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1
Rohrer, Josef. Wörterbuch der Verben Deutsch-Thai =: Photčhanānukrom khamkariyā Yœ̄raman-Thai. Hürth: Bundessprachenamt, 1995.
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2
Informationsstruktur und grammatische Kodierungsmuster: Eine kontrastive Studie zum Deutschen und Thailändischen. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2014.
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3
Interkulturelle Grammatik: Konzeptionelle Überlegungen zu einer Grammatik aus eigener und fremder Perspektive im Deutschen als Fremdsprache. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2008.
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4
Granath, Solveig. Verb complementation in English: Omission of prepositions before that-clauses and to-infinitives. Göteborg, Sweden: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, 1997.
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5
Janardhan, Pandarinath Bhuvanendra. A Konkani dhatukosh: The first of its kind with more than 350 dhatus with their Skt. equivalents, tense morphologies, derivations, and usages. Trichur: Printed at the Kairali Press and Books, 1991.
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6
Spanish verbs. Piscataway, N.J: Research & Education Association, 2002.
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7
Ferreira, Helder Perri. Dicionário de verbos português-yanomama: Napëpëni thë thaa thaatarapëhe nahã thãaxo, yanomama thããxo, thëkipëã wëanomwei siki. São Paulo: ISA, 2011.
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8
Birjulin, Leonid A. Semantika i sintaksis russkogo impersonala: verba meteorologica i ich diatezy : (= Specimina Philologica Slavicae, 102). Bern: Peter Lang International Academic Publishers, 1994.
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9
F L Werner Von Bergen and Samuel J. Smith. Passive Verb of the Thai Language, by F. L. Werner Von Bergen, with the Siamese Verb, and Vocabulary of Words Used in These Notices, by S. J. Smith. Creative Media Partners, LLC, 2018.
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10
Woods, Rebecca, and Sam Wolfe, eds. Rethinking Verb Second. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198844303.001.0001.
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This volume provides the most exhaustive and comprehensive treatment available of the Verb Second property, which has been a central topic in formal syntax for decades. While Verb Second has traditionally been considered a feature primarily of the Germanic languages, this book shows that it is much more widely attested cross-linguistically than previously thought, and explores the multiple empirical, theoretical, and experimental puzzles that remain in developing an account of the phenomenon. Uniquely, formal theoretical work appears alongside studies of psycholinguistics, language production, and language acquisition. The range of languages investigated is also broader than in previous work: while novel issues are explored through the lens of the more familiar Germanic data, chapters also cover Verb Second effects in languages such as Armenian, Dinka, Tohono O’odham, and in the Celtic, Romance, and Slavonic families. The analyses have wide-ranging consequences for our understanding of the language faculty, and will be of interest to researchers and students from advanced undergraduate level upwards in the fields of syntax, historical linguistics, and language acquisition.
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Kageyama, Taro, Peter E. Hook, and Prashant Pardeshi, eds. Verb-Verb Complexes in Asian Languages. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198759508.001.0001.
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This volume presents a detailed survey of the systems of verb-verb complexes in Asian languages from both a synchronic and a diachronic perspective. Many Asian languages share, to a greater or lesser extent, a unique class of compound verbs each consisting of a main verb and a quasi-auxiliary verb known as a ‘vector’ or ‘explicator’. These quasi-auxiliary verbs exhibit unique grammatical behavior that suggests that they have an intermediate status between full lexical verbs and wholly reduced auxiliaries. They are also semantically unique, in that when they are combined with main verbs, they can convey a rich variety of functional meanings beyond the traditional notions of tense, aspect, and modality, such as manner and intensity of action, benefaction for speaker or hearer, and polite or derogatory styles in speech. In this book, leading specialists in a range of Asian languages offer an in-depth analysis of the longstanding questions relating to the diachrony and geographical distribution of verb-verb complexes. The findings have implications for the general understanding of the grammaticalization of verb categories, complex predicate formation, aktionsart and event semantics, the morphology-syntax-semantics interface, areal linguistics, and typology.
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LL (tm) In-tense French Verb Practice: A Conversational Guide to More Than 75 Essential Verbs (Living Language In-Tense). Living Language, 1993.
