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Published: 10 December 2022
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1

Costa, G. C., G. R. Colli, and R. Constantino. "Can lizard richness be driven by termite diversity? Insights from the Brazilian Cerrado." Canadian Journal of Zoology 86, no. 1 (January 2008): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z07-107.

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We test predictions of the Morton and James hypothesis, which states that high termite diversity promotes high lizard diversity. We explore consumption of termites by lizards in the Brazilian Cerrado, a system that shares many similarites with arid Australia whose fauna formed the basis for the original hypothesis. We found that Cerrado lizards prey heavily on termites. Several species had >40% of their diet consisting of termites, some species reached up to 80%. However, lizards prey on termites independently of their diversity in the environment and do not show niche segregation in relation to termite resource. Hence, our results in the Cerrado do not support the hypothesis that termite diversity can promote lizard diversity. The diets of Cerrado lizards have a high proportion of termites; however, the diets of desert lizards from the Australian and the Kalahari deserts have a much higher proportion of termites when compared with those from the Cerrado and the Amazon. Differences in termite consumption by lizards across ecosystems do not seem to be related to local termite diversity. We hypothesize that overall prey availability can explain this pattern. Several arthropod groups are abundant in the Cerrado and the Amazon. In deserts, other prey types may be less abundant; therefore, termites may be the best available resource.
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2

Arab, Daej A., Anna Namyatova, Theodore A. Evans, Stephen L. Cameron, David K. Yeates, Simon Y. W. Ho, and Nathan Lo. "Parallel evolution of mound-building and grass-feeding in Australian nasute termites." Biology Letters 13, no. 2 (February 2017): 20160665. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2016.0665.

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Termite mounds built by representatives of the family Termitidae are among the most spectacular constructions in the animal kingdom, reaching 6–8 m in height and housing millions of individuals. Although functional aspects of these structures are well studied, their evolutionary origins remain poorly understood. Australian representatives of the termitid subfamily Nasutitermitinae display a wide variety of nesting habits, making them an ideal group for investigating the evolution of mound building. Because they feed on a variety of substrates, they also provide an opportunity to illuminate the evolution of termite diets. Here, we investigate the evolution of termitid mound building and diet, through a comprehensive molecular phylogenetic analysis of Australian Nasutitermitinae. Molecular dating analysis indicates that the subfamily has colonized Australia on three occasions over the past approximately 20 Myr. Ancestral-state reconstruction showed that mound building arose on multiple occasions and from diverse ancestral nesting habits, including arboreal and wood or soil nesting. Grass feeding appears to have evolved from wood feeding via ancestors that fed on both wood and leaf litter. Our results underscore the adaptability of termites to ancient environmental change, and provide novel examples of parallel evolution of extended phenotypes.
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3

Holt, John A. "Carbon mineralization in semi-arid northeastern Australia: the role of termites." Journal of Tropical Ecology 3, no. 3 (August 1987): 255–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467400002121.

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ABSTRACTThe contribution of a population of mound building, detritivorous termites (Amitermes laurensis (Mjöberg)) to nett carbon mineralization in an Australian tropical semi-arid woodland has been examined. Carbon mineralization rates were estimated by measuring daily CO2 flux from five termite mounds at monthly intervals for 12 months. Carbon flux from the mounds was found to be due to microbial activity as well as termite activity. It is conservatively estimated that the association of A. laurensis and the microbial population present in their mounds is responsible for between 4%–10% of carbon mineralized in this ecosystem, and the contribution of all termites together (mound builders and subterranean) may account for up to 20% of carbon mineralized. Regression analysis showed that rates of carbon mineralization in termite mounds were significantly related to mound moisture and mound temperature. Soil moisture was the most important factor in soil carbon mineralization, with temperature and a moisture X temperature interaction term also exerting significant affects.
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4

Ahmed, B. M., J. R. J. French, and P. Vinden. "Evaluation of borate formulations as wood preservatives to control subterranean termites in Australia." Holzforschung 58, no. 4 (July 7, 2004): 446–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hf.2004.068.

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Abstract The termiticidal efficacy of sodium octaborate tetrahydrate, boric acid, borester-7, and tri-methyl borate as wood preservatives was evaluated after each was impregnated into seasoned sapwood of Pinus radiata D. Don and Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell in laboratory bioassay against Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt). There was clear difference between the different borate retentions in treated and untreated blocks, mass loss, and mortality rate of the termite used in the bioassay units. After 8 weeks of laboratory bioassay, the results suggested that borate was toxic to termites even at 0.24% m/m BAE and caused significant termite mortality, but termites were not deterred from attacking the borate-treated timber at a higher retention of >2.0% m/m BAE. These laboratory results indicated that the minimum borate treatment required to protect timber against termite attack and damage was >1.0% m/m BAE.
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5

Coventry, RJ, JA Holt, and DF Sinclair. "Nutrient cycling by mound building termites in low fertility soils of semi-arid tropical Australia." Soil Research 26, no. 2 (1988): 375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9880375.

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The capacity of three species of mound-building termites, Amitermes vitiosus Hill, Drepanotermes perniger (Froggatt), and Tumulitermes pastinator (Froggatt), to turn over plant nutrients was quantified in a semi-arid tropical woodland near Charters Towers in north-eastern Queensland. Various chemical attributes of the red and yellow earth soils, of low inherent fertility and unmodified by recent termite activity, are compared with those of the mounds of the three termite species and with the underlying, termite-modified soils. The mounds contain 21 Mg ha-l of soil, representing only 1% of the total mass of soil in the Al soil horizon but 5-7% of the plant nutrients in this system. Nutrients in the termite mounds, temporarily withheld from plant growth, are eventually returned to the soil surface by erosion of abandoned mounds. We estimate that the termites can turnover annually 300-400 kg ha-1 of soil material with nutrient levels 2-7 times that of the Al soil horizon.
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6

Abensperg-Traun, Max, Dion Steven, and Lyn Atkins. "The influence of plant diversity on the resilience of harvester termites to fire." Pacific Conservation Biology 2, no. 3 (1995): 279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc960279.

