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Journal articles on the topic 'Thermionics'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 9 June 2025

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1

ZHANG, C. "EFFECT OF INELASTIC SCATTERING OF HOT ELECTRONS ON THERMIONIC COOLING IN A SINGLE-BARRIER STRUCTURE." International Journal of Modern Physics B 14, no. 14 (June 10, 2000): 1451–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979200001503.

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One of the important problems in thermionics using layered structures is the inelastic scattering of hot electrons in the electrodes and in the barrier region. Scattering in these systems is mainly via the electron–phonon interaction, or indirectly via the electron–electron interaction. In semiconductor heterostructures at room temperature, the LO-phonon plays a crucial role in thermalising electrons. In this work we study the effect of electron–phonon scattering on thermionic cooling in a single-barrier structure. Because of the asymmetry of the barrier under a bias, a larger fraction of the total energy loss will be dissipated in the hot electrode. As a result, we find that the theoretical thermal efficiency can increase due to limited electron–phonon scattering.

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2

Khoshaman, Amir H., Harrison D. E. Fan, Andrew T. Koch, George A. Sawatzky, and Alireza Nojeh. "Thermionics, Thermoelectrics, and Nanotechnology: New Possibilities for Old Ideas." IEEE Nanotechnology Magazine 8, no. 2 (June 2014): 4–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/mnano.2014.2313172.

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3

Marti, Antonio. "Analysis of the Thermodynamic Consistency of the Richardson–Duhmann Model for Thermionic Converters." Energies 13, no. 5 (March 1, 2020): 1087. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13051087.

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4

Humphrey, T. E., M. F. O’Dwyer, C. Zhang, and R. A. Lewis. "Solid-state thermionics and thermoelectrics in the ballistic transport regime." Journal of Applied Physics 98, no. 2 (July 15, 2005): 026108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1977191.

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5

Marshall, Paul. "Making Old Television Technology Make Sense." VIEW Journal of European Television History and Culture 8, no. 15 (October 27, 2019): 32. http://dx.doi.org/10.18146/2213-0969.2019.jethc163.

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How does traditional analogue television work? That’s a question beyond the comfort zone of most media historians who may not be familiar with analogue electronics. Even young engineers know little of thermionics, cathode rays and a myriad of other forgotten technologies. This important facet of television’s history is now only recorded by older engineers and by amateur groups who collect these technologies. In this paper, I will show by using examples how material artefacts can help us understand television’s history more fully.

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6

Huang, Sunchao, Matthew Sanderson, Yan Zhang, and Chao Zhang. "High efficiency and non-Richardson thermionics in three dimensional Dirac materials." Applied Physics Letters 111, no. 18 (October 30, 2017): 183902. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.5006277.

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7

Khoshaman, Amir H., Andrew T. Koch, Mike Chang, Harrison D. E. Fan, Mehran Vahdani Moghaddam, and Alireza Nojeh. "Nanostructured Thermionics for Conversion of Light to Electricity: Simultaneous Extraction of Device Parameters." IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology 14, no. 4 (July 2015): 624–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tnano.2015.2426149.

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8

Inayat, Usman, Shaukat Iqbal, and Tareq Manzoor. "Theoretical Investigation of Two-Dimensional Nonlinear Radiative Thermionics in Nano-MHD for Solar Insolation: A Semi-Empirical Approach." Computer Modeling in Engineering & Sciences 130, no. 2 (2022): 751–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.32604/cmes.2022.018665.

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9

Cheekatamarla, Praveen. "Role of On-Site Generation in Carbon Emissions and Utility Bill Savings under Different Electric Grid Scenarios." Energies 15, no. 10 (May 10, 2022): 3477. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15103477.

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Energy-efficient and sustainable technologies are necessary to lower energy and carbon footprints. Many technologies are being pursued to meet the increasing energy demand in buildings. An attractive option is efficient utilization of available energy resources, including renewables, to support current and future building energy needs while targeting grid resiliency, energy, and environmental security at an affordable cost via on-site cogeneration-based approaches. This must include energy-efficient technologies with lower greenhouse gas emissions and optimized cost, performance, and reliability. This paper presents the economic and environmental benefits associated with power technologies such as thermionics and solid oxide fuel cells. Hybrid configurations consisting of heat pumps, power systems, and renewable photovoltaics in cogeneration and trigeneration modes of operation are presented. The role of such technologies in lowering CO2 emissions while improving energy resiliency and serving the needs of underprivileged communities is discussed. The key barriers of affordability and potential solutions for large-scale implementation of these promising technologies are reviewed. Case studies demonstrating the influence of power rating, electrical efficiency, design configuration, carbon dioxide intensity of the grid, and fuel on annual greenhouse gas emissions are presented for residential and commercial buildings.

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10

Voronovich, D. A. "Thermionic properties of lutetium borides single crystals." Functional materials 21, no. 3 (September 30, 2014): 266–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/fm21.03.266.

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11

Ji, Cong, and Fan Gu. "Influence of Thermionic Emission on He Ionization and Plasma Enhancement in Thermionic Energy Conversion." Energies 16, no. 18 (September 5, 2023): 6435. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en16186435.

