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Journal articles on the topic 'Tariffs'
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1
Andruszkiewicz, Jerzy, Józef Lorenc, and Agnieszka Weychan. "Price-Based Demand Side Response Programs and Their Effectiveness on the Example of TOU Electricity Tariff for Residential Consumers." Energies 14, no. 2 (January 7, 2021): 287. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14020287.
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Demand side response is becoming an increasingly significant issue for reliable power systems’ operation. Therefore, it is desirable to ensure high effectiveness of such programs, including electricity tariffs. The purpose of the study is developing a method for analysing electricity tariff’s effectiveness in terms of demand side response purposes based on statistical data concerning tariffs’ use by the consumers and price elasticity of their electricity demand. A case-study analysis is presented for residential electricity consumers, shifting the settlement and consequently the profile of electricity use from a flat to a time-of-use tariff, based on the comparison of the considered tariff groups. Additionally, a correlation analysis is suggested to verify tariffs’ influence of the power system’s peak load based on residential electricity tariffs in Poland. The presented analysis proves that large residential consumers aggregated by tariff incentives may have a significant impact on the power system’s load and this impact changes substantially for particular hours of a day or season. Such efficiency assessment may be used by both energy suppliers to optimize their market purchases and by distribution system operators in order to ensure adequate generation during peak load periods.
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Andruszkiewicz, Jerzy, Józef Lorenc, and Agnieszka Weychan. "Price-Based Demand Side Response Programs and Their Effectiveness on the Example of TOU Electricity Tariff for Residential Consumers." Energies 14, no. 2 (January 7, 2021): 287. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14020287.
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Demand side response is becoming an increasingly significant issue for reliable power systems’ operation. Therefore, it is desirable to ensure high effectiveness of such programs, including electricity tariffs. The purpose of the study is developing a method for analysing electricity tariff’s effectiveness in terms of demand side response purposes based on statistical data concerning tariffs’ use by the consumers and price elasticity of their electricity demand. A case-study analysis is presented for residential electricity consumers, shifting the settlement and consequently the profile of electricity use from a flat to a time-of-use tariff, based on the comparison of the considered tariff groups. Additionally, a correlation analysis is suggested to verify tariffs’ influence of the power system’s peak load based on residential electricity tariffs in Poland. The presented analysis proves that large residential consumers aggregated by tariff incentives may have a significant impact on the power system’s load and this impact changes substantially for particular hours of a day or season. Such efficiency assessment may be used by both energy suppliers to optimize their market purchases and by distribution system operators in order to ensure adequate generation during peak load periods.
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Macheret, D. "RAILWAY FREIGHT TARIFFS: HISTORY AND MODERNITY." World of Transport and Transportation 15, no. 2 (April 28, 2017): 252–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.30932/1992-3252-2017-15-2-25.
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[For the English abstract and full text of the article please see the attached PDF-File (English version follows Russian version)].Khusainov, F. I. Pricing in Railway Transport. History of Rail Freight Tariffs in Russia: textbook. Moscow, MGUPS publ., 2017, 102 p. ABSTRACT The training manual presents a retrospective of tariffs from the inception of the railways in Russia until 2015. The book analyzes all tariff reforms, the principles of building tariffs, their structure, the reasons for changing tariff-setting models, tariff discussions of scientists from different schools. From the book it becomes obvious that the basic principles that have existed for more than a hundred of years, do not lose their relevance today. Economic science and tariff practices are constantly returning to old discussions. Therefore, a competent specialist in the economics of rail transport should have an idea of the main problems of evolution of railway tariffs. Keywords: railway, freight tariffs, unregulated and regulated tariffs, pricing, tariff reform, tariff discussions, solvency of cargoes.
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Bocharova, Yu H., T. V. Kozhuhova, O. V. Ishchenko, and O. O. Mashoshyn. "TARIFF REGULATION OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN THE XXI CENTURY." TRADE AND MARKET OF UKRAINE, no. 2(54) 2023 (December 30, 2023): 7–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.33274/2079-4762-2023-54-2-7-17.
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Objective. The objective of our study is to analyse the status and peculiarities of tariff regulation of international trade in the XXI century. Methods. The following methods and techniques of cognition were used in the research process: analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction (to substantiate the importance and role of tariff regulation of international and foreign trade in the XXI century, to identify factors influencing the development of international trade), generalisation and systematisation (to substantiate the state and peculiarities of the development of tariff regulation of international trade in the XXI century), analysis of time series (to identify trends and patterns of tariff regulation of international trade in 2006-2022), graphical (for visual representation of the peculiarities of tariff dynamics in WTO countries). Results. The article notes that despite the changes that have taken place in international trade in general and in the system of its regulation in particular, tariff regulation remains the main authorised means of regulating international and external trade. By 2022, international trade is expected to reach USD 30 trillion, with trade in goods, especially manufactured goods, dominating the structure. It is established that one of the aspects of liberalising trade is to reduce or eliminate tariffs. It is noted that the reduction of tariffs is much slower in the period 2006-2021 than in the period 1996-2005. Average applied tariffs in WTO countries for all product groups will decrease from 10.1% in 2006 to 8.9% in 2021; tariffs on agricultural products will be significantly higher than on non-agricultural products (14.8% vs. 8% in 2021); average tariffs applied to all product groups were significantly lower in developed countries than in developing countries and LDCs; average tariffs applied by developed countries decreased by 1.7%, by developing countries by 1.7% and by LDCs by 1.2%; the highest average tariffs were recorded in Africa and the Americas and the lowest in Europe; the share of duty-free goods under the most favoured nation regime in the WTO countries has been steadily increasing; there has been a slight but steady decline in the share of tariff peaks, which are tariffs exceeding 15 per cent; the number of trade agreements, including preferential trade agreements, has been growing steadily, with agreements covering not only trade in goods but also trade in services, etc. According to the analysis of WTO data, in 2022 most WTO countries have an average bound tariff not exceeding 50%; average bound tariffs vary significantly across WTO countries and product groups; average bound tariffs for most WTO countries range from 20-59% for agricultural products, 10-39% for non-agricultural products; average applied tariffs for agricultural products range from 10-19%, up to 10% for non-agricultural products; significant discrepancies between average bound tariffs and average applied tariffs remain; in the majority of WTO countries, ad valorem tariffs dominate the tariff structure; there are significant differences between countries in the number of bound tariffs applied; in the vast majority of WTO countries, MFN tariffs are applied to a large number of products - the number of products subject to MFN tariffs varies between 5000 and 10000.
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Christensen, Kristoffer, Zheng Ma, and Bo Nørregaard Jørgensen. "Technical, Economic, Social and Regulatory Feasibility Evaluation of Dynamic Distribution Tariff Designs." Energies 14, no. 10 (May 15, 2021): 2860. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14102860.
