Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Termites mounds'

La compréhension de l'apport du rôle des termites sur le transport des métaux d'intérêt économique au sein de l'ensemble lithosphère - pédosphère - termitières, se révèle d'un grand intérêt pour une caractérisation géochimique et géologique d'anomalies en prospection minière. En effet, les termites jouent un rôle fonctionnel remarquable dans la structuration des sols, entrainant des enrichissements chimiques liés au transport vertical de minéraux, échangés entre les horizons situés en profondeur et les termitières érigées en surface. Cette thèse a pour objectif de mettre en lumière l'impact des termites sur les cycles biogéochimiques du Cu et du Co dans une région potentiellement riche en ressources minérales (Katanga, RDC), dans un objectif d'utilisation optimisée des termitières en prospection minière. Cette objectif requiert une caractérisation des phases minérales et organiques à diverses échelles. Pour y parvenir, il a été question en premier lieu, de faire une cartographie géochimique des termitières de deux genres dominants de la région, Macrotermes et Cubitermes, à l'échelle paysagère sur une zone ayant fait l'objet d'une cartographie géologique et géochimique sur sols et roches. Cette cartographie a permis de mettre en évidence à l'échelle régionale des faciès lithogéochimiques traduisant la géologie des formations sous-jacentes et ce en fonction des habitudes alimentaires de chaque genre de termite. La distribution spatiale des termitières a également permis de suivre l'évolution des teneurs en Cu et Co au sein des termitières en fonction de la géologie de la zone d'étude. La combinaison des données acquises sur la constitution minéralogique et géochimique des matériaux constituant les termitières de Macrotermes falciger et la caractérisation morphologique et chimique de leurs principaux constituants à l'échelle microscopique a permis l'identification des phases porteuses des métaux d'intérêts dans les matériaux de ces termitières. De même la comparaison de la signature géochimique des termitières de M. falciger et de leurs matériels parentaux a permis d'établir un lien lithogéochimique, identifiant ainsi la source d'approvisionnement en profondeur utilisée par les individus de M. falciger. Enfin, la conjugaison de résultats d'une part sur la caractérisation géochimique de quatre fractions granulométriques (0-20 µm ; 20-63 µm ; 63-200 µm ; 200-2000 µm) des termitières et d'autre part sur l'évaluation de l'impact des termites sur la constitution d'agrégats dans les termitières et/ou sols, a permis de préciser les fractions granulométriques les plus informatives sur la présence et la minéralisation des phases porteuses des métaux d'intérêt du Katanga dans les matériaux de termitières. L'application de toutes ces méthodes et tous les éléments recueillis ont permis de proposer un schéma des cycles biogéochimiques de Cu et Co dans ce système soulignant l'utilisation des termitières en prospection minière efficace et efficiente
Knowledge of the influence of termites on transport of metals of economic interest within the complex of lithosphere, pedosphere and termite mounds is of great interest for geochemical and geological characterization of anomalies in mining prospection. Termites have an important functional role in the structuring of soils, causing chemical enrichment through the vertical transport of minerals exchanged between the deeper horizons and the termite mounds built at the surface. Our objective in this thesis is to evaluate the influence of termites on Cu and Co biogeochemical cycles in a mineral-rich region (Katanga, DRC), with the aim to optimize the utilization of termite mounds in mining prospection. This objective requires a characterization of mineral and organic phases at various scales. To achieve this, firstly, a geochemical mapping of termite mounds of two dominant genera of the region, Macrotermes and Cubitermes, was carried out at the landscape scale in an area that received a geological and soil and rock geochemical mapping. The utilization of termite mounds allowed the identification of lithogeochemical facies reflecting the subjacent geology on a regional scale according to the feeding habits of each termite genus. The spatial distribution of termite mounds also allowed us to follow Cu and Co content evolution according to study area geology. The combination of mineralogical and geochemical data acquired on Macrotermes falciger termite mounds and morphological and chemical characterization of their main constituents at microscopic scale allowed to identify carrier phases of interest metals in termite mounds materials. Similarly, the comparison of geochemical signatures of M. falciger termite mounds and their parent materials allowed to establish a lithogeochemical relationship, identifying the source of provisioning at depth by M. falciger. Finally, the association of geochemical characterization results of termite mounds for four granulometric fractions (0-20 µm; 20-63 µm; 63-200 µm; 200-2000 µm) and results on evaluation of the impact of termites on the constitution of aggregates in termite mounds and/or soils, allowed to specify the most informative granulometric fractions on the presence and mineralization of carrier phases of interest metals in Katanga in termite mound materials. The application of all these methods and all elements collected allowed us to propose a Cu and Co biogeochemical cycle scheme in this system, underlying the use of termite mounds in effective and efficient mining prospection