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In this paper, the influence of thermionic emission on He ionization and plasma enhancement in thermionic energy conversion (TEC) are studied by experiment and numerical simulation. A 1D unsteady plasma TEC model, which includes a He ionization model, plasma conservation equations, and a thermionic emission formula for the wall, is developed. A He plasma thermionic energy conversion device composed of a barium–tungsten cathode and a tungsten anode is established. The volt–ampere curves of the He plasma TEC device are measured at 1050 K, 1150 K, 1250 K, 1300 K, and 1350 K temperatures. Both important cathode parameters, work function and emission area, are estimated. Based on the modelling simulation and the experiment, the He ionization mechanism in plasma TEC is discovered. The effects of cathode temperature on several distributions of plasma reaction rates, particle number density, and potential in He plasma TEC are described. Some important parameters, including electron mobility, resistivity, and plasma equilibrium are analyzed. The relationship of thermionic emission on plasma enhancement to the output power of plasma TEC is presented. The output powers of plasma TEC and vacuum TEC are compared at various cathode temperatures. A dimensionless analyzing method concerning thermionic emission intensity and plasma enhancement power is proposed. A brief dimensionless relationship is deduced regarding thermionic emission intensity and the plasma enhancement contribution of TEC. The principles and methods for quantitative calculations concerning the output power of plasma TEC under the action of thermionic emission are established. It is possible to do quantitative research on the effects of thermionic emission on plasma-enhanced TEC.

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12

Koeck, F. A. M., J. M. Garguillo, John R. Smith, Y. J. Tang, G. L. Bilbro, and Robert J. Nemanich. "Vacuum Thermionic Energy Conversion Based on Nanocrystalline Diamond Films." Advances in Science and Technology 48 (October 2006): 83–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ast.48.83.

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Vacuum thermionic energy conversion achieves direct conversion of heat into electrical energy. The process involves thermionic electron emission from a hot surface and collection of the electrons on a cold surface where the two surfaces are separated by a small vacuum gap. Results are presented which indicate that nanocrystalline diamond films could lead to highly efficient thermionic energy conversion at temperatures less that 700°C. A critical element of the process is obtaining a stable, low work function surface for thermionic emission. Results are presented which establish that N-doped diamond films with a negative electron affinity can exhibit a barrier to emission of less than 1.6 eV. Films can be deposited onto field enhancing structures to achieve an even lower effective work function. Alternatively, nanocrystalline diamond films prepared with S doping exhibit field enhanced thermionic emission and an effective work function of ~1.9 eV. The field enhanced structures can reduce the effect of space charge and allow a larger vacuum gap. The possibility of a low temperature nanocrystalline diamond based thermionic energy conversion system is presented.

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13

Zhu, Weiwei, Cong Ji, and Fan Gu. "Effects of heat transfer on characteristics of thermionic energy converter." Canadian Journal of Physics 96, no. 12 (December 2018): 1247–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjp-2017-0435.

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Photon enhanced thermionic emission (PETE) is a new concept in solar energy conversion, combining thermal and photovoltaic carrier excitations with thermionic emission. A solar-power-driven thermionic energy converter operates by illuminating the solar light condensed by a large-scale Fresnel lens to convert heat energy into electrical energy. By enhancing the efficiency of converting solar radiation into the emitter internal energy, the output power and efficiency of the thermionic energy converter can be greatly improved. In this study, using numerical simulations, the effects of emitter temperature and output characteristics on a thermionic energy converter were investigated. The results showed that the higher rate of the heating power represented the higher temperature of an emitter, as well as output current density, and efficiency. In addition, by reducing the diameter of a collector and thermal conductivity of insulation materials, or increasing the diameter of emitter, the temperature of emitter, output current density, and efficiency could be notably improved. It is also worth mentioning that the main factor that affected the emitter temperature in the process of heat transfer was heat conduction between solids. In conclusion, adequate illumination, reasonable size of collector and emitter, as well as appropriate insulation measurements could efficiently improve the output characteristics of thermionic energy converter.

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14

Mahan, G. D. "Thermionic refrigeration." Journal of Applied Physics 76, no. 7 (October 1994): 4362–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.357324.

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15

Ismanov, Y., N. Dzhamankyzov, T. Tynyshova, and A. Kainazarov. "Increasing the Efficiency of Thermoelectric Conversion of Solar Energy." Bulletin of Science and Practice 10, no. 10 (October 15, 2024): 85–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/107/11.