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The harvester termites in floristically rich mallee-heath of southern Western Australia appear resilient to high-intensity fire. This contrasts with the temporary extinction of harvesters occupying a narrow food niche in floristically simple, intensely burnt spinifex Triodia angusta grassland in tropical Western Australia. The present study examines the effects of high-intensity fire on harvester termites Drepanotermes tamminensis in vegetation of intermediate floristic diversity and compares its findings with these earlier studies. We sampled 20 mounds (termitaria) in both an unburnt and (adjacent) burnt stand of Allocasuarina campestris shrubland. Although partially regenerated three years after the fire, 40% of mounds in the burnt area were abandoned, contrasting with 10% in the unburnt stand. No harvested chaff was found in any of the abandoned mounds. The extent of mound occupation by D. tamminensis was considerably lower, and ant invasion higher, in the burnt stand. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that high floristic diversity enhances the resilience of harvester termites to fire. The most likely mechanism is the availability of a range of plant (food) species with different regenerative responses to high-intensity fire. The death of spinifex and the associated harvester termites after fire may be atypical. We argue, however, that temporary extinction of harvester populations in arid Australia may not be exceptional, particularly where fire coincides with drought and high livestock grazing pressure. Rigorous experimental studies are necessary to enhance our understanding of the long-term effects of fire on harvester termite populations in different vegetation types and climatic zones.
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7

Jones, David T. "The termites of Barrow Island, Western Australia." Records of the Western Australian Museum, Supplement 83, no. 1 (2013): 241. http://dx.doi.org/10.18195/issn.0313-122x.83.2013.241-244.

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8

Evans, Theodore A., and Patrick V. Gleeson. "Seasonal and daily activity patterns of subterranean, wood-eating termite foragers." Australian Journal of Zoology 49, no. 3 (2001): 311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo00083.

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Daily and seasonal changes in foraging activity of subterranean wood-feeding termites are not well known, but their subterranean habit is widely assumed to reduce the effect of the weather on their behaviour. The number of foraging Coptotermes lacteus in artificial feeding stations was examined over 24-h periods during summer and winter in temperate Australia. In summer, termites foraged disparately, with greater numbers found distant from the mounds, whereas in winter termites were clustered in very high numbers near the mounds. Daily patterns were seen in forager numbers: during summer, peaks occurred in late morning and late afternoon and troughs at dawn and noon, whereas in winter a peak occurred at noon and a trough at dawn. These patterns were associated with air and soil temperatures, which indicated that daily and seasonal weather patterns do influence subterranean wood-feeding termites. The foraging pattern is discussed with respect to predator behaviour and how the pattern might be used to infer positioning of cryptic nesting termite species.
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9

Gentz, Margaret C., and J. Kenneth Grace. "Native Boron Levels and the Effect of Boron Treatment on Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt (Isoptera: Mastotermitidae)." Journal of Entomological Science 43, no. 2 (April 1, 2008): 217–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.18474/0749-8004-43.2.217.

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Although boron is a ubiquitous element found in rocks, soil and water, little has been determined about its physiological role in plants and animals. Comparing the effect of sublethal boron exposure on 3 species yields a broader view of the toxicity of boron compounds in termites. Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) were collected from colonies maintained in at the University of Hawaii at Manoa campus in Honolulu, HI (United States); C. acinaciformis (Froggart) from Darwin, North Territory (Australia); and Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggart (Isoptera: Mastotermitidae) from Darwin, North Territory (Australia). Termites were exposed to untreated composite board or board containing zinc borate and anhydrous boric acid (ZB/B2O3 in a 60/40 ratio, 0.75% BAE) in a no-choice test for 5 d, either in Honolulu (C. formosanus) or Australia (C. acinaciformis and M. darwiniensis); survival rates, wet weight, and boron content of the termites were determined. Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES) was used to determine boron content in field-caught and experimental termites. There was a significant (P < 0.01) decrease in survival of the boron-treated Coptotermes in comparison with the untreated termites, although no mortality was observed in M. darwiniensis. All 3 species showed a significant (P < 0.01) increase in boron content in boron-treated individuals, and there were no significant differences observed between the field-caught and untreated termites.
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10

Lawrence, JF, DH Kistner, and JM Pasteels. "A new genus and three new species of Termitophilous Aderidae (Coleoptera) from Australia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, with notes on their biology." Invertebrate Systematics 4, no. 3 (1990): 643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/it9900643.

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Megaxenus Lawence, gen. nov., includes one speciesfrom North Queensland (M. Termitophilus Lawence, sp. nov.) and two from Papua New Guinea (M. bioculatus Lawence, sp. nov. and M. papuensis Lawence, sp. nov.). All three are found in the nests of Microcerotermes species and are the first known termitophiles in the family Aderidae. Notes on the behaviour and life history demonstrate that the larvae are integrated into the termite society, and are incorporated into the trophallactic feeding behaviour of termites, while the adults are actively persecuted by the termites but survive at the edges of the nest because of the webs constructed by the larvae prior to pupation.
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11

Luykx, Peter. "A cytogenetic survey of 25 species of lower termites from Australia." Genome 33, no. 1 (February 1, 1990): 80–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/g90-013.

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A survey of 25 species of lower termites (families Mastotermitidae, Termopsidae, and Kalotermitidae) in Australia revealed that centric fusions are a common theme in karyotype evolution in these insects. All but one of the species studied have a basic XX/XY mechanism of sex determination, secondarily complicated in about a third of a species by centric fusions between autosomes and sex chromosomes. There is no obvious relationship between systematic position and presence or absence of these fusions. Fusions between Y chromosomes and autosomes were more common than fusions between X chromosomes and autosomes, in accord with the prediction of the hypothesis that differential selection between the two sexes is the basis for the spread of sex-linked fusions. The absence of these fusions in many species does not favor the idea that a high degree of sex linkage is a necessary condition for the establishment or maintenance of eusocial behavior in termites. The difference in the mechanism of sex determination from that of cockroaches (XX/XO) argues against the evolutionary derivation of termites from ancestral cockroaches; derivation of both groups from some common ancestor with XX/XY sex determination is more likely.Key words: termites, karotype, evolution, sex chromosomes, Australia.
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12

Smales, Lesley R. "Multisentis myrmecobius, gen. et. sp. nov. (Acanthocephala: Oligacanthorhynchidae), from the Numbat, Myrmecobius fasciatus, and a Key to Genera of the Oligacanthorhynchidae." Invertebrate Systematics 11, no. 2 (1997): 301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/it95023.