Macrotermitinae mounds could hold the key for designing a naturally ventilated human habitation using the sustainable Solar and Wind energies. Few attempts were made to mimic these structures into man build structures to achieve natural ventilation. Yet the limited understanding of the ventilation mechanisms applied in these mounds and the lack of fully developed building technologies capable of implementing such complex designs have prevented its further implementation in human habitation. A number of ventilation mechanisms were proposed, however, they are yet to be established. A prerequisite for a thorough understanding of the ventilation mechanism is the comprehension of the role of the mound skin in controlling of ventilation. This thesis focused on studying the flow through the porous mound skin into and out of the mound interior and the flow around the external skin surface. The Macrotermes michaelseni mound structure was visualised and studied in detail by means of field experiments to reveal its plaster-filled internal structure and digital scanning of a plaster-filled mound. The dimensions and interconnectivity of the internal conduits were examined to establish the source of maximum flow resistance. The mound skin and the built-in egress channels were found to be responsible for the bulk of the flow resistance. Computational Fluid dynamics CFD was used to predict the flow rates through the mound skin structure and the internal and external flow patterns. A series of Micro-CFD simulations were conducted to examine the effect of egress channel on the predicted flow rate through the porous mound skin. The effect of the mound conical shape on the external pressure distribution and flow patterns around and within the mound were predicted by Macro-CFD simulation. Wind tunnel experiments were conducted to validate the Macro-CFD analysis. Egress channels are present across the height of the mound stemming from a network of surface conduits that is directly below the mound skin. The surface conduits are highly connected to each other, to the mound central chimney and to the nest structure via peripheral subterranean conduits creating a highly connected network of air conduits. Egress channels keep the mound internal conduits separate from the ambient environment under normal conditions of dry weather. These channels are opened to the skin external surface under rainy conditions to compensate for mound skin diminished air permeability. The flow through the mound skin with closed egress channels is highly sensitive to changes in the egress channel depth from the external skin surface rather than changes in the skin thickness. Closed egress channels within the mound skin doubles the flow rate through the mound. This exceeds the amount necessary for the colony metabolism to allow for part of the inflow to circulate the mound conduits and leave without reaching the subterranean nest structure. Open egress channels increase the flow rate by 1.3 times that of closed egress channels which is necessary during rainy conditions where the mound skin is impermeable. The mound spire is the most efficient in capturing air flow into the mound allowing just under 70% of the total flow rate through the mound skin. Fresh air enters the mound from the upwind conduits with an internal flow velocity ranging from 3 - 12 mm/s. Spent air leaves the mound interior from the lateral and downwind sides. The mound conical shape results in directing the inflow downwards and the outflow upwards.

Buildings, especially in hot climates, consume a lot of energy when people want to be comfortable inside them, which translates to very expensive fees each month. The most innovative response to this problem is renewable energy, that is used, in this case, to run mechanical HVAC systems. Renewable energy is the solution for many problems, but to avoid urban heat islands when using excessive HVAC systems (powered by renewables), and to solve thermal comfort-related problems, there has to be other solution. The major challenge to find it would be to have a change of thinking process. If a building in a hot-arid region uses natural processes to emulate the functions of HVAC systems, and the proper passive strategies, then, it will provide thermal comfort to its users, diminishing the need of a mechanical system. This hypothesis will be carried out by extracting the natural processes found in a specific case in nature, applying them into a building's design, and then simulating its energy efficiency with the adequate software. There will be a comparison of the same proposed building without the natural processes, to have tangible numbers showing that these proposed strategies, in fact, work. With explanatory detailed diagrams and the energy analysis, the hypothesis could be proven correct or incorrect. The significance of this approach relies on the proximity to the natural processes that have been working in different aspects of life since the beginning of time. They have been there all the time, waiting until architects, engineers, and people in general use them, instead of making more new energy-using inventions. By having the numbers from a conventional building and the ones of the proposed building, and the right environmental diagrams, the experiment should be valid. In the near future, there should be more research focused on nature and its processes, in order to be able to reduce the use of mechanical systems, and with that, reduce the energy use and the carbon footprint.