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The article considers the latest achievements in the field of thermionic conversion of solar energy. The key aspects of thermionic emission, the problems of reducing the electrode work function and increasing the efficiency of devices are analyzed. It is shown that diamonds doped with phosphorus can be an attractive material for the purposes of thermionic emission. In this case, the presence of donor states can significantly narrow the space charge region, and at the same time reduce the potential barrier in the work function. The studies also found that the most successful and widely used method for overcoming the space charge effect is filling the interelectrode gap with cesium. The efficiency of thermionic conversion devices for solar energy increases by 1.6 times. Particular attention is paid to the use of new materials, such as nanostructures and carbon nanotubes, as well as promising technologies, such as photonic enhancement of thermionic processes. The analysis of the results showed that the photonic enhancement of the electron yield due to illumination is greater in p-type silicon, as predicted by theoretical models. The thermionic current increases by 1.7 times compared to silicon. The distance between the quasi-Fermi level and the Fermi level in n-type silicon is less than this distance in p-type silicon. As a consequence, the number of electrons in the conduction band is smaller. Methods for combating the space charge effect and optimizing the configuration of energy conversion systems are discussed.

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16

Alekseev, Pavel A., Georgiy E. Lazarenko, Vladimir A. Linnik, and Aleksandr P. Pyshko. "The concept of a thermionic reactor-converter with evaporative heat transfer." Nuclear Energy and Technology 8, no. 3 (September 27, 2022): 179–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/nucet.8.93907.

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As a result of the analytical studies of the designs of thermionic reactor-converters, four groups of technical solutions have been identified that differ in the method of heat transfer from the fuel to the emitters of the thermionic converter: one option with direct in-core transfer (combining the fuel cladding with the emitter) and three options with thermionic converters taken away from the reactor core, in which case the heat is removed either by heat pipes (common or individual for each fuel element) or is arranged based on the principle of a steam chamber. The article describes the advantages and disadvantages for each of these methods. It is shown that at present the most developed design remains the version with in-core power conversion and, in the future it will be based on the steam chamber since the ingress of gaseous fission products into the inter-electrode gap as well as the influence of fuel swelling on the inter-electrode gap size are excluded and it ensures constant temperature and heat flux density on the surface of all emitters of the thermionic converters, which makes it possible to select the optimal operating parameters for them. A model of a thermionic reactor-converter with a steam chamber containing a reactor core and a zone of thermionic converters has been developed in which the fuel element of the reactor core and the power generating channels of the thermionic converter are separated in space, covered with a capillary porous structure and interconnected by a honeycomb capillary porous spacer plate to provide for circulation of the liquid metal coolant and to let its steam pass through. Neutronic calculations have demonstrated the possibility of a duration for the reactor campaign in excess of ten years following the nuclear safety regulations when a gadolinium oxide coating is applied to the surface of the fuel rods and the reactor vessel in the area of the reactor core. The assessment of thermal and electrical parameters shows that, due to the constant temperature and heat flux density on the surface of all emitters and optimization of the power conversion process for all the thermionic converters, one can expect to reach the maximum efficiency of 20%.

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17

Alekseev, Pavel A., Georgiy E. Lazarenko, Vladimir A. Linnik, and Aleksandr P. Pyshko. "The concept of a thermionic reactor-converter with evaporative heat transfer." Nuclear Energy and Technology 8, no. (3) (September 27, 2022): 179–85. https://doi.org/10.3897/nucet.8.93907.

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As a result of the analytical studies of the designs of thermionic reactor-converters, four groups of technical solutions have been identified that differ in the method of heat transfer from the fuel to the emitters of the thermionic converter: one option with direct in-core transfer (combining the fuel cladding with the emitter) and three options with thermionic converters taken away from the reactor core, in which case the heat is removed either by heat pipes (common or individual for each fuel element) or is arranged based on the principle of a steam chamber. The article describes the advantages and disadvantages for each of these methods. It is shown that at present the most developed design remains the version with in-core power conversion and, in the future it will be based on the steam chamber since the ingress of gaseous fission products into the inter-electrode gap as well as the influence of fuel swelling on the inter-electrode gap size are excluded and it ensures constant temperature and heat flux density on the surface of all emitters of the thermionic converters, which makes it possible to select the optimal operating parameters for them. A model of a thermionic reactor-converter with a steam chamber containing a reactor core and a zone of thermionic converters has been developed in which the fuel element of the reactor core and the power generating channels of the thermionic converter are separated in space, covered with a capillary porous structure and interconnected by a honeycomb capillary porous spacer plate to provide for circulation of the liquid metal coolant and to let its steam pass through. Neutronic calculations have demonstrated the possibility of a duration for the reactor campaign in excess of ten years following the nuclear safety regulations when a gadolinium oxide coating is applied to the surface of the fuel rods and the reactor vessel in the area of the reactor core. The assessment of thermal and electrical parameters shows that, due to the constant temperature and heat flux density on the surface of all emitters and optimization of the power conversion process for all the thermionic converters, one can expect to reach the maximum efficiency of 20%.

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18

Sitnikov, Maksim N., Anton M. Kharkov, and Sergey S. Aplesnin. "Thermal emission and pyroelectric current in manganese chalcogenides." Siberian Aerospace Journal 25, no. 2 (July 27, 2024): 264–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.31772/2712-8970-2024-25-2-264-271.