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The increasing number of distributed energy resources in the distribution grids creates the risk of grid congestion and the high cost of grid expansion. The implementation of the dynamic distribution grid tariffs can potentially avoid grid congestion. Meanwhile, the design and implementation of any distribution tariff need to consider and match the regional/national requirements. However, there is no sufficient evaluation method available to review and evaluate the feasibility of the dynamic distribution tariffs. Therefore, this paper introduces a feasibility evaluation method with four dimensions of technical, economic, social, and regulatory to review dynamic distribution tariffs. The literature on dynamic distribution tariffs is collected, and 29 dynamic distribution tariffs are selected and further categorized into five attributes of rationale, cost drivers, dynamics, events, and active demand. The evaluation results show that the time-of-use tariff is the most feasible dynamic distribution tariff, and the review of a proposed future distribution tariff model in Denmark verifies the evaluation method and results. The developed feasibility evaluation method for dynamic distribution tariffs can ensure the design and implementation of a dynamic distribution tariff to be feasible and applicable in a region.
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Montolalu, Maya H., Mahjus Ekananda, Teguh Dartanto, Diah Widyawati, and Maddaremmeng Panennungi. "The Analysis of Trade Liberalization and Nutrition Intake for Improving Food Security across Districts in Indonesia." Sustainability 14, no. 6 (March 11, 2022): 3291. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14063291.
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The debate on the effect of trade liberalization on food security poses solid arguments, both in favor as well as against the issue. This study aims to analyze the linkages between trade liberalization (measured using food import tariff exposure) and food security (measured using nutrition intake) in the case of Indonesia. The national food import tariff is decomposed into district-level import tariff exposure and is analyzed based on sectoral tariffs such as agriculture tariffs and food manufacture import tariffs. The analysis employs panel data of 496 Indonesian districts and postulates an association between trade and food security by using fixed-effect regression. By analyzing the effects of tariff exposure towards food consumption in all districts and grouping the districts into 5 (five) islands, we can contribute to the literature on trade liberalization and food security. First, it is found that import tariff exposure is negatively impacting nutrition intake and each sector has a different effect on each nutrition intake. Furthermore, the impact of manufacturing tariffs on calorie and protein intake is slightly higher than that of agriculture tariffs. Second, it is shown that both sectoral import tariffs’ effects vary across islands in Indonesia. Furthermore, the research is expected to contribute to and become a reference for the government in regulating tariffs and other trade liberalization schemes to support households to be food secure.
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Czerliński, Mirosław, and Michał Sebastian Bańka. "Ticket tariffs modelling in urban and regional public transport." Archives of Transport 57, no. 1 (March 31, 2021): 103–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.8041.
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Ticket tariff is an important factor influencing the demand for public transport. Among basic problematics re-garding ticket tariffs are designing new fare systems and optimization of current systems. The task of optimization is influenced by two main factors: ticket prices and the structure of the tariff. Both elements were researched in this article, based on eleven public transport organizers fare systems in Poland – metropolitan areas and cities of a different scale. The purpose of this article was to define basic tariff types used in urban and regional public transport with a presentation of their function models. Ticket tariffs split into two main groups: flat and differen-tial. Differential group of tariffs covers: distance (usually are encountered fares based on a number of kilometres or stops travelled), quality (e.g. different fares on basic and express lines), time (minutes, hours or days of ticket validity, but also different tariff during on-peak and off-peak hours), sections (between which passenger travel on a transit route) and zones (transport network divided into areas, e.g. designated by municipalities bounda-ries) tariffs. The concept of this study was to transform as many tariffs as possible from tabular form to the math-ematical function. Five types of functions were considered for each tariff schematic: linear, power, polynomial, logarithmic and exponential. Functions and associated with them R-squared parameters were obtained as a result of regression analysis. The paper indicates that for time, distance and flat tariffs conformity (R2) was in most cases very high and above 0,90. The results indicate that the power function best describes time tariffs. In the case of distance tariffs, different kind of functions can be used: logarithmic, power or polynomial. The pro-posed function form of tariffs may speed up the process of creating new fare systems or upgrading existing ones. With general knowledge about the structure of tariffs and their function forms, it would be easier to determine the price of different kinds of tickets. New fare integration solutions could be also proposed in the future by using Big Data analysis.
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Clemens, Michael A., and Jeffrey G. Williamson. "Why were Latin America's tariffs so much higher than Asia's before 1950?" Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 30, no. 1 (September 26, 2011): 11–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s021261091100019x.
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AbstractLatin America had the highest tariffs in the world before 1914; Asia had the lowest. Heavily protected Latin America also boasted some of the most explosivebelle époquegrowth, while open Asia registered some of the least. What brought the two regions to the opposite ends of the tariff policy spectrum? We find that limits to Asian tariff policy autonomy may have lowered tariffs substantially there, but by themselves they cannot explain why Asian tariffs were so much lower than the Latin American tariffs before 1914; that natural barriers, domestic political economy and strategic tariff policy seems to have contributed much to the difference and that the origins of Asian post-World War 2 import-substitution policies seem to lie in the interwar years when Asian tariff levels caught up with those of Latin America.
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Gu, Siqi. "The Impact of U.S. Carbon Tariff on Chinas Exports and Welfare Based on Empirical Analysis and Game Models." Advances in Economics, Management and Political Sciences 80, no. 1 (May 10, 2024): 14–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2754-1169/80/20241278.
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This paper will begin by formulating an optimal tariff model between China and the U.S., leading us to an equilibrium point. From this vantage point, we will deduce the consequences of U.S. tariffs on China's exports and the ramifications of U.S. carbon tariffs on China's societal welfare. Next, we will develop an economic model considering the existing China-U.S. tariffs and their trading relationship. This model will help determine the influence of U.S. tariffs on China's export volume and societal welfare. In addition, we will compute the impact of U.S. tariffs on China's societal welfare and export to the U.S., factoring in China's carbon emissions per 100 yuan of GDP, and finally, concern the industrial impact of such carbon tariffs. Third, using two distinct game models, we would probe into the viability and possibility of the U.S. levying a carbon tariff on Chinese exports. The evolutionary game models reflect real-world scenarios, which point out that the U.S. will eventually apply a carbon tariff on China. Next, the dynamic game model considers different parties, Chinas government and firms, and different factors, environmental costs, and green subsidies. The model provides the circumstances in which the U.S. will levy a carbon tariff, whether China should provide a green subsidy, and whether the company should implement green production technology. Finally, we would discuss potential strategies China might adopt to navigate the challenges of the U.S. carbon tariff and examine the broader implications of such a move.
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Sweeney, Richard. "Tariffs and welfare: A common, invalid anti-tariff argument." Economics and Business Review 9, no. 1 (2023): 5–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.18559/ebr.2023.1.1.
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President Trump imposed tariffs in 2017 on several of China’s exports, notably steel. Many papers opposed these tariffs by using a common, invalid argument: rather than arguing these tariffs reduced U.S. welfare, they argue U.S. consumers and businesses pay the tariffs, a different, rhetorical issue. Their main evidence of harm is increases in imported goods’ after-tariff U.S. prices, especially relativeto other goods’ U.S. prices. In a standard, small general equilibrium model (two countries, two goods, two factors), this price evidence is wholly ambiguous—it is even consistent with the view that Trump’s tariff was optimal,increasing U.S. welfare. Even sophisticated papers are similarly ambiguous. All fail because they neglect how government uses tariff revenue. Relying on fallacious arguments makes the free-trade position look weak and encourages protectionism.
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Napierała, Michał. "A Study on Improving Economy Efficiency of Pumping Stations Based on Tariff Changes." Energies 15, no. 3 (January 22, 2022): 799. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15030799.