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A new genus and a new species of acanthocephalan are described from the numbat Myrmecobius fasciatus, a termite-eating marsupial from south-western Australia. Multisentis myrmecobius belongs to the family Oligacanthorhynchidae and a key to the genera of this family is given. The life cycle is presumed to involve termites as the intermediate host. The definitive host-parasite relationship is assumed to have evolved since the origins of M. fasciatus from ancestral marsupial forms before the late Miocene.
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13

Abensperg-traun, M., G. W. Arnold, D. E. Steven, G. T. Smith, L. Atkins, J. J. Viveen, and M. Gutter. "Biodiversity indicators in semi-arid, agricultural Western Australia." Pacific Conservation Biology 2, no. 4 (1995): 375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc960375.

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The predicted future loss of native Australian species of plants and animals, in part as a result of adverse land management strategies, has led to attempts to identify areas of high biotic richness (numbers of species). Bioindicators are measures of the physical environment, or of a subset of the plants or animals, that best predict biotic richness. Ideally, bioindicators should aim at predicting as large a component of the plant or animal fauna as is possible at minimum cost. For two contrasting vegetation types, we examined remnant area, vegetation structural diversity, species richness of plants, lizards and terrestrial arthropods, and the relative abundance of individual arthropod species, as indicators of faunal richness, using correlation, principal component regression and stepwise regression analyses. The study was carried out in gimlet Eucalyptus salubris woodlands (29 sites) and shrublands (27 sites) in semi-arid, agricultural Western Australia. Sites varied considerably in grazing history (woodland) and in farming history (shrubland). Fauna sampled were lizards (woodland), scorpions (woodland), isopods (woodland), cockroaches (woodland), termites (woodland, shrubland), earwigs (woodland), hemipterans (shrubland), beetles (woodland, shrubland), butterflies (shrubland) and ants (woodland, shrubland). None of the indicator variables in any analyses effectively predicted total faunal richness for either vegetation type (<35% of variation in total richness explained). In correlation analyses for woodlands, vegetation structural diversity and plant richness, but no fauna variable, explained a high percentage of the variation in the richness of lizards (56% explained by richness of native plants, +ve), scorpions (48%, richness of native plants, +ve), termites (55%, vegetation structural diversity, +ve) and beetles (59%, litter, –ve). The richness of the shrubland fauna was poorly predicted by all indicator variables (<25% explained). When using the total richness and abundance of ant functional groups, the abundance of a subset of species within ant functional groups, and of termite and beetle species, in principal component regressions, various ant functional groups explained 42% each of the richness of scorpions and beetles, and eight beetle species explained 50% of termite richness. When remnant area, vegetation structural diversity and the richness of native plants in woodland were tested in step-wise regressions as indicators of total faunal richness, remnant area was the only significant indicator variable, explaining 33% of total richness. The richness of native plants and vegetation structural diversity explained a total of 76% of the pooled richness of lizards + scorpions + termites. No significant indicator variable was found by regression procedures for total richness, or for a subset, of the shrubland fauna. We argue that differences in the predictive qualities of vegetation structure and plant richness between the vegetation types was due, in part, to differences in the spatial heterogeneity of biotic richness, and possibly the scale at which structure was measured. The use of structural diversity or plant richness as predictors of faunal richness for different woodland types, or those with different disturbance histories, or in different geographic or climatic regions, should not be adopted without verification of their efficiency at predicting the richness of the local fauna.
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14

Abensperg-Traun, Max, and Max Abensperg-Traun. "In defence of small habitat islands: Termites (Isoptera) in the Western Australian central wheatbelt, and the importance of dispersal power in species occurrence." Pacific Conservation Biology 6, no. 1 (2000): 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc000031.

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Ecological theory has long undervalued the contribution of small remnants of native vegetation to nature conservation. This study provides data on colony persistence of remnant-dependent wood-eating termites in 28 remnants of mature wandoo (Eucalyptus capillosa) trees in paddock situations in the agricultural south-west of Western Australia. Remnants ranged in size from 2 to 30 trees, and in spatial isolation from 50 to 650 m. All remnants have been exposed to livestockrelated disturbance for >40 years. This study found that (1) Small remnants of eucalypt trees on farms retain important functional representatives, i.e., wood-eating termites for nutrient-cycling, and high species numbers. (2) Seventeen species have the capacity to establish and maintain colonies in remnants =5 trees. (3) Spatial isolation has no significant influence on the total number of termite species. (4) The number of trees (r = 0.60) and quantity of dead wood in the remnant (r = 0.86) were significant indicators of total termite species number. Larger remnants with low quantities of wood supported few termites, however. (5) Rare as well as common species persisted in small remnants. (6) Alate wing-size was a significant indicator of the occurrence of the six most common termite species in remnants (r = 0.84). The implication of isolation effects for rare species with limited powers of dispersal is self-evident, as is the need for the creation of habitat linkeages to reduce the effects of spatial isolation on the native fauna.
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15

Ocko, Samuel A., Alexander Heyde, and L. Mahadevan. "Morphogenesis of termite mounds." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 9 (February 11, 2019): 3379–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1818759116.

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Several species of millimetric-sized termites across Africa, Asia, Australia, and South America collectively construct large, meter-sized, porous mound structures that serve to regulate mound temperature, humidity, and gas concentrations. These mounds display varied yet distinctive morphologies that range widely in size and shape. To explain this morphological diversity, we introduce a mathematical model that couples environmental physics to insect behavior: The advection and diffusion of heat and pheromones through a porous medium are modified by the mound geometry and, in turn, modify that geometry through a minimal characterization of termite behavior. Our model captures the range of naturally observed mound shapes in terms of a minimal set of dimensionless parameters and makes testable hypotheses for the response of mound morphology to external temperature oscillations and internal odors. Our approach also suggests mechanisms by which evolutionary changes in odor production rate and construction behavior coupled to simple physical laws can alter the characteristic mound morphology of termites.
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16

Creffield, J. W. "Efficacy of didecyldimethylammonium chloride against subterranean termites (Isoptera) in Australia." Anzeiger für Schädlingskunde Pflanzenschutz Umweltschutz 68, no. 3 (April 1995): 60–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01996734.