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13
Danesi, Marcel. LL (tm) In-tense Spanish Verb Practice: A Conversational Guide to More Than 75 Essential Verbs (Living Language In-Tense). Living Language, 1993.
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14
Buck, Kathryn. LL (tm) In-tense German Verb Practice: A Conversational Guide to More Than 75 Essential Verbs (Living Language In-Tense). Living Language, 1993.
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15
Rosso, Renata. LL (tm) In-tense Italian Verb Practice: A Conversational Guide to More Than 75 Essential Verbs (Living Language In-Tense). Living Language, 1993.
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16
Tuite, Kevin. Alignment and orientation in Kartvelian (South Caucasian). Edited by Jessica Coon, Diane Massam, and Lisa Demena Travis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198739371.013.45.
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The small Kartvelian family is one of the three endemic language families of the Caucasus. The Kartvelian languages are double marking, with nominal case and two sets of person markers in the verb. Since the 17th century, linguists have attempted to accommodate the complexities of Georgian morphosyntax within the descriptive categories of their time, successively describing the language as nominative, (split) ergative, and active/inactive. In the present chapter, I will argue that its alignment can be most accurately described as split-intransitive, once the considerable number of monovalent dative-subject verbs are brought into consideration. Proto-Kartvelian would have had split-intransitive verb agreement, absolutively aligned verbal plurality marking, and incipient ergative-absolutive case assignment. Also discussed is the morphosyntactic orientation of the Kartvelian languages and dialects, that is, the distribution of morphological and syntactic privileges among the clausal arguments.
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Foley, William. The Polysynthetic Profile of Yimas, a Language of New Guinea. Edited by Michael Fortescue, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.45.
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Yimas is a language of the Lower Sepik family of six languages spoken along the lower reaches of the Sepik River in the northern lowlands of Papua New Guinea. All six languages are quite morphologically complex head-marking languages, but Yimas is the most complex and cross-linguistically a good candidate for categorizing as a ‘polysynthetic language’. It has eight prefix positions preceding the verb stem and five following it, and is a ‘triple agreement language’, that is, it exhibits pronominal agreement affixes for all core arguments of a ditransitive verb. Yimas also makes heavy use of incorporation: a wide array of adjuncts are incorporated into the verb, and in most cases,non-incorporated alternatives are not available. However, Yimas differs from what has been claimed to be typical of polysynthetic languages in its heavy usage of subordination and nonfinite nominalization. This chapter addresses the place of Yimas in an overall typology of polysynthesis.
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Vajda, Edward J. Polysynthesis in Ket. Edited by Michael Fortescue, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.49.
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The Ket language isolate of Central Siberia differs morphologically from the surrounding languages in having a strongly prefixing polysynthetic verb. Grammatical markers are interdigitated between lexical morphemes, creating a discontinuous stem based on a template of eight prefixal positions, a base position and a single suffix position expressing plural agreement with animate-class subjects. Finite verb forms distinguish past from non-past indicative, as well as an imperative form. Verbs are strictly transitive or intransitive and express person, number, and noun class agreement with the subject and direct object. Although the language has accusative alignment, with subjects marked differently than objects, much of the verb’s linear complexity derives from lexically conditioned agreement strategies. There are three productive transitive configurations of agreement markers, and five productive intransitive configurations. Noun incorporation is productive for only a small number of stems. Some Ket verbs incorporate their object, others their instrument, and others their unaccusative subject.
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Hu, Xuhui. Resultatives at synchronic and diachronic levels. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808466.003.0005.
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This chapter investigates how a theory of events can be combined and be compatible with the theory of parametric variation in the generative tradition. At the diachronic level, Chinese resultatives developed from serial verb constructions with two subjacent verbal predicates in Old Chinese. The two adjacent verbs are reanalyzed as components of a single de-adjectival verb in the period of Middle Chinese due to language acquirers’ preference for structural simplicity. At the synchronic level, the preference for computational efficiency is also responsible for the fact that English style resultatives are not attested in Chinese. The English style resultatives are not attested in Romance languages due to a property in the lexicon of Romance languages: the valuation of the [uDiv] feature, or verbal feature, has to be achieved via incorporation in Romance languages, thus rejecting the operation of feature sharing that is crucial for the derivation of the English-style resultatives.
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Overseas, Inc Staff Penton. Essential Verbs! French : No Sentence Is Complete without that One Key Word: The VERBS! Quarto Publishing Group UK, 1999.