Numerous supraglacial and proglacial lakes have developed on debris-covered glaciers in conjunction with 20th-century retreat associated with global warming. When a glacier holds a substantial debris cover on its lower reach and/or is calving into a proglacial water body, the behaviour of its terminus can be modified to varying degrees compared to that of land-terminating or debris-free glaciers. The terminus is not just retreating from its frontal position but it is disintegrating through several processes that are linked. An improved understanding of these glacier margins is needed for the prediction and management of hazards associated with these types of lakes for hydroelectric power generation, recreational purposes and areas threatened by potential glacier outburst floods as well as for the interpretation of glacio-geological records and reconstruction of former glacial environments and palaeoclimate. The principal research question of this study is how processes of ice loss contribute to the terminus disintegration of a debris-covered, lake-calving glacier. This is addressed by an application of a field-based strategy which includes extensive field observations of variables, processes and their controls, and subsequent analysis of the data in the light of previous models and concepts. The study attempts to combine and integrate different aspects of glaciological research that have previously been examined mostly separately. It investigates the prevalent processes at the glacier terminus and their controls over different time periods ranging from days to years at Mueller, Hooker and Tasman Glaciers in Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand. The data form the basis for models of calving and pond development and future retreat scenarios. This study has demonstrated that this glacial environment is characterised by ice-frontal processes with complex inter-relationships that vary between glaciers and in particular between stages of terminus development. While surface ice melt in the terminus area is substantially reduced by supraglacial debris, sub-debris melt contributes the largest fraction of ice loss. Other important effects of debris are restraining thermal undercutting, reducing subaqueous melt and decreasing buoyancy. Data from supraglacial ponds and proglacial lakes show that limnological factors become increasingly important with increasing pond/lake size. Changes in water currents and temperature lead to changes in significance and rates of ice loss processes, the most important being the change from melting to predominantly calving. This study has confirmed the hypothesis that thermal undercutting is the rate-controlling process for calving. This process is controlled by the cliff geometry, debris supply, subaqueous geometry and water temperatures, currents and level variations. The results from the examination of calving processes suggest that the process of regular, progressive calving through the stages suggested previously may not be widely applicable to slow-moving, lake-calving glaciers. The several forms of subaerial calving identified in this study can present themselves as largely independent events, a combination of events or as a progression. At the central submerged part of the ice face, subaqueous ice melt is likely to be the dominant form of ice loss, leading to horizontal ice loss. Subaqueous calving is prevalent in gently-sloping lateral areas, leading to vertical ice loss. This process is controlled by buoyancy forces which are affected by sedimentation and lake and glacier geometry. The onset of subaqueous calving in the earlier stages of lake development is a crucial process for the transition to faster disintegration and ice loss, accelerating subaqueous melt. Due to the complex inter-relationships attempts to formulate general relationships between calving or retreat rates and other glaciological parameters may not be feasible.

Termites ecologically engineer their environment by producing termitaria (mounds) used by many other species as dens, lookouts or food sources. The role of termite mounds in biological communities is relatively unknown, despite their ubiquitous nature. I investigated their impact on vertebrates in the Tsavo region of Kenya. Through the characterization of mounds, trapping, direct observation, and collecting microclimate data, I was able to determine the importance of mounds to vertebrates. I found uniform dispersion of mounds, that soil type is correlated with the size of mounds, and that vertebrate activity increases with mound size. I also found no significant differences in overall numbers of animals and species between mound and non-mound areas. Reptiles were found at mound sites significantly more than at non-mound sites, especially the great plated lizard and short-necked skink. I determined that mounds’ microclimate is less variable than that of the ambient. More work is needed to further our understanding of termite mounds' impacts on vertebrates. This study led to discoveries of species not known to be in the area by myself or my affiliated parties.