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17

Davis, Hayley, Euan G. Ritchie, Sarah Avitabile, Tim Doherty, and Dale G. Nimmo. "Testing the assumptions of the pyrodiversity begets biodiversity hypothesis for termites in semi-arid Australia." Royal Society Open Science 5, no. 4 (April 2018): 172055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.172055.

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Fire shapes the composition and functioning of ecosystems globally. In many regions, fire is actively managed to create diverse patch mosaics of fire-ages under the assumption that a diversity of post-fire-age classes will provide a greater variety of habitats, thereby enabling species with differing habitat requirements to coexist, and enhancing species diversity (the pyrodiversity begets biodiversity hypothesis). However, studies provide mixed support for this hypothesis. Here, using termite communities in a semi-arid region of southeast Australia, we test four key assumptions of the pyrodiversity begets biodiversity hypothesis (i) that fire shapes vegetation structure over sufficient time frames to influence species' occurrence, (ii) that animal species are linked to resources that are themselves shaped by fire and that peak at different times since fire, (iii) that species’ probability of occurrence or abundance peaks at varying times since fire and (iv) that providing a diversity of fire-ages increases species diversity at the landscape scale. Termite species and habitat elements were sampled in 100 sites across a range of fire-ages, nested within 20 landscapes chosen to represent a gradient of low to high pyrodiversity. We used regression modelling to explore relationships between termites, habitat and fire. Fire affected two habitat elements (coarse woody debris and the cover of woody vegetation) that were associated with the probability of occurrence of three termite species and overall species richness, thus supporting the first two assumptions of the pyrodiversity hypothesis. However, this did not result in those species or species richness being affected by fire history per se. Consequently, landscapes with a low diversity of fire histories had similar numbers of termite species as landscapes with high pyrodiversity. Our work suggests that encouraging a diversity of fire-ages for enhancing termite species richness in this study region is not necessary.
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18

Mills, Anthony J., and Clélia Sirami. "Nutrient enrichment of ecosystems by fungus-growing versus non-fungus-growing termites." Journal of Tropical Ecology 34, no. 6 (October 31, 2018): 385–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467418000330.

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Abstract:Fungus-growing termites (Macrotermitinae) collect water to air-condition their fungi and have been recorded tunnelling deeper than 80 m for groundwater. This collection of water ultimately results in solute accumulation and nutrient enrichment of their termitaria. We consequently hypothesized that nutrient enrichment of termitaria constructed by fungus-growing termites would be greater than by non-fungus-growing termites. To test this, we compared nutrient enrichment of termitaria of fungus-growingMacrotermesspp. in Namibia and termitaria of two non-fungus-growing termites –Trinervitermes trinervoidesin South Africa andNasutitermes triodiaein Australia. Compared with adjacent topsoils,Macrotermestermitaria were significantly enriched in 18 elements whereasT. trinervoidesandN. triodiaetermitaria were enriched in only one and five elements, respectively. Nutrients particularly enriched inMacrotermitestermitaria included Ca (an enrichment factor of 12), Mg (2.9), Co (2.8), Fe (2.4), Mn (2.3), Se (2.2) and Cu (2.0). We suggest that fungus-growing termites that collect water for air-conditioning their fungi have the potential to inadvertently boost – to a far greater degree than non-fungus-growing termites – the availability of nutrients to local plants and herbivores.
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19

Abensperg-Traun, Max, and Graeme T. Smith. "Predictable effects of agricultural development on the long-term availability of hollows for animals: observations from the Western Australian wheatbelt." Pacific Conservation Biology 1, no. 1 (1994): 77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc930077.

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Australia lacks primary excavators of eucalypts (excluding wood-boring insects), and animals using hollows in trees for shelter or nesting are dependent on hollows created by termites (for processes of termite invasion of eucalypts, and hollow formation, see Mackowski 1984; Perry et al. 1985). The abundance of hollows of various sizes has been used to explain why Australia has the largest number of obligate hole-nesting birds, especially the parrots (Saunders et al. 1982). The importance of tree hollows to many small mammals is also well documented (e.g., Mackowski 1984; Dickman 1991). Once the hollowed tree has fallen, it represents an important shelter and bolt hole site for small mammals (e.g., Friend 1990; Abensperg-Traun 1991; Dickman 1991). Logs also provide many invertebrates (e.g., cockroaches, beetles, spiders, isopods) and lizards with shelter, breeding and feeding sites. However, the importance of this habitat for these species has not been documented.
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20

Debruyn, LAL, and AJ Conacher. "Soil modification by termites in the central wheat-belt of Western-Australia." Soil Research 33, no. 1 (1995): 179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr9950179.

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In a semi-arid region of Western Australia, in kwongan and open woodland, we examined the texture and selected chemical properties of two soil types, firstly in the mounds of two mound-building termite species (Drepanotermes tamminensis and Amitermes obeuntis) and secondly in the foraging galleries of D. tamminensis and A. neogermanus. The soil properties of the termite-modified soil were compared with soil unaffected by termite activity. It was found that both mounds and foraging galleries had significantly higher clay contents, increased organic carbon, and lower pH than the surface soil. The mean standing mass of D. tamminensis mounds was 5 Mg ha-1) on yellow sand (under kwongan vegetation) and 7 Mg ha-1) on grey sandy loam (under open woodland). However, this modified soil is predicted to be inaccessible for plant growth for a considerable period of time, since termite mound longevity could be as much as 70 years. In contrast, termite-modified soil from foraging galleries and chambers in the soil or soil sheetings covering food sources would be more readily accessible to the plant-soil ecosystem than modified soil materials in termite mounds.
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21

Holt, J. A. "Observations on the relationships between meat ants and termites in tropical Australia." Journal of Tropical Ecology 6, no. 3 (August 1990): 379–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467400004697.

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22

Holt, J. A., and J. F. Easey. "Polycalic colonies of some mound building termites (Isoptera: Termitidae) in northeastern Australia." Insectes Sociaux 32, no. 1 (March 1985): 61–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02233226.

