorials. Each of the verse's editors has the following characteristics: the verse editorial of the promise is usually characterized by: First, expressed by the sentence of condition, with the custom of the word man and the answer with the word fa. Secondly, the editorial of the appointment is also expressed with the sentence ististna (exceptions). Thirdly, the wording of the promise is expressed in the word wabasysyiri. Meanwhile, the verse about the threat usually has the following characteristics: First, expressed in the word wail. There are 27 times the word wail in the Qur'an. Second, expressed by the terms of condition. Third, expressed by the phrase wabasysyiri (convey the good news). Da'wah method through promise gives a very big influence to people who believe in Allah SWT. that is, first, the method of promise can motivate the believers to worship sincerely and multiply doing good. Second, people of faith and righteous deeds are more patient in facing the tough trials of life in the world. Third, it can show to the believer that how great grace is given by Allah SWT. to mankind. Fourth, giving awareness to the believer that if he has faith and works righteous the reward is not only obtained in the hereafter, but there is a reward given directly by Allah SWT. in a world of quiet, peaceful and well-off lives. The verse of the threat is also very influential to the person who believes in Allah SWT. Among these, first, people who believe in Allah SWT. and faith in the Day of Resurrection will be afraid of death and life after death. Therefore, he will be motivated to worship sincerely and multiply righteous deeds. Second, people who believe in Allah SWT. convinced that the threat of Allah SWT. against the person who rcommits the munk must be valid. Because the threat is something that is shown directly by Allah SWT. in this world.

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11

SZTENCEL, MAGDALENA, and LEESA CLARKE. "Deontic commitments in conditional promises and threats: towards an exemplar semantics for conditionals." Language and Cognition 10, no. 3 (August 13, 2018): 435–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/langcog.2018.10.

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abstractThis paper studies two types of cognitive factors which have been assumed to underpin people’s interpretation of conditional promises and threats: logic and socio-cognitive assumptions about what conditional promisors and threateners are obliged and permitted to do. We consider whether the logic of conditionals is compatible with the socio-cognitive assumptions underlying their interpretation or whether the two come apart. From the classical logical accounts of conditionals, almost all modern theories have inherited a constraint which specifies that a conditional cannot be true if its antecedent is true and consequent false. This logical constraint is widely assumed to constitute, at least partially, a conditional’s semantics, or ‘core meaning’. A replication of Beller et al.’s (2005) study, reported in this paper, calls for revisiting this long-standing, cross-theoretically assumed constraint. As predicted, we have found that, in English, conditional promises are generally consistent with this logical constraint, but threats are not. Our findings provide evidence for the existence of a new usage-based category of conditional threats, and support the claim that the observed logical asymmetry in the interpretation of conditional promises versus threats is just an epiphenomenon of a socio-cognitive symmetry which pertains to people’s assumptions about the deontic commitments of both conditional promisors and threateners. Based on (i) the observed lack of uniform application of the logical constraint and (ii) a consideration of individual variation in the interpretation of conditional promises and threats, we argue that an exemplar approach to conditionals is a plausible option.

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12

Cani, Patrice D. "Human gut microbiome: hopes, threats and promises." Gut 67, no. 9 (June 22, 2018): 1716–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2018-316723.

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The microbiome has received increasing attention over the last 15 years. Although gut microbes have been explored for several decades, investigations of the role of microorganisms that reside in the human gut has attracted much attention beyond classical infectious diseases. For example, numerous studies have reported changes in the gut microbiota during not only obesity, diabetes, and liver diseases but also cancer and even neurodegenerative diseases. The human gut microbiota is viewed as a potential source of novel therapeutics. Between 2013 and 2017, the number of publications focusing on the gut microbiota was, remarkably, 12 900, which represents four-fifths of the total number of publications over the last 40 years that investigated this topic. This review discusses recent evidence of the impact of the gut microbiota on metabolic disorders and focus on selected key mechanisms. This review also aims to provide a critical analysis of the current knowledge in this field, identify putative key issues or problems and discuss misinterpretations. The abundance of metagenomic data generated on comparing diseased and healthy subjects can lead to the erroneous claim that a bacterium is causally linked with the protection or the onset of a disease. In fact, environmental factors such as dietary habits, drug treatments, intestinal motility and stool frequency and consistency are all factors that influence the composition of the microbiota and should be considered. The cases of the bacteria Prevotella copri and Akkermansia muciniphila will be discussed as key examples.