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In this paper, research on improving the economic efficiency of 38 drainage pumping stations was undertaken. Particular attention was paid to the effectiveness of activities without considering any expenditures. Energy costs for this type of machine are usually high, approximately 45% of the total maintenance cost. The main assumption of this work was the selection of appropriate energy tariffs to reduce operating costs. Liquid transport in any economy consumes significant amounts of electricity, estimated at 20–30% of the total electricity production. The optimization of the energy consumption of pumping processes is, therefore, very important. While analyzing the choice of energy tariffs, we designed profitability ratios (PR) specifically for different daily time zones. With the forecasted distribution of energy demands for different daily time zones (usually 2 or 3 zones), it was possible to compare multi-zone tariffs with 24 h tariffs. The profitability of the tariffs was decided by the value of the PR indicator. The lower, the better. In practice, this meant that the analyzed multi-zone tariffs, in most cases, are more profitable compared to single-zone tariffs. In the Polish energy system, each entrepreneur, depending on the connection power, has a right to choose a particular energy tariff from three tariff groups, i.e., high (A), medium (B), and low (C) voltage. In the case of land reclamation pumping stations, energy tariffs are usually from groups B and C. The choice of tariffs largely depends on the contracted capacity and is determined by tariff regulation. Nowadays, the current energy system forces entrepreneurs to declare a connected power load at the level corresponding to the maximum use of the production potential. Lack of knowledge of the hydrological regime, quite common for land reclamation pumping stations, usually results in overestimating the contracted capacity. When comparing the effect of changing tariffs, it was found that the profitability of this method is significant. The four-year study period (2010–2013) showed that active energy in the multi-part tariffs of groups B and C is on average 10.2% cheaper than in the single-part tariffs and varies in a wide range from 2% to 20.4%. The analysis carried out on 38 drainage pumping stations shows that for only five pumping stations could changing the current tariff be unjustified. In the other cases, the four years of analysis demonstrates that changing the current energy tariff could reduce electricity costs by approximately 5%., i.e., approximately PLN 124,000 per year (approximately EUR 27,000).
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Irwin, Douglas A. "Higher Tariffs, Lower Revenues? Analyzing the Fiscal Aspects of “The Great Tariff Debate of 1888”." Journal of Economic History 58, no. 1 (March 1998): 59–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700019884.
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After the Civil War, Congress maintained high import tariffs to pay off the public debt. By the early 1880s the federal government was running large fiscal surpluses –revenues exceeded expenditures by over 40 percent. The Democrats proposed lower tariffs to reduce customs revenue. The Republicans proposed higher tariffs to reduce imports and customs revenues. This article attempts to determine the revenue effects of the proposed changes. Given the height of the tariff and the price elasticity of U.S. import demand, the actual tariff was below the maximum revenue rate, and therefore a tariff reduction would have reduced customs revenue.
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Sundt, Swantje. "Influence of Attitudes on Willingness to Choose Time-of-Use Electricity Tariffs in Germany. Evidence from Factor Analysis." Energies 14, no. 17 (August 31, 2021): 5406. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14175406.
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Time-of-use (TOU) electricity tariffs are a demand side measure to ease balancing of demand and supply to cope with a rising share of renewables in a country’s electricity mix. In general, consumers require compensation for accepting these tariffs. This study analyzes how attitudes drive consumers’ willingness to choose a TOU tariff in Germany. To identify attitudinal profiles, I use an exploratory factor analysis on items capturing positive and negative attitudes towards TOU tariffs, climate change awareness, and belief in energy saving measures. I use these factors as predictors in an ordered logit specification to estimate consumers’ stated willingness to choose a TOU tariff. Three factors are significant: positive and negative attitudes towards TOU tariffs, and climate change awareness. These findings highlight that decision makers who aim at balancing demand and supply through the use of TOU tariffs should focus on informing consumers about the positive impacts of these tariffs on climate change mitigation, grid stability, and possible energy savings.
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Audu, N. P., and T. O. Apere. "The Evaluation of Maximum Tariffs in an Emerging Economy: The Nigerian Case." International Journal of Human Resource Studies 2, no. 3 (September 29, 2012): 207. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijhrs.v2i3.2472.
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Using the Cournot and Stackelberg theories of oligopolistic competition, the paper re-evaluate the importance of tariff ranking issue under a mixed oligopoly model with foreign competitors and asymmetric costs. We demonstrated that under Cournot theory, when the size of domestic private and foreign private firms becomes more unequally distributed, maximum–welfare tariff will exceed maximum–revenue tariff. The study also revealed that under Stackelberg theory, when the domestic government protects its domestic sector, it will levy higher maximum–welfare tariffs versus maximum–revenue tariffs. These two positions notwithstanding, when the Nigerian government decides to open its doors more for foreign competitors, it will need to levy higher maximum-revenue tariffs versus maximum–welfare tariffs. The findings of this paper remain valid whether the domestic public firm acts as a leader or a follower in the market.
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Ashton, Michael. "The Efficient Tariff: Systematically Balancing Security and Welfare Concerns." American Economist 36, no. 1 (March 1992): 44–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/056943459203600108.
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Imposing a tariff on imports of petroleum has two major effects that encourage conflicting public-policy responses. One effect is the well-documented welfare loss suffered by the domestic economy as a result of the tariff's distortional effects. The other effect is the potentially positive effect that a tariff can have on national security. When tariffs decrease, more of domestic demand is supplied by foreign suppliers—which increases the expected value of the economic damage caused by potential future embargoes. The author derives the equation for the “marginal disruption risk cost” and equates this to the marginal welfare cost to find an “efficient” tariff.
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Spearot, Alan. "Unpacking the Long-Run Effects of Tariff Shocks: New Structural Implications from Firm Heterogeneity Models." American Economic Journal: Microeconomics 8, no. 2 (May 1, 2016): 128–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/mic.20140015.
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I derive a novel solution for the general equilibrium effects of tariffs that is robust to heterogeneity across industries and countries, and is a function of only aggregate trade data and country-by-industry Pareto shape parameters. Using the model to evaluate tariff shocks, I show that while most countries lose by removing observed tariffs unilaterally, India, Japan, Korea, and the United States gain by doing so, which suggests inefficient tariff discrimination. In evaluating multilateral shocks, observed tariff cuts over 1994 –2000 benefit 69 percent of countries, with these benefits skewed toward developing nations. In contrast, removing all post-2000 tariffs benefit the developed. (JEL F12, F13, F14)
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Mitchell, AndrewD, and Tania Voon. "Tariff Negotiations and Renegotiations under the GATT and the WTO: Procedures and Practices. By Anwarul Hoda. [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001, 137, (Appendices) 136 and (Index) 36 pp. Hardback £45.00 net. ISBN 0–521–80449–3.]." Cambridge Law Journal 61, no. 2 (June 24, 2002): 463–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008197302501690.
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Oneof the most important achievements of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) to date has been a substantial reduction in the level of tariffs applied in international trade. The average tariff on industrial products has diminished from more than 40 per cent. in 1947 to less than 5 per cent. today. As a result of this success, multilateral negotiations within the WTO have begun to place more emphasis on non-tariff barriers. Nevertheless, tariffs remain an important issue. Many OECD countries, for example, continue to impose high tariffs on agricultural products and other products of particular interest to developing countries. The work programme adopted at the Fourth WTO Ministerial Conference held in Doha late last year provides for negotiations to improve market access for agricultural products and to reduce or eliminate tariffs on non-agricultural products and environmental goods.