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21
Hu, Xuhui. Non-canonical objects, motion events, and verb/satellite-framed typology. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198808466.003.0007.
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Based on the Synchronic Grammaticalisation Hypothesis and the theory of the syntax of events, this chapter explores the syntactic nature of the Chinese non-canonical object construction. The object in this construction is introduced by a null P, which is incorporated into the verbal head position, and a lexical verb serves as a functional item, vDO. This account is extended to the analysis of the motion event construction in Chinese. It involves the incorporation of a P into the verbal head position filled with a vDO in the form of a lexical verb. The only difference is that this P is phonologically overt. Therefore, the [V+Path] chunk in Chinese is a single lexical item. This means that the Chinese motion event construction by nature patterns with its counterpart in verb-framed languages, a conclusion that goes against the common assumption that Chinese is a satellite-framed language.
22
de Reuse, Willem J. Western Apache, a Southern Athabaskan Language. Edited by Michael Fortescue, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.29.
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Western Apache belongs to the Southern or Apachean branch of the Athabaskan language family, (Nadene phylum) and is spoken by ca. 6,000 people in central and eastern Arizona, USA. Since there are very few children acquiring the language, it is endangered. The Western Apache noun word is morphologically simple, but the verb word is unusually complex. It can be characterized morphologically by what Sapir called “interrupted synthesis”, that is, a complex interdigitation of functionally diverse prefixal elements: inflectional prefixes, derivational prefixes, and thematic prefixes. Furthermore, the Athabaskan polysynthetic word is also characterized by extensive fusion or contraction of short prefix elements, prefix slippage, and haplology. As a result, the Athabaskan verb word is often between two and four syllables long, which is quite short when compared to words in more “orthodox” polysynthetic language families (Woodbury, Chapter 30, this volume) such as Eskimo-Aleut, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, and Wakashan.
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Horobin, Simon. The English Language: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198709251.001.0001.
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The English language is spoken by more than a billion people throughout the world. But where did English come from? And how has it evolved into the language used today? The English Language: A Very Short Introduction investigates how we have arrived at the English we know today, and celebrates the way new speakers and new uses mean that it continues to adapt. Engaging with contemporary concerns about correctness, it considers whether such changes are improvements, or evidence of slipping standards. What is the future for the English language? Will Standard English continue to hold sway, or we are witnessing its replacement by newly emerging Englishes?
24
Schifano, Norma. Verb Movement in Romance. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198804642.001.0001.
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This book provides a detailed account of verb movement across more than twenty standard and non-standard Romance varieties. It examines the position of the verb with respect to a wide selection of hierarchically ordered adverbs, as laid out in Cinque’s (1999) seminal work. The volume uses extensive empirical data to demonstrate that, contrary to traditional assumptions, it is possible to identify at least four distinct macro-typologies in the Romance languages: these macro-typologies stem from a compensatory mechanism between syntax and morphology in licensing the Tense, Aspect, and Mood interpretation of the verb. It adopts a hybrid cartographic / minimalist approach, in which cartography provides the empirical tools of investigation, and minimalist theory provides the technical motivations for the movement phenomena that are observed. It provides a valuable tool for the examination of fundamental morphosyntactic properties from a cross-Romance perspective, and constitutes a useful point of departure for further investigations into the nature and triggers of verb movement cross-linguistically.
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Goswami, Usha. Child Psychology: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199646593.001.0001.
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Child Psychology: A Very Short Introduction examines modern child psychology, tracing its development from birth up until early adolescence. Child Psychology studies the process of attachment and ‘bonding’, and it considers how secure attachments will enable the child to progress in the development of self-understanding. The volume also considers an individual’s psychological development during the adolescent years. It poses and discusses a number of questions: how do babies and toddlers develop an understanding of the physical, biological, and social worlds that surrounds them? How do they develop complex abilities and senses such as language and morality? How specifically do children learn languages? How do they develop relationships with siblings and friends?
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Uribe, Ricardo, and Research and Education Association. Spanish Verbs Super Review (REA) (Super Reviews). Research & Education Association, 2001.
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27
Maiden, Martin. The Romance Verb. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199660216.001.0001.