Dans certaines régions du plateau central brésilien, les parties déprimées du paysage sont fréquemment caractérisées par un microrelief très typique, du à l'association de monticules coniques de tailles très variables que l'on appelle murundus. Ce travail discute de l'origine de ces formations et des relations sols-microrelief dans une de ces régions du Brésil Central. Il est montré que la couverture pédologique de cette région s'organise en toposéquences de couleur, suite à des modifications des teneurs en hématite et en goethite. Mises à part ces variations, les sols y sont très homogènes en ce qui concerne la microstructure, la minéralogie et les propriétés physico-chimiques. Dans ces toposéquences, le microrelief murundus n'existe que dans les parties saisonnièrement engorgées. L'origine proposée pour ces formations est basée sur l'observation que, plus les sols sont affectés par l'hydromorphie saisonnière, plus évidents sont, sur les murundus, les témoignages des activités termitiques. Les monticules résulteraient de l'accumulation de matériel sous-jacent au cours de constructions et destructions cycliques de termitières installées hors du niveau engorgé. Il est montré que plusieurs espèces de termites participent à l'édification de ce microrelief

The study sheds light on the occurrence and development of earth mounds in the Mkhuze Wetlands, KwaZulu-Natal. It compares this system with the Okavango Delta. The conceptual model developed by Ellery and co-workers for mima mound development in the Okavango Delta is said to have worldwide applicability (Ellery at al. 1998). This study investigates the applicability of this model in the formation and development of earth mounds in Mkhuze Floodplain. The activities of termite species are regarded as responsible for the formation of earth mounds in the Okavango Delta. The Mkhuze Wetlands represent one of South Africa’s most pristine wetland systems (Cowan 1995). They have also been declared as part of the Isimangaliso Park, a World Heritage Site (Cowan 1995). Many studies have been conducted in Mkhuze Wetlands in order to gain more knowledge and understanding of how the system functions, so that it can be managed wisely. Although termites are thought to be associated with these features (Adams 2004), very little has been done to assess or even verify if the changes in soil chemistry and mineralogy across these mounds can be linked to termite activities. This study investigates the soil mineralogy and physico-chemical properties across mounds found in the Mkhuze Wetlands and determines through its findings any possible link to termite activities. Most mounds in Mkhuze were identified in the intermittently flooded region of the floodplain. Results from particle size analysis were indicative of a bimodal distribution in mound soils. Two major components in mounds were a combination of clay size particles, silts and very fine sand, and fine to medium sand, with traces of coarse sand. There was a significant difference in the distribution of soil particle size fractions found on mounds compared to soils adjacent to the mounds. The chemical composition of the clay size particles found on the mounds was different when compared to that found in adjacent soils. There were also higher concentrations of minerals derived from solute chemicals found in the centre of the mounds at depth. Precipitation of solutes in mid regions of the mounds is thought to attest to spatial evapotranspiration rates across mounds. Although no direct evidence of termites was found in the mounds, there are indications that termites have been responsible for the development of the mounds and that in certain mounds plants have led to mound growth due to precipitation of solutes driven by evapotranspiration.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2009.