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Greear, Emily K., and Andrew Muhammad. "Tariff Elimination and the Competitiveness of Wine-Exporting Countries in Japan." Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 50, no. 1 (February 8, 2021): 76–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/age.2020.25.
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AbstractBilateral trade agreements between Japan and major wine-exporting countries have resulted in tariff eliminations in Japan. This raises questions about how tariffs affect the competitiveness of wine-exporting countries. The generalized dynamic Rotterdam model was used in estimating Japanese wine demand by source. Estimates were then used to project the impact of tariffs on imports of Australian, Chilean, French, German, Italian, Spanish, and U.S. wine. Tariff reductions primarily benefit affected countries, with limited adverse effects on competing countries. The elimination of tariffs on U.S. wine should offset any losses from competing trade agreements.
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Gallarotti, Giulio M. "Toward a business-cycle model of tariffs." International Organization 39, no. 1 (1985): 155–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020818300004896.
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A modified interest-group model links movements in tariffs to changes in the level of economic activity within nations. This model is introduced and tested for tariff behavior in the 19th and early 20th centuries in three nations: the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. Empirical analysis lends strong support to the model's central thesis, that tariffs are sensitive to movements within a business cycle. Tariff changes occurring in the three nations, with the exception of British tariff increases, generally conform to the expectations of the model. Furthermore, business-cycle sensitivity provides an explanation of the behavior of tariffs superior to two prominent alternatives, those based on ideology and on hegemonic stability.
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Zadorozhniy, Vyacheslav, Ksenia Zyryankina, and Maksim Bakalov. "Forecasting rolling stock indicators in the market of transport services using the neural network method." E3S Web of Conferences 549 (2024): 04007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202454904007.
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The research is aimed at identifying patterns in the formation of tariffs, forecasting wagon rental rates and other indicators of the use of rolling stock using the neural network method. The process of tariff formation in the transport services market is investigated using the neural network method on the 1C platform. Various indicators of wagon use that affect the wagon rental rate are presented. They consider various approaches to tariff setting and propose principles for an optimal approach to setting tariffs in modern conditions. The results of the research can be applied in the further development of methods for forecasting and setting tariffs in railway transport. Keywords. railway tariff, wagon, rolling stock indicators, mathematical analysis, neural network method, forecasting.
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LABORDE, DAVID, WILL MARTIN, and DOMINIQUE VAN DER MENSBRUGGHE. "Implications of the Doha market access proposals for developing countries." World Trade Review 11, no. 1 (January 2012): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745611000437.
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AbstractThis paper uses detailed data on bound and applied tariffs to assess the consequences of the WTO's December 2008 Modalities for tariffs levied and faced by developing countries, and the welfare implications of these reforms. We find that the tiered formula for agriculture would halve tariffs in industrial countries and lower them more modestly in developing countries. In non-agricultural market access (NAMA), the formulas would reduce the tariff peaks facing developing countries and cut average industrial country tariffs by more than a third. We use a political-economy framework to assess the implications of flexibilities for the size of the tariff cuts and find they are likely to substantially reduce the outcome. However, despite the flexibilities, there are likely to be worthwhile gains, with applied tariffs facing developing countries cut by about 20% in agriculture and 28% in NAMA, and sizeable cuts in tariffs facing industrial countries. The welfare impacts of reform are evaluated using a new approach to aggregation that improves on the traditional, flawed approach of weighted-average tariffs. This substantially increases the estimated benefits of an agreement along the lines of these modalities, with estimated global income gains of up to $160 billion per year from market access reform.
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Tito, Maria D., and Ruoying Wang. "Misallocation in Open Economy." Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2021, no. 004 (January 29, 2021): 1–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/feds.2021.007.
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This paper estimates the impact of reducing export and import tariffs on firm input choices. In presence of borrowing constraints, lower export tariffs facilitate the reallocation of capital and labor inputs across firms, while a decline in import tariffs either tightens import competition or increases the availability of imported inputs; all three mechanisms suggest that a higher degree of openness should be associated with lower misallocation. To analyze the empirical relationship between openness and input misallocation, we draw on the annual surveys conducted by the Chinese National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) between 1998 and 2007. From the surveys, we con- struct firm-level measures of input misallocation that control for firm heterogeneity; we identify shocks to openness using industry tariff levels and firm trade shares. We find that firm facing higher tariffs in either import or export markets make less optimal input choices. We further decompose our analysis between input and output tariffs: our results suggest that the labor reallocation mainly occurs because of lower input tariffs, while the selection effect induced by changes in output tariffs does not necessarily cause more distorted firms to exit and, therefore, tends to have an insignificant effect on input allocation. Finally, we calculate the contribution of tariff changes towards aggregate misallocation and productivity: our results indicate that the impact of firm-level tariff reductions on aggregate misallocation and productivity was marginal in our sample period, but the presence of sizeable interactions between trade shocks and mis- allocation at the sector level suggests that our result should be interpreted as a lower bound of the overall effect.
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Kim, K. H., and F. W. Roush. "Strategic tariff equilibrium and optimal tariffs." Mathematical Social Sciences 15, no. 2 (April 1988): 105–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-4896(88)90017-0.
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PERES-CAJÍAS, JOSÉ ALEJANDRO. "Bolivian Tariff Policy during the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries: High Average Tariff and Unbalanced Regional Protection." Journal of Latin American Studies 49, no. 3 (October 24, 2016): 433–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x16001796.
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AbstractThis article demonstrates that Bolivian tariff policy during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was not as passive as previously assumed and that the average tariff ratio remained high. However, high average tariffs coexisted for a long time with free-entry rights for different products which represented the main economic activity of certain Bolivian regions. Furthermore, the competitiveness of products was sometimes mostly determined by the geographic fragmentation of the country and the uneven pattern of railway construction rather by than tariffs. Therefore, beyond its high average level, the protectionist effect of tariffs was sometimes constrained by institutional and geographical restrictions.
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Conlon, R. M. "An Overview of Protection of Australian Manufacturing: Past, Present and Future." Economic and Labour Relations Review 5, no. 1 (June 1994): 137–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/103530469400500112.
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Australia, and before Federation, the colonies, have long histories of tariff protection. However, by the end of this century tariffs for imports of most commodities will have been lowered to negligible levels. This paper briefly examines the history of the tariff and the changing structure of assistance to manufacturing in the 1980s and 1990s. As the tariff has been dismantled, a variety of alternative measures have been implemented. Thus, while the ‘old’ protectionism of tariffs on imports has been discredited, a ‘new’ form of protectionism — much to do with providing assistance for exports — has arisen to at least partially take its place. The protective effects of many of these measures is far less apparent and possibly more deleterious than the tariffs they replace.
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Maphosa, Michael, and Patrick Mabuza. "The Trade-Offs Between Pro-Poor and Cost-Reflective Tariffs in South Africa: A Regulatory Perspective." Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies 8, no. 6(J) (January 24, 2017): 206–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v8i6(j).1494.