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13

Reinders Folmer, Christopher P., and Paul A. M. Van Lange. "Why promises and threats need each other." European Journal of Social Psychology 37, no. 5 (December 5, 2006): 1016–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.414.

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14

Verbrugge, Sara, Kristien Dieussaert, Walter Schaeken, and William Van Belle. "Promise is debt, threat another matter: The effect of credibility on the interpretation of conditional promises and threats." Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale 58, no. 2 (2004): 106–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0085801.

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15

Zuiderveen Borgesius, Frederik J., Judith Möller, Sanne Kruikemeier, Ronan Ó Fathaigh, Kristina Irion, Tom Dobber, Balazs Bodo, and Claes De Vreese. "Online Political Microtargeting: Promises and Threats for Democracy." Utrecht Law Review 14, no. 1 (February 9, 2018): 82. http://dx.doi.org/10.18352/ulr.420.

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16

Klein, Daniel B., and Brendan O'Flaherty. "A game-theoretic rendering of promises and threats." Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 21, no. 3 (August 1993): 295–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-2681(93)90054-s.

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17

Salgueiro, Antonio Blanco. "Promises, threats, and the foundations of speech act theory." Pragmatics. Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) 20, no. 2 (June 1, 2010): 213–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/prag.20.2.05bla.

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I suggest that promises and threats are similar speech acts and pose analogous problems for Speech Act Theory. After showing that they share the same formal types, I argue against there being purportedly fundamental differences between them in regard to explicitability, deontics, and illocution/perlocution. I conclude that the joint analysis of promises and threats suggests the propriety of a holistic theory of illocutionary acts.

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18

López-Rousseau, Alejandro, Gil Diesendruck, and Avi Benozio. "My kingdom for a horse." Pragmatics and Cognition 19, no. 3 (October 19, 2011): 399–421. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/pc.19.3.02lop.

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Promising and warning are speech acts that have to be credible to be persuasive. The question is: When does a promise become incredible and a warning unpersuasive? Whereas credibility has been researched from a social persuasion perspective, this article answers that question empirically, from an adaptive heuristics perspective. First, we present a satisficing algorithm that discriminates conditional promises, threats, advices, and warnings by pragmatic cues. Then, we discuss an alternative model of this algorithm that further accounts for the credibility of these conditionals by formal principles, and also adds two hypotheses: (1) Threats but not promises are more credible with proportionate than disproportionate consequences, and (2) Both advices and warnings are more persuasive with bilateral than unilateral consequences. Finally, we present two experiments and their follow-ups that, consistent with the pragmatic algorithm, provide evidence against both hypotheses.

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19

Kricsfalusy, Vladimir V. "The Ukrainian Steppe: Status, Threats and Promises of Sustainability." Blue Jay 70, no. 2 (June 25, 2012): 104–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.29173/bluejay282.

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20

Snow, Tamsin, and Dame Karlene Davis. "Hewitt promises midwives action on jobs and redundancy threats." Nursing Standard 20, no. 36 (May 17, 2006): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.7748/ns.20.36.8.s8.

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21

Mares, Isabela, and Lauren E. Young. "The Core Voter’s Curse: Clientelistic Threats and Promises in Hungarian Elections." Comparative Political Studies 51, no. 11 (March 26, 2018): 1441–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0010414018758754.

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In elections around the world, voters are influenced not only by positive offers of gifts and favors but also by the threat of negative sanctions for their individual electoral choices. Preelectoral entitlements such as jobs, assets, and welfare create expectations of future access that brokers can use as powerful negative inducements at the moment of the vote. We argue that in conditions where ballot secrecy makes it difficult to monitor vote choices, brokers are likely to target core supporters with both preelectoral entitlements and election-time threats. We refer to this counterintuitive logic as the “core voters’ curse.” We find evidence for this argument using an original household survey of 1,860 Hungarian citizens in 93 rural communities fielded shortly after the 2014 parliamentary election.