Dissertação de Mestrado em Evolução e Biologia Humanas apresentada à Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia
Os chimpanzés têm sido alvo de diversos estudos focados na utilização de ferramentas. Dado que a sua capacidade de fabricar e usar, de forma flexível e regular, uma vasta gama de utensílios pode ser comparada com as capacidades tecnológicas dos primeiros humanos, são considerados modelos relevantes para a compreensão das nossas origens tecnológicas. Este estudo analisou dados recolhidos através de métodos arqueológicos com o objetivo de investigar o uso e reuso de termiteiras por duas comunidades de chimpanzés em dois habitats distintos na Tanzânia, Gombe e Issa, semelhantes a habitats onde os primeiros humanos terão evoluído. Os resultados indicam que os chimpanzés da comunidade Kasekela em Gombe exploram termiteiras de forma mais intensiva que os seus congéneres de Issa, provavelmente devido às diferenças entre os dois habitats. Ao contrário do que sucede em Issa, a pesca de térmitas ocorre durante todo o ano em Gombe, apesar de ser esporádica durante a estação seca. Em ambos os sítios, foram detetadas pequenas variações na intensidade de exploração. Em Gombe, a dimensão das termiteiras pode influenciar estas variações, mas o mesmo não parece ser verdade para Issa, talvez porque a densidade da população de chimpanzés é baixa neste sítio. Os resultados sugerem também que o descarte das ferramentas perecíveis depois do uso dá origem à criação de sítios de acumulação com maior densidade de artefactos do que sítios de utensílios líticos explorados por primatas, humanos incluídos. Este é o primeiro estudo detalhado sobre a utilização e reutilização de sítios de ferramentas perecíveis, aumentando o conhecimento sobre processos de formação de sítios e acumulação de ferramentas, e fornecendo indicações sobre as escalas temporais, os comportamentos, e a variabilidade representados em sítios arqueológicos relacionados com a presença dos primeiros humanos.
Chimpanzees have been the focus of numerous studies regarding tool-use. Because their flexibility and regular use and manufacture of a diverse range of tools resemble the tool using skills of early humans, they are considered relevant models for the understanding of our technological origins, likely invisible in the archaeological record. This study analysed data collected through archaeological methods to investigate site use and reuse by termite fishing chimpanzees living in two distinct habitats in west Tanzania, akin to habitats where early humans are thought to have lived: Gombe and Issa. The results indicate that the Kasekela community of Gombe chimpanzees exploit termite mounds more intensively than the Issa population, likely due to constraints imposed by the differences between these two habitats. Contrary to Issa, termite-fishing at Gombe occurs throughout the whole year, albeit only sporadically during the dry season. Within each site, small variations in the intensity of tool-site use were detected. At Gombe, these could be influenced by mound-size, but the same doesn’t seem to be true for Issa, probably because chimpanzee density is low at this site. Results also suggest that the discard of perishable utensils results in the creation of accumulation sites with higher concentrations of artefacts than stone tool primate sites, including early humans. This is the first detailed study of perishable tool-sites use and reuse, adding to the knowledge of processes of site formation and tool accumulation, and providing clues to the timescales, behaviours and variability represented at known hominin sites.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. August 2016, Johannesburg
Termites are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical savanna. They are recognised as major ecosystem engineers through their role in nutrient cycling, decomposition, hydrology and alteration of landscape topography with cascading effects manifesting in ecosystem heterogeneity and productivity up the food chains. In this thesis I addressed the effect of geology on termite species diversity, followed by questioning how the different geologies influence the size and spatial distribution of Macrotermes mounds. Furthermore, I explored the effect of termite mounds emanating from different geologies on herbaceous vegetation heterogeneity and finally the effect this heterogeneity has on grazing intensity. Although the diversity of termites has been explored across different environmental gradients such as rainfall, altitude and disturbance, little is known regarding variation in their diversity across landscapes of varying geology. In my quest to understand how varying geology influences the ecology of termites and their functional importance, I sampled granite and basalt for termite diversity using standard transects (100 m x 2 m). I predicted that termite diversity is higher on nutrient-rich geology following the productivity diversity hypothesis. However, both functional and taxonomic diversity were higher on nutrient-poor granite. Twelve species from three subfamilies representing two feeding groups were recorded on granite whereas on basalt only five species from two subfamilies consisting of one feeding group were recorded. Although the influence of Macrotermes mounds on ecosystem heterogeneity has been well studied, little is known on how the environment (geology) and other termite colonies influence size and distribution pattern, despite how these interactions could influence ecosystem functioning. Termite mounds were sampled in 1 km2 plots, four in each geology. Each mound location was recorded using a hand held GPS and structural variables (height and diameter) measured. The data were analysed for spatial distribution of termite mounds using the software Programita. The general distribution pattern of termite mounds (active and inactive mounds combined) was investigated using both the pair correlation function, g(r), and Ripley’s K(r) function. Termite mounds were larger and covered a significant proportion of the landscape on granite compared to basalt. Mounds were generally over-dispersed on granite and randomly distributed on basalt. Mounds covered ~ 6% of the landscape on granite compared with only ~ 0.4% on basalt. These results show that the significance of termites varies across geologies, being more important on nutrient-poor geologies because of their size and a more productive spatial pattern displayed here. The majority of studies testing mound effects on savanna vegetation spatial heterogeneity have been based on single site observations mostly comparing mounds and their paired savanna control plots. Furthermore studies did not consider the spatial effects of mounds with distance into the savanna matrix from mound edge, and this has rarely been tested across landscapes of varying geologies, as well as across mounds of different sizes. Therefore there was a need to explore this in order to broadly understand the functional importance of mounds. I sampled the herbaceous community on and off termite mounds and along distance transects from mounds on nutrient-rich and nutrient-poor geologies. Termite mounds as sources of spatial vegetation heterogeneity was more pronounced on nutrient-poor granite, with larger mounds having greater effect on vegetation composition and diversity than smaller ones. Mounds harboured compositionally different herbaceous plants compared with the savanna matrix on granite whereas there was no difference on basalt. In acknowledging the effect erosion from mounds may have on vegetation heterogeneity, termite mound effect on composition expressed at landscape level based on mound densities recorded in this study was estimated to be 19% of the landscape on granite whereas on basalt, the mounds influenced ~ 0.4% of the landscape. The choice of foraging sites by large herbivores in the landscape is influenced by food quantity, quality, inter and intra-specific competition and predation risk. Termite mounds harbour highly nutritious herbaceous plants compared to the savanna matrix, which makes them preferred foraging sites. Due to very small differences in soil nutrient content between mounds and savanna on basalt, mounds were expected to have little effect on grazing. In line with the set hypothesis termite mounds largely influenced grazing on the nutrient-poor granite and when viewed at landscape scale, based on mound densities and extent of erosion recorded, mounds influenced ~ 28% on granite and only ~ 0.8% on basalt. Overall my study has demonstrated that the significance of termites as ecosystem engineers varies across landscapes of varying geology, being more important on nutrient-poor compared with nutrient-rich geologies.
MT2017