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Abstract: This paper presents arguments for and against cost reflectivity and pro-poor tariff policy in South African electricity supply from a regulatory perspective. This debate has been ongoing for decades in developing countries; however, there is still no clear direction on how countries should approach these two important competing policy positions. There are those that argue that achieving cost-reflective tariffs will attract private sector investment into the electricity supply industry (ESI) that will lead to much needed competition and reduced electricity tariffs. However, there are also those who argue that cost-reflective tariffs will make it difficult to achieve government social objectives of universal access through pro-poor tariffs, as cost-reflective tariffs will be unaffordable to the majority of the population. The fundamental question is what should come first, between cost-reflective tariffs and pro-poor tariffs in a developing country context, specifically in South Africa. This paper therefore attempts to examine the real trade-offs between pro-poor tariff policies and cost-reflective tariffs. The study attempts to answer one critical question: How can the electricity sector attract local and foreign investors, without necessarily affecting government social objectives such as universal access to electricity? The study finds that electricity consumers, and in particular poor households, have historically benefited from relatively cheap electricity and that tariffs have not been cost reflective. In other words, there is a mismatch between tariffs and the underlying costs of supplying electricity in South Africa. It also finds competing expectations between poor consumers and utilities. Consumers expect to receive electricity at an affordable price, while utilities argue that a good, reliable electricity supply’s tariffs must be matched with costs. Lastly, the study finds that it is difficult to achieve cost reflective tariffs in the short run, in an environment characterised by a high number of consumers dependent on government social grants and cross-subsidies. The study therefore recommends a gradual movement towards cost-reflective tariffs, together with the introduction of competition and energy efficiency and demand side management (EEDSM), in order to minimise the impact on the poor.Keywords: Tariffs, pro-poor, cost reflectivity, electricity, consumers
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Schropp, Simon, Olim Latipov, Christian Lau, and Kornel Mahlstein. "Quantifying the Impact of the Latest US Tariff Sanctions on Russia: A Sectoral Analysis." Journal of World Trade 57, Issue 1 (February 1, 2023): 55–124. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2023003.
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In addition to the existing import ban on energy products (oil, gas, coal), the United States recently announced a new sanction package that imposes significantly higher import tariffs on 570 product groups from Russia. These tariff increases affect more than USD 2 billion in US imports from Russia. Using a sector-specific partial-equilibrium (PE) model, we quantify the impact of these US tariff increases. We find that the new tariffs affect 8.7% of total US imports from Russia and may decrease Russian welfare by USD 181 million per year, while imposing annual costs of USD 90 million on US consumers. Our sectoral analysis shows that the US’ choice of target sectors produces mixed results. On one hand, the sanctions cover dozens of sectors whose inclusion produce particularly large welfare losses to Russia and/or high welfare gains to the US Yet, for several target sectors higher tariffs result in zero harm to Russia, and/or greater harm to the US than to Russia. For example, higher tariffs for several selected sectors result in zero harm to Russia, and/or greater harm to the United States than to Russia. These and other insights may provide guidance for the design of future tariff sanctions by the European Union (EU) and other Allies. International trade, war in Ukraine, economic sanctions, import tariffs, economic impact, partial equilibrium, sectoral analysis, welfare analysis, pass-through, tariff revenue, Russia, United States, European Union
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Marbun, Sonia Hapsari, Dwi Febrianti, and Khairani Matondang. "Implementation of the GATT State Rates Policy on International Trade." Journal of Business Management and Economic Development 1, no. 01 (May 28, 2023): 55–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.59653/jbmed.v1i01.40.
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Tariff policy can be interpreted as a systematic arrangement of duties levied on goods and services that cross national borders. The purpose of this research is to find out how the implementation of tariffs or international agreements related to international trade, especially the General Tariffs and Trade (GATT) agreement. This research uses quantitative research methods through a descriptive research approach. The results of this study are GATT countries usually use a lot of tariff policies to protect domestic production and also to attract revenue to the country. Even though it is permissible, the use of these tariffs is still subject to GATT provisions and many rules and agreements issued by GATT.
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Okechukwu, Nwokoye Mathew, Machi Ignatus Okoye, Irene Onwuka Nkechi, and Ekwugha Juliet Chika. "The Impact of Tariffs on Nigerian Economy (2000-2020)." South Asian Journal of Social Studies and Economics 20, no. 3 (September 29, 2023): 180–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/sajsse/2023/v20i3722.
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This study examined the impact of tariffs on Nigeria's economic growth. It examines the extent to which tariffs have contributed to economic growth in Nigeria in 2000-2020. Tariffs, which are a form of tax or trade restrictions imposed on imported goods to discourage fledgling industries from international competition, can boost economic growth. The Ordinary Least Squares regression method was used to analyze the relationship between tariffs and economic growth. An econometric analysis was also used to determine the impact of tariff and other variables such as trade openness and exchange rate on economic growth in Nigeria. The results of the regression result showed that tariffs have a positive, statistically significant impact on economic growth in Nigeria. It was recommended that a trade policy be designed to improve the imposition of tariffs in Nigeria.
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Edwards, Terence Huw. "Tariffs, Horizontal Regulatory Standards and Protection against Foreign Competitors." Global Economy Journal 9, no. 2 (March 2009): 1850164. http://dx.doi.org/10.2202/1524-5861.1456.
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This paper focuses on a regulator's choice between setting a pure, horizontal technical barrier to trade (HTBT) or a tariff in a linear, Cournot duopoly, where a foreign firm competes with a local rival. Where a country is free to impose a tariff, it will not impose a HTBT. Only under a limited set of circumstances will the profit-shifting effect be sufficient to lead to total exclusion of the foreign firm: in other conditions, the country will set a tariff yielding some revenue. By contrast, if tariffs are constrained by international agreement, then the importing country will set an HTBT to exclude the foreign firm if and only if tariffs are reduced below a threshold level. Trade liberalisation agreements which only cover tariffs can reduce, rather than increase global welfare.
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Luan, Bowen. "Macroeconomic Effect of The U.S. Tariff on Steel and Aluminum." BCP Business & Management 23 (August 4, 2022): 890–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.54691/bcpbm.v23i.1469.
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In the context of deglobalization, the United States proposed a trade policy of imposing tariffs on steel and aluminum in March 2018. This paper first discusses the possible motivations behind the tariff levitation by the United States. It also analyzes the impact of US tariffs on its trading partners and itself under the unilateral tariff model and the bilateral tariff model. The conclusion of the analysis is that the impact of this US trade policy on the economy of steel and aluminum importing countries, especially in the long run, is not as pessimistic as imagined. And considering the impact of the tariffs, as well as the EU and China’s trade countermeasures on the U.S. economy, the U.S. should perhaps reassess what this policy has brought to the U.S.
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Chaudhry, Azam. "Tariffs, Trade and Economic Growth in a Model with Institutional Quality." LAHORE JOURNAL OF ECONOMICS 16, no. 2 (July 1, 2011): 31–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.35536/lje.2011.v16.i2.a2.