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This book is the first ever comprehensive comparative–historical survey of patterns of alternation in the Romance verb that appear to be autonomously morphological in the sense that, although they can be shown to be persistent through time, they have long ceased to be conditioned by any phonological or functional determinant. Some of these patterns are well known in Romance linguistics, while others have scarcely been noticed. The sheer range of phenomena that participate in them far surpasses what Romance linguists had previously realized. The patterns constitute a kind of abstract leitmotif, which runs through the history of the Romance languages and confers on them a distinctive morphological phsyiognomy. Although intended primarily as a novel contribution to comparative–historical Romance linguistics, the book considers in detail the status of patterns that appear to be, in the terminology of Mark Aronoff, ‘morphomic’: a matter of ‘morphology by itself’, unsupported by determining factors external to the morphological system. Particular attention is paid to the problem of their persistence, self-replication, and reinforcement over time. Why do abstract morphological patterns that quite literally do not make sense display such diachronic robustness? The evidence suggests that speakers, faced with different ways of expressing semantically identical material, seek out distributional templates into which those differences can be deployed. In Romance, the only available templates happen to be morphomic, morphologically accidental effects of old sound changes or defunct functional conditionings. Those patterns are accordingly exploited and reinforced by being made maximally predictable.
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Bugaeva, Anna. Polysynthesis in Ainu. Edited by Michael Fortescue, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.48.
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Ainu is a typical polysynthetic language in that a single complex verb can express what takes a whole sentence in most other languages. A single verb form may include more than one heavy element: up to two applicative prefixes (out of three), two causative suffixes (out of five), two incorporated objects, one lexical prefix (out of two originating in nouns ‘head’ and ‘bottom’), one verbalizing suffix (originating in the verb ‘make’), as well as reciprocal, reflexive, and general object (=antipassive) prefixes and agreement affixes for the first/second person subject and object. The degree of combinability of voice markers and noun incorporation is spectacular. Nevertheless, it has been claimed that Ainu deviates from more typical polysynthetic languages in having less freedom of word order, interrogative phrases in situ, and unrestricted morphological causatives (Baker 1996). This chapter aims to distinguish what Ainu shares with other polysynthetic languages from what is unique.
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Queixalós, Francesc. What being a Syntactically Ergative Language means for Katukina-Kanamari. Edited by Jessica Coon, Diane Massam, and Lisa Demena Travis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198739371.013.42.
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The structure of the basic clause in Katukina-Kanamari is, to a significant extent, conditioned by the internal structure of the verb phrase, which is starkly parallel to that of noun and adposition phrases. Depending on its internal make up, the verb phrase generates, for the same verbs, two patterns of transitive clauses, ergative and accusative, neither of which is synchronically derived from the other, but the latter appears as highly restricted in distribution. It also yields two patterns of intransitive clauses, one primary, the other resulting from an intransitivizing voice process. Since the basic transitive clause shows a clear syntactic hierarchy between its two arguments, intransitivizing voice is seen as of primary formal motivation: promoting the agent participant to subject status, a far more central need in this language than the functional motivation for relegating the patient participant to either adjunct status or no expression at all.
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Sugisaki, Koji. On the Acquisition of Prepositions and Particles. Edited by Jeffrey L. Lidz, William Snyder, and Joe Pater. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199601264.013.11.
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The syntax and semantics of adpositions and particles show substantial cross-linguistic variation, leading to an important question of how children converge on the target grammar. This chapter focuses on cross-linguistic variation in, and acquisition of, two syntactic phenomena that centrally involve prepositions and particles: preposition stranding and the verb-particle construction. Since languages permitting verb-particle constructions are somewhat uncommon, and languages permitting preposition stranding are downright rare, evidence from child language constitutes an extremely important source of insight into the parametric variation permitted in these areas of syntax. Major findings from acquisitional and comparative investigations summarized in this chapter suggest that preposition stranding and verb-particle constructions are both dependent on the availability of productive endocentric compounding.
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Stoll, Sabine, Balthasar Bickel, and Jekaterina Mažara. The Acquisition of Polysynthetic Verb Forms in Chintang. Edited by Michael Fortescue, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.28.