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22

Constable, Marianne. "The Facts of Law." PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 134, no. 5 (October 2019): 1121–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2019.134.5.1121.

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In Crippled America: How to make America great again (2015), Donald J. Trump writes, “The most important lesson is this—Stand behind your word, and make sure your word stands up'” His next paragraph begins, “I don't make promises I can't keep.” Trump seems to align his word with his promises here, but he immediately follows “I don't make promises I can't keep” with “I don't make threats without following through. Don't ever make the mistake of thinking you can bully me. My business partners and employees know that my word is as good as any contract—and that better go for the other side's word as well” (138). The “word” that “stands up” and “behind” which Trump stands is a weapon of defense against bullying. It is a threat by “me” (Trump) against “you” should your word turn out not to be, like Trump's word, “as good as any contract.” Even if Trump does not explicitly invoke the slang usage of “contract” (i.e., hiring an assassin to kill someone), he “follow[s] through” on his threats against “the other side,” whose word had “better” be as good as his.

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23

Akhyar, Kifayatul, Junaidi Junaidi, Zulfani Sesmiarni, and Supratman Zakir. "Nilai-nilai Pendidikan Agama Islam dalam Q.S. Luqman ayat 12-19 telaah Tafsir Al-Azhaar dan Al-Misbah." Edumaspul: Jurnal Pendidikan 5, no. 2 (October 1, 2021): 752–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.33487/edumaspul.v5i2.1741.

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The background of the problem in this study raises the values of Islamic education contained in Q.S Luqman verses 12-19 which is a guide for humans that is used as the foundation and basis for educating humans to the right path. While the focus of this research is the value of Islamic education contained in the letter Luqman verses 12-19. The value of Islamic education is then seen what are the promises and threats of Allah SWT (al-wa'du and al-waid). This study aims to see and describe more deeply the value of Islamic education and the promises and threats of Allah SWT (al-wa'du and al-wa'id) contained in the letter Luqman verses 12-19. The formulation of the problem in this study is the values of Islamic education contained in the letter Luqman verses 12-19. The value of Islamic education in Q.S Luqman verses 12-19 which has to do with the promise of Allah SWT (al-wa'du). As well as the value of Islamic education in the letter Luqman verses 12-19 relating to the threat of Allah SWT (al-wa'id). The method used in this study uses library research, because the data studied are in the form of the Qur'an. and their translations, interpretations, journals, documents, books, articles, and literature sourced from the library. After reviewing the data obtained by utilizing the documentation method taken in the Qur'an. The books of interpretation that are mu'tabar are used as the main reference for researchers to interpret the meaning of the verse. Then the data were analyzed using comparative, deductive and inductive methods. then related to the interpretation method, the tahlili interpretation method is used. The results of the study show, (1) the value of Islamic education in Q.S Luqman verses 12-19 of which there are three perspectives, namely aqidah, sharia, and moral education. Education from aqidah explains the dangers of shirk (associating partners with Allah SWT), syria'ah education commands to establish prayer and good deeds nahi munkar and moral education commands to do good to both parents and prohibits being arrogant. (2) The values of Islamic education are then seen what are the promises of Allah SWT (al-wa'du) if implemented properly and correctly then Allah's promises will be rewarded with rewards and heaven. (3) then the values of Islamic education are seen what are the threats of Allah SWT (al-wa'id), if someone violates the threat of Allah that person will be put in hell. Keywords: Values, Islamic Education, Al-Wa'du and Al-Wa'id

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24

Clark, N., K. Stokes, and J. Mugabe. "Biotechnology and development: threats and promises for the 21st century." Futures 34, no. 9-10 (November 2002): 785–806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0016-3287(02)00027-7.

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25

Hua*, Margaret Tan Ai. "Promises and Threats: iN2015 Masterplan to Pervasive Computing in Singapore." Science, Technology and Society 17, no. 1 (March 2012): 37–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/097172181101700103.