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This article shows how institutional quality can affect the relationship between trade and growth. Our model looks at an economy in which the export sector is a high-innovation sector. In this economy, a government that is politically threatened by innovation can use its tariff policy to block innovation and increase domestic revenues. In this case, higher tariffs reduce economic growth and the government faces a tradeoff: It can either (i) raise tariffs, collect greater rents, and increase stability; or (ii) it can reduce tariffs and increase long-run growth and instability. When the quality of a country’s institutions are reflected in the costs of increasing tariffs, it can be shown that countries with strong institutions gain more (in terms of growth) from trade than countries with weak institutions, due to the effect of institutions on trade policy. It is also possible to show that the quality of institutions in one country can spill over into another by affecting its trading partner’s growth rate of income. However, these results are reversed in the case where a country has a highly innovative domestic sector—this explains the tariff-growth paradox in which countries experience higher growth with higher tariffs in earlier stages of development, but higher growth with lower tariffs in later stages of development.
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Macchiaroli, Maria, Luigi Dolores, and Gianluigi De Mare. "Design the Water Tariff Structure: Application and Assessment of a Model to Balance Sustainability, Cost Recovery and Wise Use." Water 15, no. 7 (March 27, 2023): 1309. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w15071309.
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The sustainable management of water resources can be pursued through effective tariff policies capable of discouraging water wastefulness. Increasing Block Tariffs (IBT) represent a method of pricing the water service which consists of providing various tariff ranges, with a unit cost that increases as consumption increases. The definition of the consumption ranges and the relative tariffs must guarantee the right balance between the needs of the users and the need to protect the resource according to 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This study proposes an optimization model useful for ensuring the tariff structure complies with the guidelines dictated by the Integrated Text for Water Services Tariffs (TICSI), an Italian standard that aims to rationalize and level out the fee structure at the national level. The purpose of the model is to guarantee the sustainability of the tariffs for users, protect less well-off households, and, at the same time, to ensure that the fees grow with consumption in an optimal way for the operator, in compliance with the economic constraints imposed by the national authority (ARERA). The model, which consists of a non-linear function capable of minimizing the difference between the tariffs before and after TICSI’ rules implementation, was tested through a case study. Specifically, the optimal water tariffs for each consumption range were defined for an operator in Southern Italy. The proposed model makes it possible to integrate EU guidelines relating to “polluter pays” and the protection of water resources more effectively into the national regulatory framework.
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Zaki, Dina A., and Mohamed Hamdy. "A Review of Electricity Tariffs and Enabling Solutions for Optimal Energy Management." Energies 15, no. 22 (November 15, 2022): 8527. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15228527.
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Today, electricity tariffs play an essential role in the electricity retail market as they are the key factor for the decision-making of end-users. Additionally, tariffs are necessary for increasing competition in the electricity market. They have a great impact on load energy management. Moreover, tariffs are not taken as a fixed approach to expense calculations only but are influenced by many other factors, such as electricity generation, transmission, distribution costs, and governmental taxation. Thus, electricity pricing differs significantly between countries or between regions within a country. Improper tariff calculation methodologies in some areas have led to high-power losses, unnecessary investments, increased operational expenses, and environmental pollution due to the non-use of available sustainable energy resources. Due to the importance of electricity tariffs, the authors of this paper have been inspired to review all electricity tariff designs used worldwide. In this paper, 103 references from the last ten years are reviewed, showing a detailed comparison between different tariff designs and demonstrating their main advantages and drawbacks. Additionally, this paper reviews the utilized electricity tariffs in different countries, focusing on one of the most important countries in the Middle East and North Africa regions (Egypt). Finally, some recommended solutions based upon the carried-out research are discussed and applied to the case study for electricity tariff improvement in this region. This review paper can help researchers become aware of all the electricity tariff designs used in various countries, which can lead to their design improvements by using suitable software technologies. Additionally, it will increase end-users’ awareness in terms of deciding on the best electricity retail markets as well as optimizing their energy usage.
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ZHANG, Ying, Wenmei KANG, Mou WANG, and Li ZHUANG. "Carbon Tariffs’ Impacts on China’s Economy and Carbon Emission: A Study Based on META-Regression Analysis." Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies 07, no. 03 (September 2019): 1950012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s234574811950012x.
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During the implementation of the measures for reducing carbon emissions, to protect the international competitiveness of their carbon-intensive products, some developed countries in the name of preventing carbon leakage have deliberately avoided the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR)” prescribed in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and worked actively to propose the collection of carbon tariffs to make developing countries share the responsibilities of reducing global emissions. The existing studies tend to confirm that carbon tariffs, once put into practice, will directly affect the export trade of developing countries represented by China, and particularly exert a significant negative impact on the export trade of those countries’ carbon-intensive industries. This paper used META-regression analysis to summarize and quantitatively analyze the results of an empirical research that uses computable general equilibrium (CGE) models to research on the impacts brought by carbon tariff policy to China’s economy and carbon emissions, finding that the sample characteristics, model specification and the assumption about carbon tariff rates in the research exert direct impacts on the final conclusions of empirical stimulation. Although carbon tariffs are still in the proposal stage, due to the vaccum of international governace in this area, the developed countries have a room to carry out the policies related to carbon tariffs or invisible carbon tariffs. Studies show that carbon tariff policy will deal a blow to China’s export trade and further undermine China’s overall economic output and welfare level, while producing very limited effects on carbon emissions reduction. Therefore, the Chinese Government should stick to its basic position as resolving carbon tariffs-related issues under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, actively promote relevant international governance mechanisms, formulate targeted countermeasures, improve the export structure of industrial products, optimize industrial structure and also stay alert to some developed countries’ attempt to avoid the disputes over carbon tariffs and use some invisible carbon tariffs to set up new trade barriers.
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Shaul Hamid, Mohammed Faiz, and Dr Mohamed Aslam. "Utilization of Preferential Tariff under ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA): Case of Malaysia." Journal of Global Economy 11, no. 4 (December 31, 2015): 273–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1956/jge.v11i4.413.
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Reducing numbers of tariff lines to 0% and increase in intra-regional trade are often indicators of success of ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA). With more members liberalizing their economies and actively reducing the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) rates, the preferential tariff under AFTA would have a minimal impact on trade patterns unless the preferential tariff treatment is effective. Based on the value of Certificate of Origin (COO) and its export to ASEAN countries, this paper plans to estimate and analyse the utilization of tariffs under AFTA in the case of Malaysia for the period of 2007-2011 to examine the effectiveness of preferential tariffs under AFTA. Analysis is expanded with a “MFN proxy†by excluding Singapore. The results show that the utilization rates remain low and this suggests that preferential tariff rates are only used for the similar products and there will always be a limited level of utilization as some product lines were liberated under MFN tariffs.
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Fayziyev, Makhmanazar, Yunus Ochilov, Komoliddin Nimatov, and Ruslan Mustayev. "Analysis of payment priority for electricity consumed in industrial enterprises on the base of classified tariffs." E3S Web of Conferences 384 (2023): 01039. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202338401039.
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The following issues are considered and resolved in the article: the advantage of using tariffs stratified by time to increase the efficiency of electricity consumption by industrial enterprises; Analysis of the tariff system in the electric power system of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the essence of the effectiveness of the application of differentiated tariffs; In order to justify the application of time-differentiated tariffs, the electricity consumption of the industrial enterprise is analyzed; parameters of electricity consumption are optimized according to different tariffs. In order to regulate the load schedule of the energy system using time-graded tariffs in the morning and evening “peak” periods, a method of reducing the load in "peak" periods is proposed in exchange for increasing energy consumption in the night periods.