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23

Werner, Patricia A., and Lynda D. Prior. "Tree-piping termites and growth and survival of host trees in savanna woodland of north Australia." Journal of Tropical Ecology 23, no. 6 (October 29, 2007): 611–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467407004476.

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Most trees in the eucalypt savannas of Australia have hollow cores, or pipes, caused by termite activity, yet little is known about their effect on tree growth or survival. Five hundred and forty-one trees with known growth and survival histories were cored to determine pipe diameters in wooded savanna of Kakadu National Park, north Australia. Generalized linear modelling and multi-model inference was used to analyse frequency and degree of piping relative to initial tree diameter at breast height (dbh), eco-taxonomic group or species of eucalypt. Growth (dbh increment) and survival (4 y) were analysed relative to initial tree size, pipe ratio (pipe diameter:dbh) and eco-taxonomic group. The frequency of piping was strongly dependent on dbh, increasing with size of tree, and was highest in eucalypts. Growth and survival of eucalypts increased with tree diameter and decreased with pipe ratio. For example, from modelled data, 10-cm-diameter trees without pipes grew 0.14 cm y−1 with 85% survival vs. 10-cm trees with pipe ratios of 0.60 which had near-zero growth and only 46% survival. Comparing 40-cm-diameter trees without pipes to those having pipe ratios of 0.80, growth was 0.22 vs. 0.05 cm y−1, with little difference in survival, 97–99%, respectively. Contrary to the suggestion that tree hollows are an adaptive trait whereby trees benefit by the release of nutrients, in the north Australian eucalypt savannas the net effect of termite piping on individual tree growth and survival was negative.
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Lenz, M. "Variability of vigour between colonies of Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) and its implications for laboratory experimentation." Bulletin of Entomological Research 75, no. 1 (March 1985): 13–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300014139.

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AbstractGroups of Coptotermes acinaciformis (Froggatt) originating from six colonies, three taken from each of two widely separated localities in northern Australia (Townsville and Darwin), were kept at population densities of 0·005, 0·001 or 0·020 g termites/ml. Survival and wood consumption of the groups after eight weeks followed a similar pattern in the colonies from both collection areas. Groups exhibited least vigour at the lowest population density, most vigour at the middle density and slightly less than maximum vigour at the highest density. However, the actual values for survival and wood consumption varied widely between colonies, irrespective of their origin. The implications of these and related results for laboratory experiments which rely on survival and wood consumption as indicators of termite vigour are discussed.
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Dawes-Gromadzki, Tracy Z. "Abundance and diversity of termites in a savanna woodland reserve in tropical Australia." Australian Journal of Entomology 47, no. 4 (October 29, 2008): 307–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-6055.2008.00662.x.

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Whitford, Walter G., John A. Ludwig, and James C. Noble. "The importance of subterranean termites in semi-arid ecosystems in south-eastern Australia." Journal of Arid Environments 22, no. 1 (January 1992): 87–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-1963(18)30659-1.

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Maute, Kimberly, Kristine French, Paul Story, C. M. Bull, and Grant C. Hose. "Effects of two locust control methods on wood-eating termites in arid Australia." Journal of Insect Conservation 20, no. 1 (January 11, 2016): 107–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10841-016-9844-3.

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JIN, ZHENYU, GUANGLIN XIE, and QIXIN YANG. "Description of a new species of Dascillus Latreille from Sichuan, China Coleoptera: Dascillidae)." Zootaxa 4200, no. 2 (November 29, 2016): 321. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4200.2.5.

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Dascillidae are a small and rarely studied family that includes nine currently recognized genera (Lawrence 2005; Ivie & Barclay 2011; Jin et al. 2013) and about 80 described species divided into two poorly defined subfamilies—a free-living Dascillinae and variously morphologically modified Karumiinae, some of which are apparently associated with subterranean termites. Dascillinae inhabit mostly forested areas of the Northern Hemisphere and Australia (Lawrence 2005).
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Tayasu, I., T. Inoue, L. R. Miller, A. Sugimoto, S. Takeichi, and T. Abe. "Confirmation of soil-feeding termites (Isoptera; Termitidae; Termitinae) in Australia using stable isotope ratios." Functional Ecology 12, no. 4 (August 1998): 536–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2435.1998.00220.x.

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Noble, J. C., W. J. Müller, W. G. Whitford, and G. H. Pfitzner. "The significance of termites as decomposers in contrasting grassland communities of semi-arid eastern Australia." Journal of Arid Environments 73, no. 1 (January 2009): 113–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.08.004.

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31

Jamali, Hizbullah, Stephen J. Livesley, Samantha P. Grover, Tracy Z. Dawes, Lindsay B. Hutley, Garry D. Cook, and Stefan K. Arndt. "The Importance of Termites to the CH4 Balance of a Tropical Savanna Woodland of Northern Australia." Ecosystems 14, no. 5 (April 30, 2011): 698–709. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10021-011-9439-5.

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Cookson, Laurie James, Damian Kile Scown, Kevin James McCarthy, and Narelle Chew. "The effectiveness of silica treatments against wood-boring invertebrates." Holzforschung 61, no. 3 (May 1, 2007): 326–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hf.2007.045.

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Abstract Timber specimens were impregnated with the organo-silicate tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) in an effort to deposit hard silica granules and improve resistance to wood-borers. Trials were conducted against marine borers (teredinids and Limnoria), the termite Coptotermes acinaciformis, and the wood-boring beetle Lyctus brunneus. A 14-week laboratory bioassay against C. acinaciformis showed that treated Pinus radiata containing 16.7 wt.% silica was as readily attacked as untreated timber. However, a 3-year laboratory trial of treated Castanospermum australe showed that attack by L. brunneus was prevented by 10.3 wt.% silica, and reduced by 0.7 and 3.4 wt.% silica. A trial of wood treated with copper-chromium-arsenic followed by silicon was conducted in the sea at Townsville, Australia for 7 years. Double treatment with 6.7 or 19.2 wt.% silica prevented attack in P. radiata by teredinids, while for CCA alone some replicates failed. In the same trial, double-treated Corymbia maculata with lower silica retention failed. Silica granules may overwhelm the food and waste-sorting mechanisms in teredinids and lyctine larvae, whereas borers, requiring less intimate contact with granules (Limnoria and termites), or those that do not ingest wood for food (Sphaeroma and Martesia), are little affected.
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Smithers, Courtenay. "An apterous, possibly phragmotic new species representing a new genus and subfamily of Elipsocidae (Psocoptera) from South Australia." Insect Systematics & Evolution 28, no. 1 (1997): 97–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187631297x00204.