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In first language acquisition research so far little is known about the affordances involved in children's acquisition of morphologies of different complexities. This chapter discusses the acquisition of Chintang verbal morphology. Chintang is a Sino-Tibetan (Kiranti) polysynthetic language spoken in a small village in Eastern Nepal by approximately 6,000 speakers. The most complex part of Chintang morphology is verbal inflection. A large number of affixes, verb compounding, and freedom in prefix ordering results in over 1,800 verb forms of single stem verbs and more than 4,000 forms if a secondary stem is involved. In this chapter we assess the challenges of learning such a complex system, and we describe in detail what this acquisition process looks like. For this we analyze a large longitudinal acquisition corpus of Chintang.
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Jackendoff, Ray. Representations and Rules in Language. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199367511.003.0007.
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In both traditional grammar and cognitive science, the standard view of language distinguishes sharply between words (lexicon) and rules (grammar). Here I undermine this distinction, presenting a continuum of phenomena that lie between undisputed words like cat and undisputed “rules” such as the pattern for transitive verb phrases. Mainstream linguistics makes a further distinction between productive rules “in the grammar,” such as the regular English past tense, and partially productive rules “in the lexicon,” such as forming a noun like construction by affixing –tion to a verb. I show that this distinction too has been misconceived: productive rules have all the properties of partially productive rules, but have in addition “gone viral.” These phenomena argue that rules of grammar are declarative schemas for licensing well-formed sentences, rather than either procedures for assembling sentences, as in mainstream generative grammar, or simple association and analogy, as in connectionist and exemplar-based approaches.
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Fonteyn, Lauren. Categoriality in Language Change. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190917579.001.0001.
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This study presents the first elaborate attempt to set out a functional-semantic definition of diachronic transcategorial shift between the major classes “noun”/“nominal” and “verb”/“clause.” In English, speakers have different options to refer to an event by using “deverbal nominalization” strategies (e.g., Him guessing her size/His guessing of her size (was incredibly lucky)). Interestingly, not only do these strategies each resemble “prototypical” nominals to varying extents, it also has been observed that some of these strategies increasingly resemble clauses and decreasingly resemble prototypical nominals over time, as if they are gradually shifting categories. Thus far, the literature on such cases of diachronic categorial shift has mainly described the processes by focusing on form, leaving the reader with a clear picture of what and how changes have occurred. Yet, the question of why these formal changes have occurred is still shrouded in mystery. This study tackles this mystery by showing that the diachronic processes of nominalization and verbalization can also involve functional-semantic changes. The aim of this study is both theoretical and descriptive. The theoretical aim is to present a model that allows one to study diachronic nominalization and verbalization as not just formal or morpho-syntactic but also functional-semantic processes. The descriptive aim is to offer “workable” definitions of the abstract functional-semantic properties of nominals and verbs/clauses, and subsequently apply them to one of the most intriguing deverbal nominalization systems in the history of English: the English gerund.
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Grinstead, John. Root Infinitives in Child Language and the Structure of the Clause. Edited by Jeffrey L. Lidz, William Snyder, and Joe Pater. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199601264.013.15.
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A central question in the development of the clause is the gradually developing nature of tense marking. This phenomenon has been documented across a wide variety of languages and language typologies. That children’s clauses are syntactically, and not just morpho-phonologically, nonfinite is attested by the wide range of syntactic patterns that vary as a function of finiteness that children follow, including verb-second in Germanic, non-nominative case marking in English, negation-verb order in French. Finiteness also appears sensitive to lexical semantics, as argued in work on the Eventiveness Constraint. Multiple theoretical accounts of the phenomenon are discussed, including generative, usage-based and middle-ground explanations. Nonfinite verbal phenomena in null subject languages and the methodological approaches most appropriate for their study are discussed.
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Salanova, Andres. Ergativity in Jê languages. Edited by Jessica Coon, Diane Massam, and Lisa Demena Travis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198739371.013.43.
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Ergativity in Jê languages is generally associated to nominal or adjectival forms of the verb, strengthening the proposed link between nominalizations and ergativity (cf. Alexiadou 2001). Jê languages differ from some of the better-known languages with ergative nominalizations by the extent to which nominal forms of predicates are used in the former. In addition to being required in all contexts of subordination (i.e., finite subordination is virtually absent in the family), they are governed by a number of verbal modifiers, among which might be negation, manner predicates, and most aspectual auxiliaries. The present chapter explores this general pattern and describes in some detail the various modifiers that govern nominal forms of the verb, with particular attention to Mẽbengokre, a language from the northern branch of the family, spoken in the Brazilian Amazon. Cases of "insubordination" of nominal forms are also discussed.