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Manganese chalcogenides, which are promising for the manufacture of thermoelements, are being studied. The current is measured in the temperature range of 80–500 K, in the absence of external voltage, which can be caused by a temperature gradient (thermopower), a change in electrical polarization (pyroelectric current), piezoelectric current (when the sample is deformed, a potential difference arises) or thermionic emission (thermal emission current) . Temperatures of current anomalies and their relationship with thermionic current and polarization current are found. A change in electrical polarization withtemperature will cause a pyroelectric current. Compensation for excess electrical charge will result in local electrical polarization. Partial decompensation will cause the formation of an electric field in the sample. The critical temperatures for the disappearance of electric polarization were determined for different concentrations. In the region of concentration of thulium ions flowing through the lattice, the activation nature of the thermionic current was established and the activation energy was found. The pyroelectric current has a smaller value compared to the thermionic current. The current mechanism is determined by the emission of electrons from deep traps and the temperatures of the maximum thermionic current correlate with the temperatures at which IR absorption disappears. The electric current density and its value depend on the type of substituted rare earth element are calculated.

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19

Kania, Bartosz. "DIGITAL APPROACH TO THERMIONIC EMISSION CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERSION FOR HIGH-VOLTAGE SOURCES OF ELECTRONS." Informatyka, Automatyka, Pomiary w Gospodarce i Ochronie Środowiska 12, no. 4 (December 30, 2022): 78–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.35784/iapgos.3255.

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The thermionic emission current is used in many vacuum devices such as evaporators, rare gas excimers, or electron beam objects for high-energy physics. The stability of the thermionic emission current is a very important requirement for the accuracy of those devices. Hence, there is a number of control systems that use a feedback signal directly proportional to the emission current in order to stabilize the thermionic emission current. Most of them use feedback from a high-voltage anode circuit to a low-voltage cathode circuit. However, there is a novel solution that uses linear cathode current distribution and processing of two cathode circuit voltage signals for converting the emission current to voltage. However, it is based on old-fashioned analog technology. This paper shows the thermionic emission current to voltage conversion method with the use of a digital control system. A digital realization of a multiplicative-additive algorithm is presented and proper work in closed-loop mode is confirmed.

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20

Gawkowski, Kamil, and Jarosław Sikora. "Selected methods of converting solar energy into electricity - comparative analysis." E3S Web of Conferences 49 (2018): 00029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20184900029.

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This article presents selected methods of converting solar energy into electricity: photovoltaic cells (PV), converters which use photon-enhanced thermionic emission (PETE), and near-field enhanced thermionic energy conversion systems (NETEC). PETE and NETEC systems are innovative solutions that use the thermionic emission phenomenon and can replace photovoltaic generation of electricity. We did a comparative analysis of such issues as: structure, principle of operation, working temperature and with particular emphasis - efficiency. A comparison of these parameters is shown in the graphs and summarized in the table. Based on the analysis, we have drawn conclusions about previous achievements and development perspectives in the field of converting methods.

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21

Galstian, I. Ye, E. G. Len, E. A. Tsapko, H. Yu Mykhailova, V. Yu Koda, M. O. Rud, M. Ya Shevchenko, V. I. Patoka, M. M. Yakymchuk, and G. O. Frolov. "Low-Temperature Thermionic Converters Based on Metal–Nanostructured Carbon Composites." METALLOFIZIKA I NOVEISHIE TEKHNOLOGII 42, no. 4 (June 30, 2020): 451–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/mfint.42.04.0451.

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22

Ohkochi, Takuo, Takayuki Muro, Eiji Ikenaga, Kazuaki Togawa, Akira Yasui, Masato Kotsugi, Masaki Oura, and Hitoshi Tanaka. "Multilateral surface analysis of the CeB₆ electron-gun cathode used at SACLA XFEL." Journal of Synchrotron Radiation 28, no. 6 (October 18, 2021): 1729–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1107/s1600577521009656.

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The CeB6(001) single crystal used as a cathode in a low-emittance electron gun and operated at the free-electron laser facility SACLA was investigated using cathode lens electron microscopy combined with X-ray spectroscopy at SPring-8 synchrotron radiation facility. Multilateral analysis using thermionic emission electron microscopy, low-energy electron microscopy, ultraviolet and X-ray photoemission electron microscopy and hard X-ray photoemission spectroscopy revealed that the thermionic electrons are emitted strongly and evenly from the CeB6 surface after pre-activation treatment (annealing at 1500°C for >1 h) and that the thermionic emission intensity as well as elemental composition vary between the central area and the edge of the old CeB6 surface.

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23

Wilson, S. T., S. Fargher, R. Foster, M. Malek, M. Needham, A. Scarff, and G. D. Smith. "Characterisation of the temperature-dependent dark rate of Hamamatsu R7081-100 10” photomultiplier tubes." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 08 (August 1, 2023): P08017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/08/p08017.

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Abstract Dark noise is a dominant background in photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), which are commonly used in liquid-filled particle detectors for single-photon detection to see the results of particle interactions. A major contribution to dark noise is thermionic emission from the photocathode. The dark noise of Hamamatsu R7081-100 PMTs is characterised in a temperature and purity controlled water tank, with the thermionic emission contribution isolated. The results suggest that the intrinsic dark rate of PMTs does not depend on the medium, but does follow Richardson's law of thermionic emission. There are external contributions to the overall observed PMT count rate identified, but the intrinsic PMT dark rate in water matches that measured in air.

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24

Tymofyeyev, V. I., and H. V. Yaremenko. "Simulation of a field-effect transistor on nanofilaments." Electronics and Communications 15, no. 5 (March 29, 2010): 5–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.20535/2312-1807.2010.58.5.284263.

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In article the analytical model of the silicon nanowire field effect transistor with Schottky source and drain barrier contacts is resulted. The Schottky diode model is based on the processes of thermionic field emission for reverse bias and thermionic emission mechanism for forward bias. The results of simulation and the analysis of current-voltage characteristics are presented.

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25

Larsson, Magnus, Vadim B. Antonyuk, A. G. Mal shukov, Zhongshui Ma, and K. A. Chao. "Thermionic current reversal." Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and General 35, no. 35 (August 20, 2002): L531—L534. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0305-4470/35/35/102.

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26

HETRICK, ROBERT E., and A. L. SCHAMP. "Thermionic Gas Sensor." Combustion Science and Technology 96, no. 1-3 (January 1994): 23–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00102209408935344.

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27

Zhang, Xin, Zhuolin Ye, Shanhe Su, and Jincan Chen. "Thermionic-Thermoradiative Converters." IEEE Electron Device Letters 39, no. 9 (September 2018): 1429–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/led.2018.2859797.

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28

Perng, D. C., D. A. Crewe, and A. D. Feinerman. "Micromachined thermionic emitters." Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering 2, no. 1 (March 1, 1992): 25–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0960-1317/2/1/006.

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29

Mahan, G. D., and L. M. Woods. "Multilayer Thermionic Refrigeration." Physical Review Letters 80, no. 18 (May 4, 1998): 4016–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/physrevlett.80.4016.

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30

Trotabas, B., and R. Gueroult. "Trade-off in perpendicular electric field control using negatively biased emissive end-electrodes." Plasma Sources Science and Technology 31, no. 2 (February 1, 2022): 025001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6595/ac4847.

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Abstract The benefits of thermionic emission from negatively biased electrodes for perpendicular electric field control in a magnetized plasma are examined through its combined effects on the sheath and on the plasma potential variation along magnetic field lines. By increasing the radial current flowing through the plasma thermionic emission is confirmed to improve control over the plasma potential at the sheath edge compared to the case of a cold electrode. Conversely, thermionic emission is shown to be responsible for an increase of the plasma potential drop along magnetic field lines in the quasi-neutral plasma. These results suggest that there exists a trade-off between electric field longitudinal uniformity and amplitude when using negatively biased emissive electrodes to control the perpendicular electric field in a magnetized plasma.

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31

Klyuev, Alexey V., Arkady V. Yakimov, and Irene S. Zhukova. "1/f Noise in Ti–Au/n-Type GaAs Schottky Barrier Diodes." Fluctuation and Noise Letters 14, no. 03 (June 29, 2015): 1550029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219477515500297.

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We have studied the forward current–voltage (I–V) characteristics of Ti–Au /n-type GaAs Schottky barrier diodes. However, we found some anomalies in I–V characteristics. Hence, we have considered a model that incorporates thermionic emission, thermionic-field emission and leakage components. Leakage component is linear and visible at rather small currents. The anomalies observed in the diode parameters were effectively construed in terms of the contribution of these multiple charge transport mechanisms across the interface of the diodes. It is shown that thermionic-field emission and leakage are the sources of low-frequency (1/f) noise in such type of diodes. Various Schottky diode parameters were also extracted from the I–V characteristics and current dependence of spectrum of 1/f voltage noise.

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32

Rosul, Md Golam, Doeon Lee, David H. Olson, Naiming Liu, Xiaoming Wang, Patrick E. Hopkins, Kyusang Lee, and Mona Zebarjadi. "Thermionic transport across gold-graphene-WSe2 van der Waals heterostructures." Science Advances 5, no. 11 (November 2019): eaax7827. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax7827.

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Solid-state thermionic devices based on van der Waals structures were proposed for nanoscale thermal to electrical energy conversion and integrated electronic cooling applications. We study thermionic cooling across gold-graphene-WSe2-graphene-gold structures computationally and experimentally. Graphene and WSe2 layers were stacked, followed by deposition of gold contacts. The I-V curve of the structure suggests near-ohmic contact. A hybrid technique that combines thermoreflectance and cooling curve measurements is used to extract the device ZT. The measured Seebeck coefficient, thermal and electrical conductance, and ZT values at room temperatures are in agreement with the theoretical predictions using first-principles calculations combined with real-space Green’s function formalism. This work lays the foundation for development of efficient thermionic devices.

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33

Özden, Şadan, Cem Tozlu, and Osman Pakma. "Temperature Dependent Electrical Transport in Al/Poly(4-vinyl phenol)/p-GaAs Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor by Sol-Gel Spin Coating Method." International Journal of Photoenergy 2016 (2016): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/6157905.