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26

Kellermann, Kathy, and B. Christine Shea. "Threats, suggestions, hints, and promises: Gaining compliance efficiently and politely." Communication Quarterly 44, no. 2 (March 1996): 145–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01463379609370007.

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27

Robin Hartwell. "Threats and Promises: Lucifer, Hell, and Stockhausen's Sunday from Light." Perspectives of New Music 50, no. 1 (2012): 393–424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/pnm.2012.0011.

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28

Dickinson, Timothy. "Non-violent threats and promises among closed-market drug dealers." International Journal of Drug Policy 42 (April 2017): 7–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.12.005.

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29

Sutton, Adam. "Crime Prevention: Promise or Threat?" Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology 27, no. 1 (June 1994): 5–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/000486589402700103.

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In many Western countries, traditional criminal justice responses to crime are being questioned. Crime prevention has been endorsed as a policy objective by a range of governments including Australia's, with most States and Territories implementing programs. The paper summarises approaches to prevention and reviews promises and threats these developments pose. Promises include less divisive and ‘exclusionary’ modes of social control, and greater policy relevance for criminology. Threats include the possibility that organising social initiatives around crime prevention themes may detract attention from underlying structural issues, and that techniques of opportunity reduction and surveillance will extend social control and accelerate the ‘privatising’ of safety and security. The paper acknowledges the relevance of these critiques to current practice in Australia. However it argues that problems are due to political and economic pressures rather than to flaws in prevention theory itself. Criminologists should insist that prevention programs and strategies be located within the context of critical social theory.

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30

Del Corral, Miranda. "Why do people keep their promises? An overview of strategic commitment." Cuadernos de Economía 34, no. 65 (July 1, 2015): 237–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/cuad.econ.v34n65.40511.

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Strategic commitments, such as promises and threats, pose several problems to the standard model of economic rationality: first, they can only arise when there is an incentive to free ride; second, they need to be credible in order to manipulate the others' behaviour; third, once the commitment has succeeded, it is no longer in the agent's self interest to fulfil her commitment. Why, then, do people keep their promises (and threats)? This paper reviews the literature concerning the problem of commitment within the scope of pro-sociality and cooperation, and examines two mechanisms that enable credibility and trust: reputation and social emotions.

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31

Zeuthen, Jesper Willaing, and Malayna Raftopoulos. "Promises of hope or threats of domination: Chinese mining in Greenland." Extractive Industries and Society 5, no. 1 (January 2018): 122–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2017.12.013.

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32

Kassin, Saul M., and Karlyn McNall. "Police interrogations and confessions: Communicating promises and threats by pragmatic implication." Law and Human Behavior 15, no. 3 (1991): 233–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01061711.

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33

Song, Jie, Andrea Bender, and Sieghard Beller. "Conditional Promises and Threats in Germany, China, and Tonga: Cognition and Emotion." Journal of Cognition and Culture 9, no. 1-2 (2009): 115–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853709x414674.

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AbstractConditional promises and threats are speech acts that aim at changing another person's behavior according to one's own goals. They combine several components on different levels: goals and incentives/penalties on the motivational level, formulations on the linguistic level, obligations on the deontic level, action sequences on the behavioral level, and affective responses on the emotional level. In a cross-cultural study – comparing Germany, China, and the Kingdom of Tonga – we examined the extent to which the cognitive understanding of conditional promises and threats on the various levels is shared across cultures. The results support conceptual universality, but also show that the different components are specifically affected by cultural conventions and values that shape communication styles, moral rules, and attribution tendencies.

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34

FURUSAWA, TAIJI, and TAKASHI KAMIHIGASHI. "THREATS OR PROMISES? A BUILT-IN MECHANISM OF GRADUAL RECIPROCAL TRADE LIBERALIZATION*." Japanese Economic Review 63, no. 2 (March 19, 2012): 259–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5876.2012.00567.x.