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AbstractA new subfamily (YUNTAPSOCINAE, subfam. n.) is proposed for Yuntapsocus hollowayi gen. & sp. n., an apterous, cryptic and possibly phragmotic new taxon of Elipsocidae (Psocoptera) described from near Yunta, in arid South Australia. This remarkable species is known from one adult female only which was beaten from vegetation alongside a dry river bed. The unique modifications of several morphological features strongly suggest that the insect lives in a dark, confined, habitat such as a tunnel in wood or a termites' or ants' nest and may use a clunial plate to close the tunnel. Analogous morphological modifications in the only confirmed wood boring, phragmotic psocopteran, Psilopsocus mimulus Smithers, are discussed.
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ABENSPERG-TRAUN, MAX, and EGBERT S. BOER. "Species abundance and habitat differences in biomass of subterranean termites (Isoptera) in the wheatbelt of Western Australia." Austral Ecology 15, no. 2 (June 1990): 219–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1990.tb01530.x.

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35

Milner, R. J., J. A. Staples, and G. G. Lutton. "The Selection of an Isolate of the Hyphomycete Fungus,Metarhizium anisopliae,for Control of Termites in Australia." Biological Control 11, no. 3 (March 1998): 240–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/bcon.1997.0574.

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36

Cowie, Robert H., James W. M. Logan, and T. G. Wood. "Termite (Isoptera) damage and control in tropical forestry with special reference to Africa and Indo-Malaysia: a review." Bulletin of Entomological Research 79, no. 2 (June 1989): 173–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007485300018150.

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AbstractTermite damage is a major problem in tropical forestry especially where exotic tree species are used. Stressed tress are generally the most susceptible to attack. Dry-wood termites (Kalotermitidae) live and feed in dead wood but sometimes attack living parts of mature trees; generally, they are pests only in the humid tropics, causing local but sometimes serious damage. Coptotermes (Rhinotermitidae) causes more widespread and serious damage to mature trees, especially in Malaysia and Australia. The most serious losses (up to 100%), due predominantly to various Macrotermitinae (Termitidae) such as Macrotermes, Odontotermes and Microtermes, occur in young, exotictrees such as Eucalyptus in dry regions in Africa and India. Chemical control of dry-wood termites is not feasible; use of resistant trees is probably the only satisfactory strategy. Control of Coptotermes by various methods has been suggested; but only insecticide injection into nests within affected trunks (Australia) and destruction of nests with explosives prior to planting, followed by destruction of queens in subsequently located nests (Papua New Guinea), are effective and economically viable. Attack on seedings, especially by Macrotermitinae in Africa and India, can be prevented by the increasingly unacceptable persistent cyclodienes used as mound poisons or as a barrier around the roots preventing attack by subterranean species. Controlled-release formulations of otherwise non-persistent insecticides are being development but are expensive and not widely available. Many non-chemical measures have been suggested, but none has been rigorously evaluated; none will provide the almost complete protection afforded by cyclodienes. Biological control shows little promise. Use of resistant tree species and development of resistant varieties offers the only long-term solution, but until these are available there will be a need to continue using cyclodienes or rapidly to develop alternative control methods.
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37

Hayward, Matt W., Aline Si Lin Poh, Jennifer Cathcart, Chris Churcher, Jos Bentley, Kerryn Herman, Leah Kemp, et al. "Numbat nirvana: conservation ecology of the endangered numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus) (Marsupialia : Myrmecobiidae) reintroduced to Scotia and Yookamurra Sanctuaries, Australia." Australian Journal of Zoology 63, no. 4 (2015): 258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/zo15028.

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Despite a vigorous reintroduction program between 1985 and 2010, numbat populations in Western Australia are either static or declining. This study aimed to document the population ecology of numbats at two sites that are going against this trend: Scotia Sanctuary in far western New South Wales and Yookamurra Sanctuary in the riverland of South Australia. Scotia (64 659 ha) and Yookamurra (5026 ha) are conservation reserves owned and managed by the Australian Wildlife Conservancy and where numbats were reintroduced in 1999 and 1993 respectively. Both sites have large conservation-fence-protected introduced-species-free areas where there are no cats (Felis catus) or red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Numbats were sourced from both wild and captive populations. From small founder populations, the Scotia numbats are now estimated to number 169 (113–225) with 44 at Yookamurra. Radio-collared individuals at Scotia were active between 13 and 31°C. Females had home ranges of 28.3 ± 6.8 ha and males 96.6 ± 18.2 ha, which leads to an estimated sustainable population or carrying capacity of 413–502 at Scotia. Captive-bred animals from Perth Zoo had a high mortality rate upon reintroduction at Scotia due to predation by raptors and starvation. The habitat preferences for mallee with a shrub understorey appear to be driven by availability of termites, and other reintroduced ecosystem engineers appear to have been facilitators by creating new refuge burrows for numbats. This study shows that numbats can be successfully reintroduced into areas of their former range if protected from introduced predators, and illustrates the difficulties in monitoring such cryptic species.
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ABENSPERG-TRAUN, M., and A. V. MILEWSKI. "Abundance and diversity of termites (Isoptera) in imburnt versus burnt vegetation at the Barrens in Mediterranean Western Australia." Australian Journal of Ecology 20, no. 3 (September 1995): 413–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1995.tb00557.x.

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39

Caterino, Michael S., and Nicolas Dégallier. "A review of the biology and systematics of Chlamydopsinae (Coleoptera:Histeridae)." Invertebrate Systematics 21, no. 1 (2007): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/is06017.