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Deposition of poly(4-vinyl phenol) insulator layer is carried out by applying the spin coating technique ontop-type GaAs substrate so as to create Al/poly(4-vinyl phenol)/p-GaAs metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) structure. Temperature was set to 80–320 K while the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the structure were examined in the study. Ideality factor (n) and barrier height (ϕb) values found in the experiment ranged from 3.13 and 0.616 eV (320 K) to 11.56 and 0.147 eV (80 K). Comparing the thermionic field emission theory and thermionic emission theory, the temperature dependent ideality factor behavior displayed that thermionic field emission theory is more valid than the latter. The calculated tunneling energy was 96 meV.

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34

Xie, Kan, Steven Allen Hartz, and Virginia M. Ayres. "Thermionic Field Emission Transport at Nanowire Schottky Barrier Contacts." MRS Proceedings 1785 (2015): 19–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/opl.2015.605.

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ABSTRACTThe high carrier concentrations typically reported for nanowire devices indicate that when Schottky barrier transport is present, it occurs in the thermionic field emission regime with a substantial but not exclusive tunneling component. Analysis by thermionic field emission is difficult due to its multivariate nature. In recent work, we developed a mathematical stability approach that greatly simplified the evaluation of the multivariate thermionic field emission parameters. This is a general method with potentially wide applicability, requiring only the effective mass m* and relative dielectric constant εr for a given semiconductor as inputs. In the present work, we investigate the influence of the materials properties effective mass m* and relative dielectric constant εr on stability for a range of real and simulated semiconductor nanowires. A further investigation of temperature sensitivity and regime trends is presented.

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Lowke, J. J., and J. C. Quartel. "Use of Transport Coefficients to Calculate Properties of Electrode Sheaths of Electric Arcs." Australian Journal of Physics 50, no. 3 (1997): 539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/p96089.

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Particle conservation equations for electrons and positive ions, together with Poisson"s equation to account for space-charge effects on the electric field, have been solved for the electrode sheath regions of electric arcs. For thermionic cathodes and the anode, we find that the ambipolar diffusion approximation is generally valid. At the surface of the anode we find that there is generally a small retarding electric field. For non-thermionic cathodes and no ionisation due to the electric field in the sheath, we calculate unrealistically high sheath voltages and even then, find that the electric fields at the cathode surface are insufficient for field emission. It is suggested that photoionisation in the region close to the cathode may be a principal source of electrons for non-thermionic cathodes.

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Zhang, Xin, Yee Sin Ang, Lay Kee Ang, and Jincan Chen. "Concentrated thermionic solar cells using graphene as the collector: theoretical efficiency limit and design rules." Nanotechnology 33, no. 6 (November 16, 2021): 065404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6528/ac3459.

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Abstract We propose an updated design on concentrated thermionic emission solar cells, which demonstrates a high solar-to-electricity energy conversion efficiency larger than 10% under 600 suns, by harnessing the exceptional electrical, thermal, and radiative properties of the graphene as a collector electrode. By constructing an analytical model that explicitly takes into account the non-Richardson behavior of the thermionic emission current from graphene, space charge effect in vacuum gap, and the various irreversible energy losses within the subcomponents, we perform detailed characterizations on the conversion efficiency limit and parametric optimum design of the proposed system. Under 800 suns, a maximum efficiency of 12.8% has been revealed, where current density is 3.87 A cm−2, output voltage is 1.76 V, emitter temperature is 1707 K, and collector temperature is 352 K. Moreover, we systematically compare the peak efficiencies of various configurations combining diamond or graphene, and show that utilizing diamond films as an emitter and graphene as a collector offers the highest conversion efficiency, thus revealing the important role of graphene in achieving high-performance thermionic emission solar cells. This work thus opens up new avenues to advance the efficiency limit of thermionic solar energy conversion and the development of next-generation novel-nanomaterial-based solar energy harvesting technology.

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Promros, Nathaporn, Suguru Funasaki, Motoki Takahara, Ryūhei Iwasaki, Mahmoud Shaban, and Tsuyoshi Yoshitake. "Diode Parameters of Mesa Structural n-Type Nanocrystalline FeSi₂/p-Type Si Heterojunctions Prepared by Lift-Off Photolithography." Advanced Materials Research 1103 (May 2015): 91–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1103.91.

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Mesa structural n-type nanocrystalline-FeSi2/p-type Si heterojunctions were successfully fabricated by a lift-off technique combined with a photolithography process. Their current-voltage characteristics were measured at low temperatures range from 300 K down to 60 K. We estimated their diode parameters such as ideality factor, barrier height and series resistance based on the thermionic emission theory and Cheung’s method. From the estimation by the thermionic emission theory, the obtained results show an increase of ideality factor and a decrease of barrier height at low temperatures. The estimation by Cheung’s method shows that the values of ideality factor and barrier height are in agreement with those obtained from the thermionic emission theory. The obtained series resistances from dV/d (lnJ)-J and H(J)-J plots, which are approximately equal to each others, are increased at low temperatures.