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Firdawati Firdawati, Ambok Pangiuk, and Marissa Putriana. "TINJAUAN EKONOMI SYARIAH TERKAIT DAMPAK DARI KENAIKAN TARIF PDAM DI KOTA JAMBI." Jurnal Kajian dan Penalaran Ilmu Manajemen 2, no. 1 (November 29, 2023): 74–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.59031/jkpim.v2i1.275.
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The method used by the author in this study is a qualitative method, this method is used to observe, understand and describe a study about the increase in tariffs for PDAM Tirta Mayang in Jambi city. The drinking water tariff is the cost of drinking water services that must be paid by the customer for each use of drinking water provided by the organizer. In the Regulation of the Minister of Home Affairs Number 23 of 2006 concerning Technical Guidelines and Procedures for Determining Drinking Water Tariffs at Regional Drinking Water Companies (PDAMs). The tariff for the level of basic drinking water needs must be affordable by customers whose purchasing power is equal to or less than the Provincial Minimum Wage. In the event that household expenditures to meet basic drinking water standards do not exceed 4% (four percent) of the income of the customer community, the tariff meets the affordability criteria. Tariffs must be applied fairly. the calculation and determination of drinking water tariffs is based on the principles of affordability and fairness. Quality of service, full cost recovery, efficiency of water use, transparency, accountability and protection of raw water.
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Khan, Muhammad Arif, and Shahnawaz Muhammad Khan. "US China Trade War: Implications for the World." Global International Relations Review V, no. II (June 30, 2022): 10–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.31703/girr.2022(v-ii).02.
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In 2018, a trade war started between USA and China. Both the countries started to apply tariffs against each other. In March 2018, the USA applied tariffs on imports from China. Then in return, China also applied tariffs on a few products. With time, this trade war between both economies raised, and its further intensification made both countries suffer through imposed tariffs. Tariff wars between the United States and China have the potential to undermine global financial stability. As the world's biggest economies, China and USA have been merchandising products and services on a worldwide scale. After these countries retaliate,the tariff war will have an impact on the global distribution chain, international trade, the economy, and equity markets. The study is a qualitative-based critical analysis of the reasons and effects of this trade war between the two economic giants. It also explicitly highlights the environmental as well as economic impacts on the world community.
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Pereira, Thales Augusto Zamberlan. "Tariffs and the textile trade between Brazil and Britain (1808-1860)." Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo) 51, no. 2 (June 2021): 311–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0101-41615124tzp.
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Abstract The commercial treaty with Britain in 1810, along the authorization of foreign trade in ports in 1808, are among the most important institutional changes in nineteenth century Brazil. The 1810 treaty lowered tariffs for British manufactures while maintaining high tariffs in Britain for Brazilian sugar and coffee. These terms are generally viewed as disastrous for the Brazilian economy, although there is still limited quantitative information about how much the tariff affected the demand for British imports. This paper provides new qualitative and quantitative evidence on the operation and effect of Brazil’s imports tariffs in the period. I find that the effect of the tariffs is different from what traditional literature assumes. First, the monetary instability in the 1820s and conflicts over product price assessment often led the de facto tariff to be higher than the 15 percent established by the treaty. Second, even with higher rates, quantitative analysis shows they did not have decrease imports of British textiles.
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Ezeala-Harrison, Fidel, and John Baffoe-Bonnie. "Do Protective Tariffs Influence Firms’ Competitive Stance? Application of a Competitive Leverage Model in The Presence of Simultaneous Equation and Sample Selectivity Bias." Journal of Developing Areas 58, no. 4 (September 2024): 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jda.2024.a931313.
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ABSTRACT: We propose a Competitive Leverage model, and apply it to analyze the impact of tariffs on the attitudes of domestic import-competing firms, especially regarding their disincentives to maintain a Competitive Stance against foreign competitors in the domestic market. We propose that tariffs are a disincentive to the pursuit and maintenance of production efficiency in firms and industries. When countries implement tariff protection for their domestic firms, the most common excuse sounds reasonable, except that it is also economically flawed. While the short-run impacts of such a measure might seem plausible, its long-term effects appear to be less than favorable, and may, in fact, turn out to be damaging to the economy. The paper applies the competitive leverage concept in a unique way to highlight how tariffs distort the output levels of domestic firms, and gives an empirical analysis of the model, using USA data to verify the predictions of the model. Particularly, we develop a Cournot-competition type Competitive Leverage model, and use it to examine the role played by tariffs as a disincentive to a typical firm’s pursuit and maintenance of production efficiency. The competitive leverage model is formulated and applied to verify the effects of tariff protection from the typical domestic firm’s strategic interaction standpoint. We further apply cross-sectional data to carry out an empirical analysis of the model, to verify how tariffs impact the domestic firm’s output and pricing decisions. Our findings would enable us to contribute to the debate about the need to remove protective tariffs, on the grounds that tariffs do not only enable domestic firms to operate inefficiently, but also tends to distort the output and pricing outcomes that would otherwise have been realized in the free market. The results from the study are used to propose some major policy implications of imposing tariff protection, among which are that there is need for implementation of more deliberately sustained Research and development program on the part of domestic firms in the economy, to enable them withstand vigorous competition in a free-trade world. Also, since protective tariffs significantly increase firms’ profit rates, which in turn enables them to unduly earn and accumulate economic rents that amount to inefficiencies and distortions in free-market prices and quantities outcomes, governments should always resist any pressures from big businesses to impose protective tariffs against competition from international rivals. Yet a clear public policy implication from this paper is that, at the macro level, as the results suggest that a government policy that aims at protecting domestic firms through imposition of tariffs may have an adverse effect on the firms’ competitive stance in the industry, a practical message is for the government to impose only a moderate tariff at the most, if it must, especially as it relates to agricultural products.
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Reddy, Prashant, and Manuela Veloso. "Negotiated Learning for Smart Grid Agents: Entity Selection based on Dynamic Partially Observable Features." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 27, no. 1 (June 29, 2013): 1313–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v27i1.8481.
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An attractive approach to managing electricity demand in the Smart Grid relies on real-time pricing (RTP) tariffs, where customers are incentivized to quickly adapt to changes in the cost of supply. However, choosing amongst competitive RTP tariffs is difficult when tariff prices change rapidly. The problem is further complicated when we assume that the price changes for a tariff are published in real-time only to those customers who are currently subscribed to that tariff, thus making the prices partially observable. We present models and learning algorithms for autonomous agents that can address the tariff selection problem on behalf of customers. We introduce 'Negotiated Learning', a general algorithm that enables a self-interested sequential decision-making agent to periodically select amongst a variable set of 'entities' (e.g., tariffs) by negotiating with other agents in the environment to gather information about dynamic partially observable entity 'features' (e.g., tariff prices) that affect the entity selection decision. We also contribute a formulation of the tariff selection problem as a 'Negotiable Entity Selection Process', a novel representation. We support our contributions with intuitive justification and simulation experiments based on real data on an open Smart Grid simulation platform.
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Yusuf, Adriyanto, Ishak Ishak, and Yorizal Putra. "EVALUASI TARIF ANGKUTAN UMUM BERDASARKAN BIAYA OPERASIONAL KENDARAAN (STUDI KASUS ANGKOT KUD TRAYEK BUKITTINGGI - SUNGAI PUA)." Ensiklopedia Research and Community Service Review 2, no. 1 (November 4, 2022): 40–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.33559/err.v2i1.1356.