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35

Wray, Helen, Jeffrey S. Wood, Matthew Haigh, and Andrew J. Stewart. "Threats may be negative promises (but warnings are more than negative tips)." Journal of Cognitive Psychology 28, no. 5 (February 25, 2016): 593–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2016.1152972.

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36

Robin Hartwell. "Threats and Promises: Lucifer, Hell, and Stockhausen's Sunday from Light." Perspectives of New Music 50, no. 1-2 (2012): 393. http://dx.doi.org/10.7757/persnewmusi.50.1-2.0393.

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37

Cooper, David J., and Kai-Uwe Kühn. "Communication, Renegotiation, and the Scope for Collusion." American Economic Journal: Microeconomics 6, no. 2 (May 1, 2014): 247–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/mic.6.2.247.

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We study the effect of communication in an experimental game where cooperation is consistent with equilibrium play if players share an understanding that cheating will be punished. Consistent with communication acting as a coordinating device, credible preplay threats to punish cheating are the most effective message to facilitate collusion. Promises to collude also improve cooperation. Credible threats do not occur in a treatment with a limited message space that permits threats of punishment. Contrary to some theoretical predictions, renegotiation possibilities facilitate collusion. (JEL C71, C73, D83, L12)

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38

Shastitko, A. "Credible Commitments in Contract Relations." Voprosy Ekonomiki, no. 4 (April 20, 2006): 126–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.32609/0042-8736-2006-4-126-143.

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The article aims to explain the role of credible commitments as a factor of widening voluntary economic exchanges boundaries from the transaction economics perspective. It considers grounds and ways of credible commitments creation; correlation of promises in contracts, credible threats, on the one hand, and credible commitments, on the other. The author shows the importance of pledge and also correlation of addressee of promises and pledgee from the perspective of credible commitments provision.

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39

Betz, Brian. "Social Motives and the Use of Influence Attempts." Psychological Reports 73, no. 3_suppl (December 1993): 1289–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1993.73.3f.1289.

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30 cooperators and 30 competitors were allowed to send a variety of influence attempts to a simulated other during a Prisoner's Dilemma game. Cooperators preferred the use of promises, whereas competitors preferred the use of threats.

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40

PFALLER, ALFRED. "The Changing North-South Division of Labour Promises, Threats and EC Policy Options." Kyklos 39, no. 1 (February 1986): 85–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.1986.tb01256.x.

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41

McClintock, Charles G., Frank J. Stech, and James K. Beggan. "The effects of commitment to threats and promises upon bargaining behaviour and outcomes." European Journal of Social Psychology 17, no. 4 (October 1987): 447–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420170405.

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Traut, Nicolas, Katja Heuer, Guillaume Lemaître, Anita Beggiato, David Germanaud, Monique Elmaleh, Alban Bethegnies, et al. "Insights from an autism imaging biomarker challenge: Promises and threats to biomarker discovery." NeuroImage 255 (July 2022): 119171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119171.

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Wohl, Michael J. A., Anna Stefaniak, and Anouk Smeekes. "Days of Future Past: Concerns for the Group’s Future Prompt Longing for Its Past (and Ways to Reclaim It)." Current Directions in Psychological Science 29, no. 5 (August 6, 2020): 481–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721420924766.

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In this article, we summarize recent research on collective angst (i.e., concern for one’s group’s future vitality) and collective nostalgia (i.e., sentimental longing for the in-group’s past) and emphasize their interconnections and predictive utility. We also put forth the supposition that the source of the collective angst that group members are feeling can influence the content of collective nostalgia (i.e., what group members are longing for), which has consequences for the attitudes and actions that group members will support to protect the group’s vitality. Political rhetoric tends to capitalize on the relation between these emotions by making specific existential threats salient to elicit specific associated collective nostalgizing, followed by promises to “bring back the good old days”—days when the source of the threat was (ostensibly) absent. In sum, the content of collective nostalgia matters for understanding what action tendencies group members will support to assuage the specific (perceived) threats to their group.

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Matthew, Dayna Bowen. "Two Threats to Precision Medicine Equity." Ethnicity & Disease 29, Supp (December 12, 2019): 629–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.18865/ed.29.s3.629.