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Zuber, J. W., and C. Zhang. "Anisotropic thermionic response of Weyl semimetals with application in thermionic cooling." Journal of Applied Physics 128, no. 12 (September 28, 2020): 125101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0025078.

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BORDAS, C., B. BAGUENARD, B. CLIMEN, F. LÉPINE, F. PAGLIARULO, M. A. LEBEAULT, and J. WILLS. "TIME AND ENERGY-RESOLVED THERMIONIC EMISSION IN CARBON CLUSTERS." International Journal of Modern Physics B 19, no. 15n17 (July 10, 2005): 2899–909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0217979205031882.

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We present experimental measurements of time-dependent photoelectron spectra observed in thermionic emission of small carbon cluster anions and C 60 fullerenes. The combination of photoelectron velocity-map imaging with time-gated detection allowed to resolve delayed electron emission at different stages of the emission process. This unique capability allows us to analyze pure thermionic energy spectra under well-defined conditions. Experimental spectra are analyzed within the framework of the detailed balance theory.

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Ismanov, Yu, N. Dzhamankizov, T. Tynyshova, and A. Abdulaev. "Photon Amplification of Thermoelectronic Solar Energy Converters." Bulletin of Science and Practice 10, no. 4 (April 15, 2024): 403–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.33619/2414-2948/101/45.

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The work is devoted to a theoretical analysis of the efficiency of a thermionic device with photonic amplification. In analyzing the efficiency of photon-enhanced thermionic devices, two physical effects that were not considered in previous analyzes and their impact on the conversion efficiency of photon-enhanced thermionic devices were considered. The first effect is the influence of alternating voltage on the behavior of thermionic devices with photonic amplification and determining the maximum power value. The effect of charge carrier concentration on the maximum power was assessed using the balance of generation and loss of charge carriers. In this assessment, the assumption was made that the carrier concentration, temperature, and electrostatic potential are the same throughout the cathode. The effects of the negative space charge region were neglected. The assessment also assumed that the reverse current in the direction from the anode to the cathode affects the electron concentration in the conduction band. An expression for the efficiency of thermionic devices with photonic amplification is obtained and is determined as a function of the maximum operating voltage, cathode emission current and reverse anode current. The second important effect considered in the analysis is the thermal balance of the cathode. To account for this effect, a cathode configuration was considered in which the cathode is thermally isolated, i.e., there are no additional opportunities for heat removal from the cathode. This made it possible, based on the thermal balance, to determine the cathode temperature for a given input radiation flux and a given electrical operating point. It is shown that to determine the real efficiency under arbitrary operating conditions, the calculation of the electrical operating point must be carried out simultaneously with the cathode energy balance.

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Voronovych, Daniil, Anatoliy Taran, Oksana Podshyvalova, Natalya Shitsevalova, Volodymyr Filipov, and Anatoliy Dukhnenko. "Thermionic Emission of Yttrium Dodecaboride Single Crystal." Solid State Phenomena 289 (April 2019): 47–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.289.47.

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Experimental data on thermionic current density and electron work function of YB12 (100) at T = 1218 – 1978 K in high vacuum (p < 10-4 Pa) are first introduced. Temperature dependences of the thermionic current density and effective electron work function are presented without extrapolation to the zero-field currents because of the anomalous Schottky effect. The temperature dependences of theYB12 electron work function can be described by linear functions at certain temperature intervals. Preferential boron evaporation and additional ion bombardment by the residual gases ions and evaporated boron ions results in appearance of new phases depleted of boron on the YB12 surface. As a result, an YB4 – YB6 double layer on the YB12 single crystal surface has formed. The appearance of the new boride phases, depleted of boron, on the emitting surface causes an increase of thermionic current density compared with individual YB12.

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Toledo, J., A. Post, and J. F. Plaza. "Measurement of the C12A7:e- thermionic emission enhancement due to photon exposure." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2526, no. 1 (June 1, 2023): 012111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2526/1/012111.

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Abstract In this work, a test set-up device is designed, developed and manufactured to perform a direct measurement of the current emission enhancement that the photon absorption can bring to the thermionic emission in a Photon-Enhanced Thermionic Emission Device (PETED) where the C12A7:e- electride is used as the semiconductor due to its low work function value of 2.4 eV. Even though the measured thermionic emission starts at low operational temperatures, obtaining for example a current density emission of 5 mA/cm2 at 500 °C, there is barely an increase of 1% in the current emission when the device is exposed to a source of photons. This effect is mainly due to the presence of a dielectric layer at the material surface, which acts as a barrier, reduces the current enhancement effect from photon excitation, and drives to a limited efficiency of 27 μA/cm2/W.

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Кнатько, М. В., та М. Н. Лапушкин. "Вольт-амперная характеристика термоионной эмиссии Na с поверхности Na-=SUB=-x-=/SUB=-Au". Письма в журнал технической физики 49, № 5 (2023): 26. http://dx.doi.org/10.21883/pjtf.2023.05.54666.19356.