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The histerid subfamily Chlamydopsinae is a clade of obligate inquilines of social insects, mainly ants. They show a wide range of bizarre morphological characteristics, including highly varied trichomes, associated with this lifestyle. They occur throughout Australia and Indomalaysia, with a few species occurring as far from this centre of diversity as India and Japan. At present the subfamily contains 12 genera and 174 species, several of which are newly described herein (Teretriopsis theryi, gen. nov., sp. nov., Papuopsis andersoni, gen. nov., sp. nov. and Quasimodopsis riedeli, gen. nov. sp. nov.). This paper presents a phylogenetic analysis based on morphological characters of all of the main lineages of the family, provides a complete catalogue of the species, a key to all the genera, and proposes several new combinations. The phylogenetic analysis reveals two large clades, one (including the genera Chlamydopsis Westwood, Eucurtia Mjöberg, and Ectatommiphila Lea) is largely restricted to the Australian continent, whereas the other, containing all other genera, is much more widespread, including many Australian species, but extending also through Indomalaysia into south-east Asia. The beetles are known to utilise many hosts, including ants in four different subfamilies (Myrmicinae, Ponerinae, Dolichoderinae, and Formicinae), as well as termites in the genus Eutermes. However, host records are not yet sufficiently comprehensive to exhibit any clear phylogenetic signal.
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40

Walsh, Fiona J., Ashley D. Sparrow, Peter Kendrick, and Josef Schofield. "Fairy circles or ghosts of termitaria? Pavement termites as alternative causes of circular patterns in vegetation of desert Australia." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 37 (September 1, 2016): E5365—E5367. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1607860113.

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41

Noble, R. R. P., A. D. Stewart, G. T. Pinchand, T. C. Robson, and R. R. Anand. "Integrated studies of soil, termites, vegetation and groundwater to understand metal migration at the Kintyre U deposits, Western Australia." Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 17, no. 2 (February 16, 2017): 143–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/geochem2016-439.

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42

Steinbauer, M. J., and R. Peveling. "The impact of the locust control insecticide fipronil on termites and ants in two contrasting habitats in northern Australia." Crop Protection 30, no. 7 (July 2011): 814–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2011.02.001.

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43

Arifin, Zainul, Irvin Dayadi, and Fitus Nyurang. "PENGAWETAN KAYU SENGON (paraserianthes falcataria (L) NIELSEN) MENGGUNAKAN BAHAN PENGAWET CROWN 100 EC SERTA KETAHANANNYA TERHADAP RAYAP TANAH." Jurnal Akar 9, no. 2 (August 8, 2020): 127–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.36985/jar.v9i2.318.

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Abstrak: Penelitian bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh metode dan konsentrasi bahan pengawet Crown 100 EC dalam pengawetan kayu Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria (L) Nielsen) terhadap nilai retensi dan ketahanannya terhadap rayap tanah (Subterranean termites). Seluruh data diolah menggunakan pola faktorial acak lengkap 4x3 dengan 10 kali ulangan. Parameter yang diukur adalah retensi dan uji ketahanan terhadap rayap tanah (Subterranean termites) dengan metode pengawetan pencelupan, penyemprotan, pemulasan dan perendaman dingin dengan konsentrasi 0,5%, 1% dan 2%.Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa rataan kadar air kering udara diperoleh nilai sebesar 11,42%, kerapatan kering udara diperoleh 0,36 g/cm3 dan kerapatan kering tanur diperoleh nilai sebesar 0,33 g/cm3. Konsentrasi bahan pengawet Crown 100 EC, metode pengawetan dan interaksinya berpengaruh sangat signifikan terhadap nilai retensi bahan pengawet. Metode pengawetan dengan konsentrasi bahan pengawet yang tinggi dan waktu kontak yang lama maka nilai retensi yang dihasilkan semakin tinggi. Nilai retensi terbesar pada proses perendaman dingin dengan konsentrasi 2% dapat menghasilkan nilai retensi sebesar 0,9133 kg/m3 sedangkan nilai retensi terkecil pada proses penyemprotan dengan konsentrasi 0,5% menghasilkan nilai retensi sebesar 0,0389 kg/m3. Secara umum metode dan konsentrasi memenuhi standar retensi yang dipersyaratkan Standard New Zealand (NZ S3640)-2004 dan Standard Australia (AS1640)-2004, untuk perlakuan M1K2,M1K3,M2K3,M3K3,M4K1 dan M4K2 memenuhi standar harzard level H1, sedang untuk perlakuan M4K3 memenuhi semua standar harzad level H1,H2 dan H3. Kecuali pada perlakuan M1K1,M2K1,M2K2,M3K1 dan M3K2 tidak memenuhi standar harzard level (NZ S3640-2004 dan AS1640-2004).
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44

Postle, A., and I. Abbott. "TERMITES OF ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE IN SUBURBAN PERTH, WESTERN AUSTRALIA: A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND ASSOCIATION WITH TYPES OF WOOD (ISOPTERA)." Australian Journal of Entomology 30, no. 2 (May 1991): 183–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-6055.1991.tb00409.x.

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45

Dai, Zhaohua, Carl C. Trettin, Andrew J. Burton, Martin F. Jurgensen, Deborah S. Page-Dumroese, Brian T. Forschler, Jonathan S. Schilling, and Daniel L. Lindner. "Coarse woody debris decomposition assessment tool: Model development and sensitivity analysis." PLOS ONE 16, no. 6 (June 4, 2021): e0251893. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251893.

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Coarse woody debris (CWD) is an important component in forests, hosting a variety of organisms that have critical roles in nutrient cycling and carbon (C) storage. We developed a process-based model using literature, field observations, and expert knowledge to assess woody debris decomposition in forests and the movement of wood C into the soil and atmosphere. The sensitivity analysis was conducted against the primary ecological drivers (wood properties and ambient conditions) used as model inputs. The analysis used eighty-nine climate datasets from North America, from tropical (14.2° N) to boreal (65.0° N) zones, with large ranges in annual mean temperature (26.5°C in tropical to -11.8°C in boreal), annual precipitation (6,143 to 181 mm), annual snowfall (0 to 612 kg m-2), and altitude (3 to 2,824 m above mean see level). The sensitivity analysis showed that CWD decomposition was strongly affected by climate, geographical location and altitude, which together regulate the activity of both microbial and invertebrate wood-decomposers. CWD decomposition rate increased with increments in temperature and precipitation, but decreased with increases in latitude and altitude. CWD decomposition was also sensitive to wood size, density, position (standing vs downed), and tree species. The sensitivity analysis showed that fungi are the most important decomposers of woody debris, accounting for over 50% mass loss in nearly all climatic zones in North America. The model includes invertebrate decomposers, focusing mostly on termites, which can have an important role in CWD decomposition in tropical and some subtropical regions. The role of termites in woody debris decomposition varied widely, between 0 and 40%, from temperate areas to tropical regions. Woody debris decomposition rates simulated for eighty-nine locations in North America were within the published range of woody debris decomposition rates for regions in northern hemisphere from 1.6° N to 68.3° N and in Australia.
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Lenz, Michael, James W. Creffield, Theodore A. Evans, Brad Kard, Charunee Vongkaluang, Yupaporn Sornnuwat, Chow-Yang Lee, Tsuyoshi Yoshimura, and Kunio Tsunoda. "Resistance of polyamide and polyethylene cable sheathings to termites in Australia, Thailand, USA, Malaysia and Japan: A comparison of four field assessment methods." International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 66, no. 1 (January 2012): 53–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2011.11.001.