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Gillon, Carrie, and Nicole Rosen. Status of the category ‘mixed language’. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198795339.003.0007.
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This chapter highlights the fact Michif can be described straightforwardly within a generative framework. While it has some features that are the result of contact of two very different systems (two mass/count systems, two plurals, two gender systems), the language behaves nevertheless like other Algonquian languages. Michif has slotted much of the French vocabulary into Plains Cree grammar, with surprisingly few extra French features. Structurally, then, there is no need to posit an entirely new category of ‘mixed’ languages. This chapter also compares discussion on creoles by scholars such as DeGraff (2000, 2003, 2005) and Mufwene (1986, 2001, 2008, 2015) to our discussion of Michif. The terms ‘mixed language’ and ‘creole’ may tell us about the historical genesis of a language, but neither term describes the linguistic behaviour of the languages, and both make ‘exceptionalist’ predictions that are unnecessary and unwarranted.
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French Grammar : No Sentence Is Complete Without That One Key Word: The Verbs! BarCharts Publishing, Inc., 1998.
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Poplack, Shana. Confirmation through replication. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190256388.003.0007.
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This chapter reviews a series of replications of the studies reported in previous chapters on eight typologically distinct language pairs, making use of a wide array of phonological, morphological, and syntactic diagnostics (e.g., vowel harmony, word order, case-marking, adjectival expression, nominal determination patterns, verb incorporation strategies). Wherever a conflict site between donor and recipient languages could be determined, lone items were systematically shown to behave like the latter, often to the point of assuming the fine details of its variable quantitative conditioning. Results confirm that the integration process and its outcome—grammatical identity of donor-language items with recipient-language counterparts—are universal.
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Viau, Joshua, and Ann Bunger. Argument Structure. Edited by Jeffrey L. Lidz, William Snyder, and Joe Pater. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199601264.013.9.
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Children acquiring any language must develop an understanding both of how event components are encoded in verb meanings and of the argument structure of those verbs, that is, how the participants of the event that each verb describes map onto linguistic arguments. This chapter begins with an overview of the major issues in the study of argument structure, including a consideration of the balance of power between verbs and constructions as it pertains to the encoding of thematic relations and a comparison of theoretical approaches with an eye toward learnability. The core of the chapter consists of a comprehensive synthesis of the current state of developmental research on argument structure.
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Reintges, Chris H., and Sonia Cyrino. Analyticization and the syntax of the synthetic residue. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198747307.003.0010.
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Current understanding of syntactic variation and change relies on the notion of parameters of varying magnitude (micro- and macroparameters). This chapter focuses on the flipside of parameter change, namely the retention and survival of synthetic morphological structure in a context of widespread analyticization. The global effects of synthetic-to-analytic drift are examined in two diachronic scenarios: one in which the process has almost, though not entirely been completed (Coptic Egyptian), and another one in which the process is still under way (Brazilian Portuguese). Coptic has gone very far in abandoning its former synthetic features and thus exhibits a high degree of analyticity. In Brazilian Portuguese, the analyticization process is an advanced state, with synthetically inflected tenses exhibiting a decreasing productivity and gradually being replaced by the corresponding auxiliary verb constructions in the spoken language. The restriction on verb movement is a side effect of ongoing analyticization that affects language’s word order.
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Fortescue, Michael, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.001.0001.
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This handbook offers an extensive cross-linguistic and cross-theoretical survey of polysynthetic languages, in which single multi-morpheme verb forms can express what would be whole sentences in English. These languages and the problems they raise for linguistic analyses have long featured prominently in language descriptions, and yet the essence of polysynthesis remains under discussion, right down to whether it delineates a distinct, coherent type, rather than an assortment of frequently co-occurring traits. Chapters in the first part of the handbook relate polysynthesis to other issues central to linguistics, such as complexity, the definition of the word, the nature of the lexicon, idiomaticity, and to typological features such as argument structure and head marking. Part II contains areal studies of those geographical regions of the world where polysynthesis is particularly common, such as the Arctic and Sub-Arctic and northern Australia. The third part examines diachronic topics such as language contact and language obsolence, while Part IV looks at acquisition issues in different polysynthetic languages. Finally, Part V contains detailed grammatical descriptions of over twenty languages which have been characterized as polysynthetic, with special attention given to the presence or absence of potentially criterial features.