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In a high-vacuum diode, the volt-ampere characteristic of the thermionic emission of Na+ with surface of NaxAu intermetallide. Its hysteresis was found, which is associated with changes in the surface NaxAu caused by the action of an external electric field. In accordance with the Schottky effect, analysis of the current–voltage characteristic and the value of the work function of the NaxAu surface was estimated. Suggested mechanism of thermionic emission of Na+ from the surface of NaxAu.

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Pan, J., A. Gaibrois, M. Marripelly, J. Leung, S. Suko, M. Lee, and T. Knight. "Effects of Very High Workfunction Metals or Metal Alloys (NiCr) on High Switching Speed, HV Schottky Diodes for Mixed Signal or RF ASIC." MRS Advances 5, no. 37-38 (2020): 1937–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/adv.2020.336.

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AbstractFor high switching speed HV Schottky diodes, with very high work function metal and extremely lightly doped epi, the built-in potential may be too high for thermionic emission to occur, when the applied external voltage is quite low (near VF = 0.07V). If the epi is lightly doped p type, the built-in potential (VBuilt-in: potential difference between the metal and silicon Fermi levels) is 1.0V (measured with CV). If the external bias is 0.1V, near the measured VF, it is not enough to overcome the built-in potential for thermionic emission as illustrated. It is likely that in addition to thermionic emission, tunnelling and diffusion currents also contribute to the total HV Schottky diode forward current. TCAD simulation of HV Schottky diodes with N+ guard bands suggests the potential barrier and electric fields at the Schottky junction are relatively high for thermionic emission to occur, when external bias V ≈ VF. In this paper we report HV Schottky diodes fabricated with various metals, metal alloys and epitaxial films. Metal work functions and epi doping profiles are extracted with high frequency Capacitance-Voltage (CV) technique. 150V of breakdown voltage and very low forward voltage (VF = 0.07V) are demonstrated. The measured data indicate very high work function metal or metal alloy is needed to achieve high switching speed and low forward voltage.

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Kumar, Niraj, Anjana Kumari, Manisha Samarth, Rajiv Kumar, and Tarun Dey. "Analytical Studies of Metal Insulator Semiconductor Schottky Barrier Diodes." Material Science Research India 11, no. 2 (November 3, 2014): 121–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.13005/msri/110205.

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The current –voltage data of the metal –insulator semiconductor Schottky diode are simulated using thermionic emission diffusion equation taking into account the inter facial layer parameters.The computed current – voltage data are fitted into ideal thermionic emission diffusion equation to see the apparent effect of interfacial parameters on current transport.In presence of interfacial layer the Schottky contact behave as an ideal diode of apparently high barrier height. The behavior of apparent height and ideality factor with the presence of inter facial layer is discussed.

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Zhong, Yujie, Hao Wu, Xiandi Li, Jiamao Gao, Wei Jiang, Ya Zhang, and Giovanni Lapenta. "Numerical characterization of the breakdown process of dc-driven micro-discharges sustained by thermionic emission." Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 55, no. 21 (February 25, 2022): 215203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/ac4fd4.

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Abstract Because of the larger surface-area-to-volume ratio, micro-discharges can be sustained by surface emission processes. If the cathode is heated, a micro-discharge can be sustained mainly by thermionic emission. However, we still know little about how this kind of plasma is ignited and sustained. In order to explore the breakdown process of dc-driven micro-discharge sustained by thermionic emission, a one-dimensional implicit particle-in-cell/Monte Carlo collision method is adopted, coupled with the external circuit and thermionic emission model. The breakdown process of micro-discharge lasts about 8 μ s , and this process can be roughly divided into two phases, i.e. pre-breakdown and breakdown phase. The dynamic plasma parameters during the evolution process are analyzed, such as particle density, electron energy distribution function, electric potential, average particle temperature, and particle current density. The plasma electrical characteristics as well as the article and power balance, are also presented to show the evolutionary features of the whole gas breakdown process.

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47

Knatko M.V. and Lapushkin M.N. "Current-voltage characteristic of the thermal ion emission of Na from the Na-=SUB=-x-=/SUB=-Au surface." Technical Physics Letters 49, no. 3 (2023): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.21883/tpl.2023.03.55677.19356.

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In a high-vacuum diode, the volt-ampere characteristic of the thermionic emission of Na+ with surface of NaxAu intermetallide. Its hysteresis was found, which is associated with changes in the surface NaxAu caused by the action of an external electric field. In accordance with the Schottky effect, analysis of the current-voltage characteristic and the value of the work function of the NaxAu surface was estimated. Suggested mechanism of thermionic emission of Na+ from the surface of NaxAu. Keywords: intermetallic compound, thermal ionization, Schottky effect.

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48

Shakouri, Ali, and John E. Bowers. "Heterostructure integrated thermionic coolers." Applied Physics Letters 71, no. 9 (September 1997): 1234–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.119861.

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Xuan, X. C. "Combined thermionic-thermoelectric refrigerator." Journal of Applied Physics 92, no. 8 (October 15, 2002): 4746–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1509101.

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Rasor, N. S. "Thermionic energy conversion plasmas." IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 19, no. 6 (1991): 1191–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/27.125041.

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