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47

Dawes-Gromadzki, Tracy, and Alister Spain. "Seasonal patterns in the activity and species richness of surface-foraging termites (Isoptera) at paper baits in a tropical Australian savanna." Journal of Tropical Ecology 19, no. 4 (July 2003): 449–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0266467403003481.

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The species present, and the frequencies and intensities of termite attack on 600 paper baits exposed at the soil surface were compared over three seasonal exposures and between two savanna sites of contrasting vegetation structure in northern Australia. Eleven species were recorded, with Microcerotermes nervosus and Schedorhinotermes actuosus comprising 43% and 27% of collections respectively. The most commonly sampled species nest underground or build epigeal mounds and are known to feed on sound and decaying wood. Changes in species dominance occurred between seasons and the two forest types. In both vegetation types, the number of species active and the frequency of attack increased with the duration of bait exposure and decreased in the order: transitional > wet > dry. Bait consumption was greater in the site with higher canopy cover, and did not differ significantly between seasons. No direct relationships were noted between rainfall recorded at the sites and species richness, frequency and intensity of attack on baits. We recommend exposure of paper baits for at least 2 mo during the transitional period as the optimal protocol for sampling at the time of greatest activity and diversity of those species within the guild of wood-feeding species regularly attracted to paper baits.
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48

Li, Li, Jürgen Fröhlich, Peter Pfeiffer, and Helmut König. "Termite Gut Symbiotic Archaezoa Are Becoming Living Metabolic Fossils." Eukaryotic Cell 2, no. 5 (October 2003): 1091–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.2.5.1091-1098.2003.

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ABSTRACT Over the course of several million years, the eukaryotic gut symbionts of lower termites have become adapted to a cellulolytic environment. Up to now it has been believed that they produce nutriments using their own cellulolytic enzymes for the benefit of their termite host. However, we have now isolated two endoglucanases with similar apparent molecular masses of approximately 36 kDa from the not yet culturable symbiotic Archaezoa living in the hindgut of the most primitive Australian termite, Mastotermes darwiniensis. The N-terminal sequences of these cellulases exhibited significant homology to cellulases of termite origin, which belong to glycosyl hydrolase family 9. The corresponding genes were detected not in the mRNA pool of the flagellates but in the salivary glands of M. darwiniensis. This showed that cellulases isolated from the flagellate cells originated from the termite host. By use of a PCR-based approach, DNAs encoding cellulases belonging to glycosyl hydrolase family 45 were obtained from micromanipulated nuclei of the flagellates Koruga bonita and Deltotrichonympha nana. These results indicated that the intestinal flagellates of M. darwiniensis take up the termite's cellulases from gut contents. K. bonita and D. nana possess at least their own endoglucanase genes, which are still expressed, but without significant enzyme activity in the nutritive vacuole. These findings give the impression that the gut Archaezoa are heading toward a secondary loss of their own endoglucanases and that they use exclusively termite cellulases.
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49

Pal, Partha, and Spandita Roy. "Edible Insects: Future of Human Food - A Review." International Letters of Natural Sciences 26 (September 2014): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.18052/www.scipress.com/ilns.26.1.

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The practice of eating insects is known as entomophagy. Many animals, such as spiders, lizards and birds, are entomophagous, as are many insects. People throughout the world have been eating insects as a regular part of their diets for millennia. As people in rural areas suffer from under nutrition, especially protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) in Africa, Latin America and Asia, alternative nutritional food sources are needed. From ants to beetle larvae – eaten by tribes in Africa and Australia as part of their subsistence diets – to the popular, crispy-fried locusts and beetles enjoyed in Thailand, it is estimated that insect-eating is practised regularly by at least 2 billion people worldwide. More than 1900 insect species have been documented in literature as edible, most of them in tropical countries. The most commonly eaten insect groups are beetles, caterpillars, bees, wasps, ants, grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, cicadas, leaf and plant hoppers, scale insects and true bugs, termites, dragonflies and flies. The purpose of the present review is to determine the status of present research in the context of the potentiality of insects as alternative food source to cope up with the emerging problem of global food crisis
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Pal, Partha, and Spandita Roy. "Edible Insects: Future of Human Food - A Review." International Letters of Natural Sciences 26 (September 29, 2014): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.56431/p-kt2z1i.

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The practice of eating insects is known as entomophagy. Many animals, such as spiders, lizards and birds, are entomophagous, as are many insects. People throughout the world have been eating insects as a regular part of their diets for millennia. As people in rural areas suffer from under nutrition, especially protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) in Africa, Latin America and Asia, alternative nutritional food sources are needed. From ants to beetle larvae – eaten by tribes in Africa and Australia as part of their subsistence diets – to the popular, crispy-fried locusts and beetles enjoyed in Thailand, it is estimated that insect-eating is practised regularly by at least 2 billion people worldwide. More than 1900 insect species have been documented in literature as edible, most of them in tropical countries. The most commonly eaten insect groups are beetles, caterpillars, bees, wasps, ants, grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, cicadas, leaf and plant hoppers, scale insects and true bugs, termites, dragonflies and flies. The purpose of the present review is to determine the status of present research in the context of the potentiality of insects as alternative food source to cope up with the emerging problem of global food crisis
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