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van der Voort, Hein, and Peter Bakker. Polysynthesis and Language Contact. Edited by Michael Fortescue, Marianne Mithun, and Nicholas Evans. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199683208.013.23.
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Polysynthetic languages have been involved in a variety of language contact situations. In cases of occasional contacts, polysynthetic languages have been simplified, both by learners (approximate varieties) and native speakers (foreigner talk). Such simplified versions can be the source also of a number of pidgins based on polysynthetic languages. Those pidgins did not inherit the morphological complexity of the source languages, but instead use pronouns for person marking and largely analytic structures. Sometimes unanalyzed complex verbs are used, where the original meaning of the affixes does not play a role. The widespread idea that polysynthetic languages do not display lexical borrowings, but use internal word-building devices instead, should be qualified: loanwords are quite common in polysynthetic languages. In codeswitching, verbs stems rarely combine with foreign elements. Borrowing of pattern is more common than borrowing of matter, and areal diffusion of grammatical traits may lead to the proliferation of polysynthesis.
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Chappell, Hilary, and Alain Peyraube. Modality and Mood in Sinitic. Edited by Jan Nuyts and Johan Van Der Auwera. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199591435.013.14.
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After defining auxiliary verbs as a grammatical category in Sinitic languages, this chapter sets out to analyze the notion of modality as expressed primarily by the Chinese modal verbs. Beginning with a brief sketch of their diachronic evolution, we proceed to treat this category in each of three major Sinitic languages, namely, Standard Mandarin, Hong Kong Cantonese, and Taiwanese Southern Min (Hokkien). It is shown that the main modal verbs possess different sets of polysemy in each of the three languages. Potential verb compounds are also considered, as well as clause-final modal particles coding speaker stance, both being characteristic of East and Southeast Asian languages in general. Although Sinitic languages do not mark mood inflectionally, an important discussion regarding this category is dedicated to sentence types and the role of negation, intimately connected with the expression of the irrealis, the interrogative and the imperative in Sinitic languages.
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Axel-Tober, Katrin. Origins of verb-second in Old High German. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198813545.003.0003.
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This chapter investigates the characteristics of the left sentence periphery in Old High German. In the earlier OHG prose texts we still find some archaic characteristics of a non- or pre-verb-second grammar. These include residual and partly productive features of a non-conflated C-domain arguably inherited from Proto-Germanic or even Proto-Indo-European. On the other hand, there is ample evidence that the precursor of the so-called prefield position already existed in OHG and that it was already a target for both operator movement and Stylistic Fronting. All these phenomena shed interesting light on the question of which syntactic steps the language had to take in order consolidate its verb-second grammar.
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Danckaert, Lieven. The Development of Latin Clause Structure. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198759522.001.0001.
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The focus of this book is Latin word order, and in particular the relative ordering of direct objects and lexical verbs (OV vs. VO), and auxiliaries and non-finite verbs (VAux vs. AuxV). One aim of the book is to offer a first detailed, corpus-based description of these two word order alternations, with special emphasis on their diachronic development in the period from ca. 200 BC until 600 AD. The corpus data reveal that some received wisdom needs to be reconsidered. For one thing, there is no evidence for any major increase in productivity of the order VO during the eight centuries under investigation. In addition, the order AuxV only becomes more frequent in clauses with a modal verb and an infinitive, not in clauses with a BE-auxiliary and a past participle. A second goal is to answer a more fundamental question about Latin syntax, namely whether or not the language is ‘configurational’, in the sense that a phrase structure grammar (with ‘higher-order constituents’ such as verb phrases) is needed to describe and analyse facts of Latin word order. Four pieces of evidence are presented which suggest that Latin is indeed a fully configurational language, despite its high degree of word order flexibility. Specifically, it is shown that there is ample evidence for the existence of a verb phrase constituent. The book thus contributes to the ongoing debate whether configurationality (phrase structure) is a language universal or not.