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In January 2015, President Barack Obama unveiled the “Precision Medicine Initiative,” a nationwide research effort to help bring an effective, preventive, and therapeutic approach to medicine. The purpose of the initiative is to bring a precise understanding of the genetic and environmental determinants of disease into clinical settings across the United States.1 The announcement was coupled with $216 million provided in the President’s proposed budget for a million-person national research cohort including public and private partnerships with academic medical centers, researchers, foundations, privacy experts, medical ethicists, and medical product innovators. The Initiative promises to expand the use of precision medicine in cancer research and modernize regulatory approval processes for genome sequencing technologies. In response, Congress passed the 21st Century Cures Act in December 2016, authorizing a total of $1.5 billion over 10 years for the program.2 Although the Precision Medicine Initiative heralds great promise for the future of disease treatment and eradication, its implementation and development must be carefully guided to ensure that the millions of federal dollars expended will be spent equitably. This commentary discusses two key threats to the Precision Medicine Initiative’s ability to proceed in a manner consistent with the United States Constitutional requirement that the federal government shall not “deny to any person . . . the equal protection of the laws.”3 In short, this commentary sounds two cautionary notes, in order to advance precision medicine equity. First, achieving precision medicine equity will require scientists and clinicians to fulfill their intellectual, moral, and indeed legal duty to work against abusive uses of precision medicine science to advance distorted views of racial group variation.Precision medicine scientists must decisively denounce and distinguish this Initiative from the pseudo-science of eugenics – the immoral and deadly pseudo-science that gave racist and nationalist ideologies what Troy Duster called a “halo of legitimacy” during the first half of the 20th century.4 Second, to combat the social threat to precision medicine, scientists must incorporate a comprehensive, ecological understanding of the fundamental social and environmental determinants of health outcomes in all research. Only then will the Precision Medicine Initiative live up to its potential to improve and indeed transform health care delivery for all patients, regardless of race, color, or national origin.Ethn Dis: 2019;29(Suppl 3):629-640; doi:10.18865/ed.29.S3.629

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McDermott, Rose. "Threats and Promises: The Pursuit of International Influence by James W. Davis, Jr. Baltimore." Political Science Quarterly 116, no. 3 (September 2001): 483–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/798046.

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Stojanovic, Bozo. "Dinamicke igre ulaska na trziste." Ekonomski anali 50, no. 165 (2005): 121–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/eka0565121s.

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Market processes can be analyzed by means of dynamic games. In a number of dynamic games multiple Nash equilibria appear. These equilibria often involve no credible threats the implementation of which is not in the interests of the players making them. The concept of sub game perfect equilibrium rules out these situations by stating that a reasonable solution to a game cannot involve players believing and acting upon noncredible threats or promises. A simple way of finding the sub game perfect Nash equilibrium of a dynamic game is by using the principle of backward induction. To explain how this equilibrium concept is applied, we analyze the dynamic entry games.

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Pandey, Niha, and Binita Subedi. "On The Crossroads of Economy and Environment: Nepal and BRI." Journal of International Affairs 3, no. 1 (May 24, 2020): 145–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/joia.v3i1.29091.

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Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), has imploded the international regime with much speculation and expectation. Primarily an economic move, BRI has its roots in infrastructure building around the less developed parts of the world in an attempt to increase connectivity and collaboration for trade among and between these states with all of them connected to Beijing. While BRI promises massive economic returns through connectivity, the question of environmental sustainability hangs in a balance. The situation is graver still for a country like Nepal that has been struggling for politico-economic as well as social stability. The dilemma discussed here is not only unique to Nepal, but reverberates through many developing and economically challenged nations around the world. The complexity of the situation becomes apparent not only because of environmental threats that loom large over the country, owing to mega infrastructure projects, but the lack of political as well as economic measures that need to be in place in order to assuage and counter the eminent threats through proper steps. All this requires further elaboration on how the Nepalese infrastructure sector and the BRI development model promise to address environmental sustainability. Nepal’s already constrained economy hangs in the dilemma following its decision to join the initiative.