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Public transportation is used by the public in activities to move goods or people from one place to another. In using public transport services, people pay tariffs according to government. Changes in economy give an impact on public transportation tariffs. Tariffs of public transportation should match the BOK's calculations analysis. The study conducted a calculation analysis of BOK in determined tariffs public transportation of KUD route of Sungai Pua – Bukittinggi. An analysis based on BOK has been obtained there is a discrepancy between tariffs by government and in the field based on BOK. Tariffs that determined by government and in the fields in amount of Rp. 5.000,00 and the result based on BOK, tariffs on Monday about Rp. 4539.94 until Rp. 4.969,02 and Saturday about Rp. 4173,99 until Rp. 4.969,02. It can concluded that the differences between tariffs, determine by government and in the field with tariffs based on BOK calculations about Rp. 271,65 on Monday and Rp. 493,80 on Saturday. The aim of this study are for public transportation entrepreneurs to provide prime services to people who use public transportation and government are expected to issue policies that will increase the interest of public to use public transportation services. Keywords : Tariff Evaluation, Public Transportation, BOK.
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Song, Jingyu. "Why Tariff and Trade War?" Finance and Market 5, no. 4 (December 22, 2020): 272. http://dx.doi.org/10.18686/fm.v5i4.2693.
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<p>By see the tariffs and trade wars in different time periods, each countries’ aim to start the trade war and tariff are protecting themselves. Analyzing and comparing the tariff acts in the colonial and antebellum period, the trade conflicts between the United States and Japan in the 1980s, and 2019’s China-United States trade war, we can see how tariffs work the same but also different in different time periods. </p>
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Haberkorn, Flora, Trang Hoang, Gordon Lewis, Carter Mix, and Dylan Moore. "Global trade patterns in the wake of the 2018-2019 U.S.-China tariff hikes." FEDS Notes, no. 2024-04-12-2 (April 2024): None. http://dx.doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.3464.
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In 2018, the U.S. government announced bilateral tariff increases on a number of Chinese goods. Thus began a tit-for-tat exchange of increasing bilateral tariffs between the U.S. and China until, by the end of 2019, most of the goods traded between the U.S. and China were subject to additional tariffs. In this note, we use Census and UN Comtrade data to study the effects of the 2018-19 U.S.-China tariff hikes on global trade patterns.
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Fajgelbaum, Pablo D., Pinelopi K. Goldberg, Patrick J. Kennedy, and Amit K. Khandelwal. "The Return to Protectionism*." Quarterly Journal of Economics 135, no. 1 (November 28, 2019): 1–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz036.
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Abstract After decades of supporting free trade, in 2018 the United States raised import tariffs and major trade partners retaliated. We analyze the short-run impact of this return to protectionism on the U.S. economy. Import and retaliatory tariffs caused large declines in imports and exports. Prices of imports targeted by tariffs did not fall, implying complete pass-through of tariffs to duty-inclusive prices. The resulting losses to U.S. consumers and firms that buy imports was $51 billion, or 0.27% of GDP. We embed the estimated trade elasticities in a general-equilibrium model of the U.S. economy. After accounting for tariff revenue and gains to domestic producers, the aggregate real income loss was $7.2 billion, or 0.04% of GDP. Import tariffs favored sectors concentrated in politically competitive counties, and the model implies that tradeable-sector workers in heavily Republican counties were the most negatively affected due to the retaliatory tariffs. JEL Code: F1.
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Schnietz, Karen. "Democrats' 1916 Tariff Commission: Responding to Dumping Fears and Illustrating the Consumer Costs of Protectionism." Business History Review 72, no. 1 (1998): 1–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3116594.
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The 1916 Tariff Commission, created to provide expert analyses of tariffs, is an example of Progressive-Era reliance on technical analysis. However, the Commission was motivated not only by a desire to improve technical understanding of tariffs, but also by distinctly political goals. President Woodrow Wilson and Treasury Secretary McAdoo adopted this Republican invention in response to pressure to prevent potential foreign “dumping” after the First World War. Congressional Democrats supported the Tariff Commission for this and an additional reason: they hoped Commission analyses of the consumer welfare costs of protectionism would undermine future electoral support for Republican high-tariff candidates.
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Schreck, Sebastian, Robin Sudhoff, Sebastian Thiem, and Stefan Niessen. "On the Importance of Grid Tariff Designs in Local Energy Markets." Energies 15, no. 17 (August 26, 2022): 6209. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15176209.
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Local Energy Markets (LEMs) were recently proposed as a measure to coordinate an increasing amount of distributed energy resources on a distribution grid level. A variety of market models for LEMs are currently being discussed; however, a consistent analysis of various proposed grid tariff designs is missing. We address this gap by formulating a linear optimization-based market matching algorithm capable of modeling a variation of grid tariff designs. A comprehensive simulative study is performed for yearly simulations of a rural, semiurban, and urban grids in Germany, focusing on electric vehicles, heat pumps, battery storage, and photovoltaics in residential and commercial buildings. We compare energy-based grid tariffs with constant, topology-dependent and time-variable cost components and power-based tariffs to a benchmark case. The results show that grid tariffs with power fees show a significantly higher potential for the reduction of peak demand and feed-in (30–64%) than energy fee-based tariffs (8–49%). Additionally, we show that energy-based grid tariffs do not value the flexibility of assets such as electric vehicles compared to inflexible loads. A postprocessing of market results valuing the reduction of power peaks is proposed, enabling a compensation for the usage of asset flexibility.
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Muratov, Khakim, Abdusaid Isakov, Kamoliddin Kadirov, and Alijon Kushev. "Investments reduction on developing the generating capacity with differentiated electricity tariffs." E3S Web of Conferences 402 (2023): 05019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202340205019.
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The article presents the problems of cost reduction based on the use of a differentiated tariff in the power system. Information on the economic feasibility of the implementation and rational use of differentiated tariffs for various power systems is presented, concerning the introduction of one-rate and two-rate tariffs based on short-term and low-cost measures. It is shown that the transition to a differentiated tariff system plays an important role in increasing the energy efficiency in large industrial enterprises.
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Lummi, Kimmo, Antti Mutanen, and Pertti Järventausta. "Calculation Methodology to Determine Electricity Distribution Tariffs Using an Approach Based on Cost Causation." Energies 17, no. 13 (July 8, 2024): 3348. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en17133348.
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The cost reflectivity of electricity distribution network tariffs has been debated in several countries, and various ways to enhance it have been investigated in recent years. However, the recent academic literature regarding the approach based on cost causation has a clear gap because no case studies show how distribution network tariffs can be determined in practice for large customer groups. This article offers a calculation methodology to determine distribution network tariffs based on cost causation along with a case study where unit prices are determined for the tariff structures still widely used today using the data for two separate network areas being operated by two Finnish distribution system operators (DSOs) in an unbundled electricity market environment. The results of the case study show that the total differences between the target and the realized turnovers in both investigated networks are smaller than 1%, which means almost a full cost recovery. In addition to traditional tariff structures, the proposed calculation methodology can also be modified to design and determine other pricing schemes. The need for systematic calculation processes is growing to improve the cost reflectivity of present tariffs and adapt to the needs of the evolving operating environment, novel tariff structures, and new emerging customer groups.