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Wierzbicka, Anna. Speaking about God in Universal Words, Thinking about God outside English. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190636647.003.0002.
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The chapter argues that vocabulary that is not intelligible to many “ordinary speakers” and not translatable into most languages of the world imprisons its users in a conceptual space defined by culture-specific English words and prevents genuine cross-cultural dialogue about God and religion. It seeks to demonstrate that it is possible to speak about God without relying on such complex and culturally shaped concepts and to think about God and religion afresh, in a new conceptual language based on the lexical and grammatical common core of all languages. As a result of a programme of cross-linguistic investigations, researchers believe that we now have a very good idea of what the shared lexical and grammatical core of all languages looks like and believe that different language-specific versions of this common core can function as minimal languages and be used for furthering understanding across cultures without bias.
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Huber, Judith. Borrowed PATH verbs in Middle English. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190657802.003.0009.
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Chapter 9 analyses the use of the path verbs enter, ish/issue, descend, avale, ascend, mount, and amount in Middle English autonomous texts and translations from French and Latin, focusing on their recurrent contexts and their complementation patterns. It shows that these verbs are borrowed predominantly in specific, often non-literal or manner-enriched senses relating to discourse domains such as administration, military, religion, and the like, rather than being borrowed as verbs for describing general literal motion events. Their application for general literal motion events is shown to be less restricted in translations from French and Latin, in which translators often react to the presence of a path verb in the original by using the same verb in its Middle English form. This and the continued influence of French and Latin after Middle English may eventually have led to a wider application of the verbs in later stages of the language.
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Dworkin, Steven N. A Guide to Old Spanish. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199687312.001.0001.
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This book describes the linguistic structures that constitute Medieval or Old Spanish as preserved in texts written prior to the beginning of the sixteenth century. It emphasizes those structures that contrast with the modern standard language. Chapter 1 presents methodological issues raised by the study of a language preserved only in written sources. Chapter 2 examines questions involved in reconstructing the sound system of Old Spanish before discussing relevant phonetic and phonological details. The chapter ends with an overview of Old Spanish spelling practices. Chapter 3 presents in some detail the nominal, verbal, and pronominal morphology of the language, with attention to regional variants. Chapter 4 describes selected syntactic structures, with emphasis on the noun phrase, verb phrase, object pronoun placement, subject-verb-object word order, verb tense, aspect, and mood. Chapter 5 begins with an extensive list of Old Spanish nouns, adjectives, verbs, and function words that have not survived into the modern standard language. It then presents examples of coexisting variants (doublets) and changes of meaning, and finishes with an overview of the creation of neologisms in the medieval language through derivational morphology (prefixation, suffixation, compounding). The book concludes with an anthology composed of three extracts from Spanish prose texts, one each from the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. The extracts contain footnotes that highlight relevant morphological, syntactic, and lexical features, with cross references to the relevant sections in the body of the book.
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van der Hulst, Harry. Other cases of vowel harmony. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198813576.003.0010.
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This Chapter discusses a number of cases of vowel harmony ‘on various continents’ and in various language families which have been reported as being either ‘unique’ (sometimes just because of their language family affiliation) or controversial in terms of their properties. Although the data on these languages is too limited to allow very specific analysis, the chapter will discuss them on the basis of the available data, and suggest ways of fitting them into the model that has been tested in the preceding six chapters. Among others, the following languages will be discussed: Middle Korean, Chukchi, Nez Perce, Karajá, Djingili, Kimaragang, Maltese, Assamese, Telugu, Pasiego Spanish, and Chamorro.
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Haspelmath, Martin. A Typological Perspective on Indefinite Pronouns. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198235606.003.0002.
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This chapter examines the goals and methods of a typological perspective on indefinite pronouns. It begins with an overview of language typology and the reasons why typological research is very important to our understanding of human language. It then considers the four steps involved in a typological study. First, the domain of phenomena to be compared across languages is delimited by formulating a definition that is cross-linguistically applicable. Second, the space of typological variation is mapped out by providing a complete taxonomy of the various means by which the phenomenon under discussion is expressed in different languages. Third, correlations between individual structural options and other parts of the grammar are identified and formulated as implicational universals. Fourth, explanations for these universals are sought. General problems of typological sampling are highlighted and the two samples used in the typological study are described: the 40-language sample and the 100-language sample.