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Skoglund, Lena. "Diplomatic Assurances Against Torture – An Effective Strategy? A Review of Jurisprudence and Examination of the Arguments." Nordic Journal of International Law 77, no. 4 (2008): 319–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157181008x374870.

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AbstractHuman rights organisations have warned repeatedly that basic human rights are being challenged in the so-called 'War on Terror'. One particularly controversial area is the use of diplomatic assurances against torture. According to international human rights instruments, the state shall not return anyone to countries in which they face a substantial risk of being subjected to torture. In the 'War on Terror', an increasing number of non-citizens are being deemed 'security threats', rendering them exempt from protection in many Western states. To be able to deport such 'threats' without compromising their duties under international law, states are increasingly willing to accept a diplomatic assurance against torture – that is, a promise from the state of return that it will not subject the returnee to torture. There is wide disagreement as to whether and/or when diplomatic assurances can render sufficient protection to satisfy the obligations of non-refoulement to risk of torture. Whereas the human rights society label such assurances as 'empty promises', others view them as effective, allowing states to retain their right to remove non-citizens without violating international law. This article reviews international and selected national jurisprudence on the topic of diplomatic assurances against torture and examines if and/or when such assurances might render sufficient protection against torture to enable removals in accordance with international law. The courts and committees that have reviewed the use of diplomatic assurances against torture have identified essential problems of using them, thus rejecting reliance on simple promises not to torture. However, they have often implied that sufficient protection might be rendered by developing the assurances. I argue that this approach risks leading the governments into trying to perfect a system that is inherently flawed – whilst, incidentally, deportations to actual risk of torture continue. Even carefully modelled assurances render only unreliable protection against torture. For this, and reasons connected to undesirable side-effects of their use, I argue that the practice should be rejected.

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Sheveleva, S. V. "LEGAL FIXING OF CRIMINAL CONCUSSION IN CRIMINAL LEGISLATION." Proceedings of the Southwest State University 21, no. 1 (February 28, 2017): 171–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.21869/2223-1560-2017-21-1-171-176.

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Criminal legislation concussion has various fixing forms: as a circumstance excluding crime act, as a punishment sign, as a crime sign of separate crime components. There are two types of concussion: concussion by circumstances and concussion by actions. The last always is done by a person. And it can be called criminal concussion. Such impact on other person as violence or threat, including threat of murder or causing heavy harm to health, mockeries and tortures is in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation; destruction, damage or withdrawal of someone else's property or these actions threat; blackmail; use of material or other victim dependence; threat of data discrediting distribution or other data which can do essential harm to victim rights or legitimate his/her (his/her relatives) interests; bribery; persuasion; promises; deception or abuse of confidence; compulsion. The distinctive characteristic of such pressure is that criminals choos behavior seeking to avoid adverse consequences. It is possible to say that criminal concussion in criminal legislation can be fixed in such forms as threats, blackmail and violence. Persuasion, deception, deception or abuse of confidence aren’t forms of criminal concussion because victims' free will isn't limited.

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Schloenhardt, Andreas, and Rebekkah Markey-Towler. "Non-Criminalisation of Victims of Trafficking in Persons — Principles, Promises, and Perspectives." Groningen Journal of International Law 4, no. 1 (July 15, 2016): 10. http://dx.doi.org/10.21827/59db68fc35c13.

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Victim protection is one of the key objectives of international and domestic efforts against trafficking in persons. Existing legal instruments contain a range of mechanisms to protect the rights of victims of trafficking, providing them with material assistance, counselling, and shielding them from coercion, threats, and harm by their traffickers. An additional, more contentious protection mechanism is the principle of noncriminalisation which serves to protect victims from prosecution for offences which they may have committed during the course of their trafficking experience. The rationale of this principle is to recognise that victims often have little choice but to engage in criminal conduct during their trafficking situation and to encourage victims to cooperate with law enforcement in the investigation of their traffickers. This article examines the background and rationale of this principle, analyses existing and proposed expressions of this principle, and develops ideas and recommendations for further debate and developments in this field.

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