African elephants are ‘keystone’ species with respect to biodiversity conservation in Africa since they maintain habitats that support several animal communities by changing vegetation structure through foraging and by dispersing seeds between landscapes. Elephants are also ‘flagship’ species because, given their impressive size, they can make people sympathetic and stimulate local and international concerns for their protection. Economically, elephants contribute to national revenues as tourists are willing to pay to watch them. Despite all these factors, little is known however about elephant movement and how they utilize resources, especially in miombo-wetland ecosystems. This thesis investigates how elephants utilize resources in a miombo-wetland ecosystem in the Ugalla landscape of Western Tanzania over different protected areas containing different resource users. Using Global Positioning System (GPS) collars fitted to six elephants, it was observed that some elephant families are not confined in one protected area in the Ugalla landscape. Rather, they moved readily between different protected areas. Elephant movements were restricted to areas near the rivers, especially the Ugalla River, during the dry season and were dispersed widely during the wet season. As they move, elephants in the miombo woodlands of Ugalla selected the most abundant woody plants for browsing. Common to many woody plants, the browsed plants were short of mineral nutrients (e.g., sodium, calcium). Elephants obtained additional minerals by eating soils from certain termite mounds. Soils from termite mounds are richer in mineral elements (e.g., sodium, calcium, iron) compared to soils from the surrounding flood plain or compared to the browsed plants. However, the recorded termite mounds from which elephants eat soils were not evenly distributed in the landscape but confined mainly to the flood plains in the Ugalla Game Reserve. The Ugalla River, which is the main source of water for the elephants and other animals and also supports fishing activities by the local people in Ugalla during the dry seasons, is infested by the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). Such infestation potentially limits access to these precious surface water supplies. In addition at the regional level, the Ugalla River is among the major rivers that flow into the Lake Tanganyika which is shared by the countries of Tanzania, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia. Thus, the spread of water hyacinth if left unchecked threatens to impact Lake Tanganyika, affecting many countries and ecosystem services. This thesis highlights that sustainable conservation of biodiversity in different protected areas in the Ugalla landscape requires an integrated management approach that will embrace conservation of different interrelated landscape resources required by both wildlife and the rural poor populations for their livelihoods. Regular coordinated wildlife anti-poaching patrols should be initiated across the entire Ugalla landscape because the elephants, among other wildlife, utilize different protected areas in Ugalla. Local communities should also be engaged in conservation initiatives (e.g., controlling the spread of the water hyacinth) as these directly impact local livelihoods.

At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript. Paper 2: Manuscript. Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.

INTEGRATED NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT