Journal articles on the topic 'Tariff Developing countries'
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1
Abbott, Philip, and B. Adair Morse. "Tariff Rate Quota Implementation and Administration by Developing Countries." Agricultural and Resource Economics Review 29, no. 1 (April 2000): 115–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1068280500001490.
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Tariff rate quota administration and implementation are empirically evaluated for the fourteen developing countries notifying the WTO of the use of TRQs. FAO trade data, UNCTAD data on applied tariffs and the WTO notifications permit us to assess underfill of quotas, discrimination among exporters, use of state trading as an implementation mechanism, and the extent of protection under these TRQs. Substantial liberalization was found, generally due to use of low MFN tariffs rather than through TRQs permitting greater market access. High tariff bindings and endogenous quotas allow these countries to pursue flexible trade regimes within their WTO commitments.
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Kemal, A. R., Musleh-ud Din, and Ejaz Ghani. "Non-agricultural Market Access: A South Asian Perspective." Pakistan Development Review 44, no. 4II (December 1, 2005): 879–900. http://dx.doi.org/10.30541/v44i4iipp.879-900.
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Despite the fact that the WTO has helped to reduce the overall level of tariffs with increased transparency, a majority of the developing countries with the capacity to increase exports of labour intensive manufactures continue to face significant barriers in accessing foreign markets. Tariff rates applied by the developed countries for textile and clothing and leather for instance are much higher than those on other manufacturing products such as electronics, computers and telecom equipment, thus indicating a clear discrimination against exports of the developing countries. Moreover, tariff peaks, tariff escalation, tariff rate quotas and other non-tariff measures including antidumping duties, countervailing duties, and safeguard measures to protect against serious injury from import surges, allowed under the WTO, have become major impediments to market access for developing countries exports.
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LABORDE, DAVID, WILL MARTIN, and DOMINIQUE VAN DER MENSBRUGGHE. "Implications of the Doha market access proposals for developing countries." World Trade Review 11, no. 1 (January 2012): 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745611000437.
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AbstractThis paper uses detailed data on bound and applied tariffs to assess the consequences of the WTO's December 2008 Modalities for tariffs levied and faced by developing countries, and the welfare implications of these reforms. We find that the tiered formula for agriculture would halve tariffs in industrial countries and lower them more modestly in developing countries. In non-agricultural market access (NAMA), the formulas would reduce the tariff peaks facing developing countries and cut average industrial country tariffs by more than a third. We use a political-economy framework to assess the implications of flexibilities for the size of the tariff cuts and find they are likely to substantially reduce the outcome. However, despite the flexibilities, there are likely to be worthwhile gains, with applied tariffs facing developing countries cut by about 20% in agriculture and 28% in NAMA, and sizeable cuts in tariffs facing industrial countries. The welfare impacts of reform are evaluated using a new approach to aggregation that improves on the traditional, flawed approach of weighted-average tariffs. This substantially increases the estimated benefits of an agreement along the lines of these modalities, with estimated global income gains of up to $160 billion per year from market access reform.
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Spearot, Alan. "Unpacking the Long-Run Effects of Tariff Shocks: New Structural Implications from Firm Heterogeneity Models." American Economic Journal: Microeconomics 8, no. 2 (May 1, 2016): 128–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/mic.20140015.
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I derive a novel solution for the general equilibrium effects of tariffs that is robust to heterogeneity across industries and countries, and is a function of only aggregate trade data and country-by-industry Pareto shape parameters. Using the model to evaluate tariff shocks, I show that while most countries lose by removing observed tariffs unilaterally, India, Japan, Korea, and the United States gain by doing so, which suggests inefficient tariff discrimination. In evaluating multilateral shocks, observed tariff cuts over 1994 –2000 benefit 69 percent of countries, with these benefits skewed toward developing nations. In contrast, removing all post-2000 tariffs benefit the developed. (JEL F12, F13, F14)
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WANG, Mou. "International Governance on Carbon Tariff and Its Vacuum in International Regime." Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies 01, no. 01 (December 2013): 1350008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2345748113500085.
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Drawing on the idea that countries are eligible to implement differentiated emission reduction policies based on their respective capabilities, some parties of UNFCCC attempt to weaken the principle of “Common but differentiated responsibilities(CBDR)” and impose carbon tariff on international trade. This initiative is in fact another camouflage to burden developing countries with emission cut obligation, which has no doubt undermined the development rights of developing countries. This paper defines Carbon Tariff as border measures that target import goods with embodied carbon emission. It can be import tariffs or other domestic tax measures that adjust border tax, which includes plain import tariffs and export rebates, border tax adjustment, emission quota and permit etc. For some developed countries, carbon tariffs mean to sever trade protectionism and to build trade barriers. Its theoretical arguments like “loss of comparative advantage”, “carbon leakage decreases environmental effectiveness” and “theoretical model bases” are pseudo-propositions without international consensus. Carbon tariff has become an intensively debated issue due to its duality of climate change and trade, but neither UNFCCC nor WTO has clarified this issue or has indicated a clear statement in this regard. As a result, it allows some parties to take advantage of this loophole and escape its international climate change obligation. Carbon tariff is an issue arising from global climate governance. To promote the cooperation of global climate governance and safeguard the social and economic development of developing countries, a fair and justified climate change regime and international trade institution should be established, and the settlement of the carbon tariff issue should be addressed within these frameworks. This paper argues that the international governance of carbon tariff should in cooperation with other international agreements; however, principles and guidelines regarding this issue should be developed under the UNFCCC. Based on these principles and guidelines, WTO can develop related technical operation provisions.
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WANG, Mou, Wen ZHANG, and Junyan LIU. "Disguised Carbon Tariff: Concept and Its Governance." Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies 02, no. 02 (December 2014): 1450017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2345748114500171.
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Carbon tariff is a trade issue that is of great concern among the international community. The South and the North have big disputes on this issue because of the trade interests attached to it. Developing countries oppose to almost any policies and measures concerning carbon tariff. Hence, some countries seek alternative approaches to achieve similar effects of carbon tariff through more covert technical approaches, such as setting up production standards, carbon labeling, etc. This paper summarizes these covert approaches as "disguised carbon tariff", and defines them as policies and measures that can achieve similar effects as carbon tariff. These disguised carbon tariffs, although not levied at borders, impose the same restrictions on export products and services from developing countries. Disguised carbon tariff has diverse forms, existing in different regions, and has evolved into different new kinds. The governance of disguised carbon tariff requires reinforcing the leading position of the UNFCCC on the issue of carbon emission governance. Relevant international discussions on carbon emission issues should give high priority and respect to the principles in the UNFCCC, especially the "common but differentiated responsibilities" principle. Responsibilities and obligations between the developed and developing countries on tackling climate change should be treated differently. And an international cooperation model that is based on mutual trust between the South and the North should be established to achieve good environmental and climate governance.
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Mburamatare, Daniel, William K. Gboney, and Jean De Dieu Hakizimana. "Electricity Tariff Design “Theoretical Concepts Vs Practices”: Review of Tariff Design Approaches in East Africa - Case Studies of Rwanda, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania." International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy 12, no. 5 (September 27, 2022): 260–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.13294.
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This paper presents a comparative analysis between the theoretical concepts of tariffs design methodologies and tariff design practices in developing countries especially in East African countries including Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. The theoretical concepts impose regulatory principles to be followed by the utilities for a fair and efficient tariff. A well-defined and appropriate tariff structure must balance the financial sustainability of the sector on the one hand and the well-being of various segments of society on the other. Even if utilities in regulated markets, especially in East African Countries are currently supposed to apply dynamic pricing models, their governments are still providing significant subsidies and this can create operational inefficiencies. In addition, inappropriate dynamic pricing models can lead to cross subsidization between customers which violate the equity or non-discrimination principle of a good tariff which discourages use by the overcharged and promotes overconsumption by the subsidized. The work presented in this paper evaluate the performance of different methodologies used by developing countries to set electricity prices against the theoretical concepts of electricity dynamic pricing. It also highlights the opportunities and challenges to be addressed in order to set efficient and appropriate tariffs. The conclusion and policy recommendations are provided.
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Ranjan, Prabhash. "Industrial Tariff Reduction: Why the Best Might Still Turn Out to Be the Worst?" Journal of World Trade 42, Issue 5 (October 1, 2008): 953–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2008038.
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The issue of tariff reduction modality in negotiations on non–agricultural market access (NAMA) in the World Trade Organization (WTO) assumes importance in light of the role that industrial tariffs play in the industrial policy of many developing countries. This article analyzes the tariff reduction modality in NAMA in light of the basic principle of less than full reciprocity in reduction commitments that has been recognized as an integral component of NAMA negotiations in the Doha ministerial declaration, the General Council decision of 1 August 2004 and the Hong Kong Declaration. The article interprets less than full reciprocity in the NAMA negotiations and discusses the different tariff reduction formulas that could be used to fulfil the mandate of less than full reciprocity. It also provides a critique of the proposed tariff reduction modality given in the NAMA document issued on 8 February 2008. The article shows that the proposed tariff reduction modality with the proposed set of coefficients for developed and developing countries will fail in honouring the less than full reciprocity principle in reduction commitments.
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Weerth, Carsten. "Tariffs of the World: Are Customs Duties Really Growing Unimportant?" Global Trade and Customs Journal 4, Issue 2 (February 1, 2009): 53–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2009008.
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Some scientists and authorities are arguing that tariffs are growing more and more unimportant since eight GATT/WTOTariff– Rounds have resulted in tremendous reductions of the original tariff rates in the late 1940ies. The Non–Tariff–Measures however are gaining more importance. A WCO–background–paper has been published in September 2008 which shows the amount of revenue of a state that is generated by customs duties. The results are amazing. Tariffs are not important any more for developed states however revenue from customs duties is of very much importance to the (least) developing countries. The WCO–background–paper is based on data of 142 countries, territories and economic unions (all referred to as ‘countries’).
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Manushina, A. P., and A. V. Efimov. "The Role of the Eaeu Tariff Preferences Provided to the Goods of Developing Countries in Modern World Trade." International Trade and Trade Policy, no. 3 (October 8, 2019): 124–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.21686/2410-7395-2019-3-124-136.
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Nowadays the trade policy of different countries is characterized by an increased spread of preferential trade regimes. These regimes serve as the initial stage of the creation of integration groups, contribute to the solution of economic and political problems. A striking example of the implementation of preferential trade regimes is the practice of granting tariff preferences, including to developing countries. These preferences are the benefits of the customs tariff in the implementation of trade and political relations with foreign countries and are provided in the form of a reduction in the rate of import customs duty on goods originating from developing countries-users of the Unified system of tariff preferences of the Eurasian economic Union (EAEU USTP). The article considers the role of tariff preferences in modern world trade. The study was conducted on the example of developing countries-using of the EAEU USTP. The article analyzes the practice of granting tariff preferences to developing countries, as well as the features of declaring goods originating from these countries.The relevance of the article lies in the fact that today the role of tariff preferences in the trade of the EAEU with third countries is constantly growing, stimulating foreign trade turnover. The findings of the study can be used to adjust the list of developing countries-users of the EAEU USTP and the list of preferential goods, taking into account the peculiarities of the development of modern world trade.
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ZHANG, Ying, Wenmei KANG, Mou WANG, and Li ZHUANG. "Carbon Tariffs’ Impacts on China’s Economy and Carbon Emission: A Study Based on META-Regression Analysis." Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies 07, no. 03 (September 2019): 1950012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s234574811950012x.
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During the implementation of the measures for reducing carbon emissions, to protect the international competitiveness of their carbon-intensive products, some developed countries in the name of preventing carbon leakage have deliberately avoided the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR)” prescribed in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and worked actively to propose the collection of carbon tariffs to make developing countries share the responsibilities of reducing global emissions. The existing studies tend to confirm that carbon tariffs, once put into practice, will directly affect the export trade of developing countries represented by China, and particularly exert a significant negative impact on the export trade of those countries’ carbon-intensive industries. This paper used META-regression analysis to summarize and quantitatively analyze the results of an empirical research that uses computable general equilibrium (CGE) models to research on the impacts brought by carbon tariff policy to China’s economy and carbon emissions, finding that the sample characteristics, model specification and the assumption about carbon tariff rates in the research exert direct impacts on the final conclusions of empirical stimulation. Although carbon tariffs are still in the proposal stage, due to the vaccum of international governace in this area, the developed countries have a room to carry out the policies related to carbon tariffs or invisible carbon tariffs. Studies show that carbon tariff policy will deal a blow to China’s export trade and further undermine China’s overall economic output and welfare level, while producing very limited effects on carbon emissions reduction. Therefore, the Chinese Government should stick to its basic position as resolving carbon tariffs-related issues under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, actively promote relevant international governance mechanisms, formulate targeted countermeasures, improve the export structure of industrial products, optimize industrial structure and also stay alert to some developed countries’ attempt to avoid the disputes over carbon tariffs and use some invisible carbon tariffs to set up new trade barriers.
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Jiang, Wanlin, and Zhining Zhang. "The Impact of Trade Policies on Promoting Growth in Developing Countries." BCP Business & Management 23 (August 4, 2022): 543–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.54691/bcpbm.v23i.1401.
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This study analyzes the successfulness of four categories of policies, which are tariff reduction, infrastructure development, business investment, and educational advancement in the growth of developing countries, shown by GDP and employment as the indicators. By predicting the impact of the tariff reduction model on trade and analyzing the theory of the implication of import and export volumes on economic growth, it is concluded that there is no direct correlation between tariff reductions and GDP growth. Data suggest that the present relationship between educational development and economic growth is negative, but the literature also studies that the results of GDP growth need to be shown in the long term, and it is difficult to derive long-term effects from the example chosen in the study. As for the second indicator of growth, which is employment, the overall impact of tariff reduction and education enhancement policies tend to be positive, even though the literature suggests conflicting views on the causal relationship between all four policies and employment. While empirical results show that the stimulation of infrastructure investment and business investment shows a significant positive correlation with GDP growth in each country.
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Levikov, G. "Multimodal Container Transport Tariff Rules: Impact on Developing Countries*." Ocean Yearbook Online 6, no. 1 (1986): 149–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/221160086x00112.
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Chao, Chi-Chur, and Eden S. H. Yu. "Foreign-Investment Tax and Tariff Policies in Developing Countries." Review of International Economics 5, no. 1 (February 1997): 47–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9396.00038.
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Mitchell, AndrewD, and Tania Voon. "Tariff Negotiations and Renegotiations under the GATT and the WTO: Procedures and Practices. By Anwarul Hoda. [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001, 137, (Appendices) 136 and (Index) 36 pp. Hardback £45.00 net. ISBN 0–521–80449–3.]." Cambridge Law Journal 61, no. 2 (June 24, 2002): 463–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008197302501690.
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Oneof the most important achievements of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO) to date has been a substantial reduction in the level of tariffs applied in international trade. The average tariff on industrial products has diminished from more than 40 per cent. in 1947 to less than 5 per cent. today. As a result of this success, multilateral negotiations within the WTO have begun to place more emphasis on non-tariff barriers. Nevertheless, tariffs remain an important issue. Many OECD countries, for example, continue to impose high tariffs on agricultural products and other products of particular interest to developing countries. The work programme adopted at the Fourth WTO Ministerial Conference held in Doha late last year provides for negotiations to improve market access for agricultural products and to reduce or eliminate tariffs on non-agricultural products and environmental goods.
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ZHU, LEI, LIANBIAO CUI, and JOACHIM SCHLEICH. "DESIGNING A GLOBALLY ACCEPTABLE CARBON TAX SCHEME TO ADDRESS COMPETITIVENESS AND LEAKAGE CONCERNS." Climate Change Economics 11, no. 02 (May 2020): 2050008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2010007820500086.
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To address competitiveness and leakage concerns in international climate policy, this paper proposes a differentiated carbon tax scheme (DCT), which largely preserves the relative competitive positions of developed and developing countries. The paper first presents a theoretical model from which to derive the DCT. Then, employing a global trade analysis model, competitiveness and leakage effects under a DCT are simulated and contrasted to those of a unilateral carbon tax, a carbon tariff, and a uniform carbon tax. The results of our analysis suggest that: (1) under the proposed DCT, emission reductions in developed and developing countries are higher and leakage is lower than under a carbon tariff; (2) the DCT has weaker competitiveness effects than a carbon tariff; and (3) the DCT is more favorable to developing countries’ output and welfare than a carbon tariff or a uniform global carbon tax. Developing countries may therefore embrace a DCT as an intermediate step towards the implementation of a global carbon tax.
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Baena-Rojas, Jose Jaime, and Susana Herrero-Olarte. "From Preferential Trade Arrangements to Free Trade Agreements: One of the Downturns of Cooperation in International Relations?" Social Sciences 9, no. 8 (August 6, 2020): 139. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/socsci9080139.
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Since the signing of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO), preferential trade agreements (PTAs) have been an interesting tool to promote international cooperation through the granting of non-reciprocal and/or unilateral tariff preferences by developed countries to developing countries. These international agreements have tended to generate critical trade dependencies for the receiving countries. Due to the circumstances of world trade and due to the lack of interest of the grantors to maintain this type of tariff preference, these developing countries are forced to renegotiate their PTAs into to free trade agreements (FTAs). To demonstrate this, we conducted a qualitative analysis to characterize the behavior of PTAs and their impact on the configuration of FTAs and to obtain indicators and trends. The results suggested a predominance of FTAs and a decline in PTAs. This was done to maintain access to the markets within those granting countries, which also became the main trading partners of these PTA recipient countries.
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Erzan, Reflk, and Alexander Yeats. "Tariff valuation bases and trade among developing countries: Do developing countries discriminate against their own trade?" Journal of Development Studies 27, no. 4 (July 1991): 64–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220389108422213.
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Bartels, L., and C. Haberli. "Binding Tariff Preferences for Developing Countries Under Article II Gatt." Journal of International Economic Law 13, no. 4 (December 1, 2010): 969–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jiel/jgq051.
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Grossman, Gene M., and Alan O. Sykes. "European Communities – Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries (WT/DS246/AB/R)." World Trade Review 5, S1 (2006): 220–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745606001455.
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The WTO case brought by India in 2002 to challenge aspects of the European Communities’ Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) brings fresh scrutiny to a policy area that has received little attention in recent years – trade preferences for developing countries. The idea for such preferences emerged from the first United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 1964. The ensuing negotiations led to Resolution 21(ii) at the second session of UNCTAD in 1968, acknowledging “unanimous agreement” in favor of the establishment of preferential arrangements. Tariff discrimination violates the most-favored nation (MFN) obligation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Art. I, however, and thus the legal authority for preferential tariff schemes had to await a GATT waiver of this obligation, which came in 1971. The waiver was to expire after 10 years, but the authority for preferences was extended by the GATT Contracting Parties Decision of November 28, 1979 on Differential and More Favorable Treatment, Reciprocity and Fuller Participation of Developing Countries, popularly known as the “Enabling Clause,” and now incorporated into the law of the WTO along with the GATT itself.
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Switzer, Stephanie. "ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND THE GENERALIZED SYSTEM OF PREFERENCES: A LEGAL AND APPROPRIATE LINKAGE?" International and Comparative Law Quarterly 57, no. 1 (January 2008): 113–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020589308000055.
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AbstractThis article will question the legality of measures of environmental ‘conditionality’ in the Generalized System of Preferences [GSP] of the European Community [EC].1 The GSP is a GATT/WTO2 authorized scheme which permits developed nations to grant non-reciprocal tariff preferences in favour of developing countries.3 The objectives of the GSP are primarily development-oriented in that it aims to increase the export earnings of developing countries, promote their industrialization and accelerate rates of economic growth.4 A recent case taken in the WTO examined the legal contours of the grant of tariff preferences and it is in the light of this that this article will examine the so-called ‘special incentive arrangements’ of the reformed EC GSP which offers additional tariff preferences to developing countries on the ‘condition’ that they adhere to specified standards of environmental protection.
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Губин, А., and A. Gubin. "Questions of the Validity of Granting Tariff Preferences in Respect of Goods Imported from Developing and Least Developed Countries." Auditor 4, no. 9 (October 10, 2018): 41–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/article_5b9a321d631f98.37775198.
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Th e article is devoted to the problems of validity of granting tariff preferences by the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union to developing and least developed countries. Changes in the system of tariff preferences in relation to goods originating from the least developed countries and the possible consequences of such changes for certain sectors of the economy of the Eurasian Economic Union are examined.
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Poczta-Wajda, Agnieszka, and Karolina Pawlak. "THE GLOBAL IMPACT OF THE EVOLUTION OF TRADE POLICY ON AGRICULTURAL MARKETS IN DEVELOPING ASIAN COUNTRIES." Annals of the Polish Association of Agricultural and Agribusiness Economists XIX, no. 3 (August 22, 2017): 231–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0010.3371.
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The situation in agricultural markets in Asian countries, as well as the future of agricultural policy and trade policy in these countries, is important for food producers in other parts of the world, especially in developed countries. The aim of this article is to present current agricultural policy trends in selected developing Asian countries using support measures published by the World Bank and the OECD, as well as to examine the global impact of food trade policy developments in these countries as a result of full liberalization scenario, as well as increased protectionism scenario. Research shows that raising tariffs on agricultural products in the analyzed Asian countries to a maximum allowable level would lead globally to lower trade and GDP in other parts of the world, while full tariff reductions would be a stimulus to trade and benefit the rest of the world.
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Fortin, Michael. "Using covenants in loan agreements to promote tariff reform." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 3, no. 3 (February 25, 2013): 315–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.059.
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This paper evaluates efforts made by development banks to promote tariff reform using covenants in infrastructure loan agreements. These covenants are evaluated within the broader context of tariff regulation in the water supply and sanitation sector. The paper outlines prerequisites for effective tariff regulation and reviews the experience with tariff regulation in developing countries and the current thinking regarding regulatory reform. Efforts by development banks to promote tariff regulation using loan covenants are often misdirected in light of the complexity of tariff regulation and the regulatory reform process.
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Heo, Yoon, and Tran N. Kien. "The Political Economy of Tariff Formation in Vietnam." International Studies Review 12, no. 1 (October 15, 2011): 33–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2667078x-01201002.
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Using a simultaneous equation model of tariffs and impurts, this paper empirically investigates the determinants of tariff rates applied in Vietnam using two-digit ISIC data over the 2001-2006 period. This paper extends the findings of previous studies in Several ways. First, there has been no study thus far conducted that has attempted to apply the endogenous theory of tariffs to explain tariff formation in developing countries, including Vietnam. Second, imports and trade protection are simultaneously modeled using the two-stage least square estimator. Third, this study employed an up-to-date panel dataset that was recently made available in Vietnam, which allowed us to measure the dynamic interactions among trade flows. industry characteristics, and trade protection. The results of this paper showed that tariffs are frequently high in industries with a small number of firms, large employment size, low import penetration, low industry growth rate, and less capital stock. Therefore, the findings of our study on Vietnam provide further evidence favoring the theory of endogenous protection.
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KISHORE, PALLAVI. "A Critical Analysis of Conditionalities in the Generalized System of Preferences." Canadian Yearbook of international Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international 54 (July 18, 2017): 98–133. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cyl.2017.8.
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AbstractThis article examines conditionalities in the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) in light of the European Communities – Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries (EC – Tariff Preferences) case at the World Trade Organization (WTO). The article largely undertakes this examination from the point of view of developing countries. It mainly examines the issue of discrimination in conditionalities since this was the principal question raised in the EC – Tariff Preferences case and makes suggestions regarding the regulation of conditionalities. In doing so, the article follows two trajectories: first, it makes suggestions for the WTO panels and Appellate Body, and, second, it makes suggestions for GSP donors, by analyzing the new European GSP + Scheme and by drawing inspiration from conditionalities in the loans granted by the World Bank.
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Minh Khuong, Phuong, Russell McKenna, and Wolf Fichtner. "A Cost-Effective and Transferable Methodology for Rooftop PV Potential Assessment in Developing Countries." Energies 13, no. 10 (May 15, 2020): 2501. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13102501.
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The efficient uptake of decentralized solar rooftop photovoltaics (PV) is in some cases hindered by ineffective energy and political framework conditions. These may be based on inaccurate and uncertain potential assessments in the early development stage of the solar market. This paper develops a more accurate, cost-effective, and robust potential assessment for emerging and developing economies. Adjusting the module efficiency corresponding to regional and household conditions improves the output accuracy. The rooftop PV market changes are simulated regarding different input changes and policy designs, including changing the Feed-In Tariff (FIT), grid tariff, and technology development. In the case study, the market potential in Vietnam is estimated at 260–280 TWh/a and is clustered into six groups in priority order, in which Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh need the most policy focus. Changing the FIT from 8.83 to 9 Euro cent/kWh and using different regional FITs can activate an additional 16% of the market and lead to a possible 28 million Euro benefit. Increasing the grid tariff to 8.7 cents/kWh could activate the self-consumption model, and the self-sufficient market can be guaranteed in the case of CAPEX and OPEX being lower than 650 Euro/kWp. Future developments of the method should focus on combining this top-down method with detailed bottom-up approaches.
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Ing, Lili Yan. "Lower Tariff, Rising Skill Premium in Developing Countries: Is it a Coincidence?" World Economy 32, no. 7 (July 2009): 1115–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9701.2009.01192.x.
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Tokarick, Stephen. "Dispelling Some Misconceptions about Agricultural Trade Liberalization." Journal of Economic Perspectives 22, no. 1 (February 1, 2008): 199–216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.22.1.199.
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There has been a great deal of public discussion over the impact that agricultural trade liberalization would likely have, especially on low-income countries. Unfortunately, the public discussion has been characterized by a number of misconceptions. This paper provides a clarifying discussion of the issues involved. Among the key points addressed are 1) agricultural “subsidies” are not nearly as large as has been portrayed; 2) tariffs are actually far more distortionary than subsidies and some low-income countries actually benefit from rich country subsides; and 3) widespread tariff reductions will not inflict large damage on developing countries as a result of preference erosion. The case for removing agricultural trade barriers remains compelling, even without the exaggerations and misconceptions.
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Ahmad, Jaleel. "Les préférences tarifaires canadiennes et la libéralisation des échanges." L'Actualité économique 52, no. 4 (June 25, 2009): 555–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/800704ar.
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Abstract The developing countries currently enjoy preferential entry on designated exports of manufactures under the Canadian Scheme of Generalized Preferences introduced in 1974. This paper makes a quantitative assessment of the erosion of such preferential margins likely to result from current multilateral tariff negotiations at GATT. Estimates are made under four alternative tariff-cutting techniques.
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BUREAU, JEAN-CHRISTOPHE, SÉBASTIEN JEAN, and ALAN MATTHEWS. "The consequences of agricultural trade liberalization for developing countries: distinguishing between genuine benefits and false hopes." World Trade Review 5, no. 2 (May 16, 2006): 225–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s147474560600276x.
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Recent analyses suggest that the impact of agricultural trade liberalization on developing countries will be very uneven. The Doha Round focuses on tariff issues, but some developing countries currently have practically duty-free access to European and North American markets under preferential regimes. Multilateral liberalization will erode the benefits of these preferences, which are presently rather well utilized in the agricultural sector. While South American and East Asian countries should benefit from an agricultural agreement, African and Caribbean countries are unlikely to do so. The main obstacles to the exports of the sub-Saharan African and Least Developed Countries appear to be in the non-tariff area (sanitary, phytosanitary standards), which increasingly originate from the private sector and are not dealt with under the Doha framework (traceability requirements, etc.). An agreement in Doha is unlikely to solve these problems and open large markets for the poorest countries. While this is not an argument to give up multilateral liberalization, a more specific and differentiated treatment should be considered in WTO rules, and corrective measures should be implemented.
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Finger, Joseph Michael. "The WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement: Form without Substance Again?" Journal of World Trade 48, Issue 6 (December 1, 2014): 1279–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2014045.
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The WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement provides flexibility for Developing Members by allowing them to accept only the legal obligations they attach as "schedules"- as the schedules attached to a tariff agreement. The possibility that Developed Members can induce broad acceptance by Developing Members through reciprocal negotiation is compromised by Developed Members not having the flexibility of attaching schedules-they must accept all of the disciplines of the agreement. Inducing broad acceptance by Developing Members through the provision of assistance (i.e., paying Developing Members to do so) is compromised by the agreement not bringing the provision of assistance within its legal obligations. The agreement thus fails to bring reciprocity to bear on the acceptance of discipline over trade controls and fails to give operational content within the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/World Trade Organization (WTO) legal system to the provision of assistance to developing countries. I conclude that it is another example of the "form without substance" (Robert Hudec's earlier conclusion) that has characterized the GATT/WTO system's relations with developing countries since its beginning.
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Fjeld, D., M. Rönnqvist, and P. Flisberg. "Developing Methods for Truck Route Selection and Cost Modeling in Steeper Topographies." Forest Science 66, no. 4 (May 8, 2019): 457–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/forsci/fxz019.
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Abstract Payment tariffs for logging truck transport in Nordic countries are typically based on the loaded transport distance. Local tariffs often provide a good representation of the mean cost, however, as variation in topography and the transport environment increases; loaded distance alone represents the actual cost poorly. In addition, routes with increasing curvature also constitute more frequent braking and acceleration cycles. Moreover, driving in such topographical environments during the winter raises additional safety and operator stress issues. This study examines the situation in Norway where logging truck routes often start in mountainous regions. It tests the applicability of a route-generation system developed in Sweden and determines if it can be adopted in Norway. The case study is based on 30 detailed routes from each country, reported and analyzed by their respective transport managers. Based on typical local tariffs, the results show the route-specific variation in costs and profit margins associated with the varying transport environments. A framework for classifying transport environments is proposed as a basis for tariff agreements that better represent the actual transport cost. This increases fairness and supports economic sustainability for transporters.
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Maphosa, Michael, and Patrick Mabuza. "The Trade-Offs Between Pro-Poor and Cost-Reflective Tariffs in South Africa: A Regulatory Perspective." Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies 8, no. 6(J) (January 24, 2017): 206–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.22610/jebs.v8i6(j).1494.
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Abstract: This paper presents arguments for and against cost reflectivity and pro-poor tariff policy in South African electricity supply from a regulatory perspective. This debate has been ongoing for decades in developing countries; however, there is still no clear direction on how countries should approach these two important competing policy positions. There are those that argue that achieving cost-reflective tariffs will attract private sector investment into the electricity supply industry (ESI) that will lead to much needed competition and reduced electricity tariffs. However, there are also those who argue that cost-reflective tariffs will make it difficult to achieve government social objectives of universal access through pro-poor tariffs, as cost-reflective tariffs will be unaffordable to the majority of the population. The fundamental question is what should come first, between cost-reflective tariffs and pro-poor tariffs in a developing country context, specifically in South Africa. This paper therefore attempts to examine the real trade-offs between pro-poor tariff policies and cost-reflective tariffs. The study attempts to answer one critical question: How can the electricity sector attract local and foreign investors, without necessarily affecting government social objectives such as universal access to electricity? The study finds that electricity consumers, and in particular poor households, have historically benefited from relatively cheap electricity and that tariffs have not been cost reflective. In other words, there is a mismatch between tariffs and the underlying costs of supplying electricity in South Africa. It also finds competing expectations between poor consumers and utilities. Consumers expect to receive electricity at an affordable price, while utilities argue that a good, reliable electricity supply’s tariffs must be matched with costs. Lastly, the study finds that it is difficult to achieve cost reflective tariffs in the short run, in an environment characterised by a high number of consumers dependent on government social grants and cross-subsidies. The study therefore recommends a gradual movement towards cost-reflective tariffs, together with the introduction of competition and energy efficiency and demand side management (EEDSM), in order to minimise the impact on the poor.Keywords: Tariffs, pro-poor, cost reflectivity, electricity, consumers
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Reck, Fabian. "Impact of Governance on FDI: Evidence from Dynamic Panel Regression Models." Applied Economics Quarterly: Volume 66, Issue 2 66, no. 2 (April 1, 2020): 131–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3790/aeq.66.2.131.
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This paper analyzes the effect of world governance indicators on inward foreign direct investment. The sample covers 38 developed and 82 developing countries between 2002 and 2018. The results of the system GMM regressions suggest that governance indicators are important determinants of inward FDI for developed countries. Moreover, it is shown that it is important to control for dynamic effects. In comparison, for developing countries, other country characteristics – the mean tariff rate – are more important than the institutional setting.
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BRENTON, PAUL, CHRISTIAN SABOROWSKI, CORNELIA STARITZ, and ERIK VON UEXKULL. "Assessing the adjustment implications of trade policy changes using the Tariff Reform Impact Simulation Tool (TRIST)." World Trade Review 10, no. 2 (April 2011): 249–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474745610000509.
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AbstractTRIST is a simple, easy to use, country focused tool to assess the short-term adjustment implications of trade reform. It has been developed to improve the information available to policy makers in developing countries. It has the following key features: projections are based on revenues actually collected at the tariff line level rather than simply applying statutory rates, as in currently available tools; it is transparent, runs in Excel, with formulas and calculation steps visible to the user, and is open-source with users free to change, extend, or improve according to their needs; it has high policy relevance because it projects the impact of tariff reform on total fiscal revenue from imports (including VAT and excise taxes) and results are available at the product level so that sensitive products or sectors can be identified; the tool is flexible and can incorporate tariff liberalization scenarios involving any group of trading partners and any schedule of products. This paper describes the TRIST tool and provides a range of examples that demonstrate the insights that the tool can provide to policy makers on the short-term adjustment impacts of reducing tariffs.
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Freund, Florian. "The role of coalitions at international tariff negotiations: a CGE perspective." Review of World Economics 157, no. 3 (March 10, 2021): 583–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10290-021-00408-3.
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AbstractDeveloping countries coalitions form an integral part of tariff negotiations that take place under the aegis of the World Trade Organization. While there was only a single coalition in the 70s, their number increased to 31 in the year 2005. Despite the apparent proliferation of coalitions in tariff negotiations, little research on their theoretical and empirical implications has been produced. In particular, we lack an understanding of efficiency and equity effects of coalitions. By exploring this equity-efficiency nexus, the study finds that developing countries coalitions like the G-90 and the Least Developed Countries Group – while benefiting member countries – lead to less efficiency and less equity overall. Forming the Cairns Group, however, leads to a more efficient and equal distribution of the gains from trade.
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Gladenkova, Tatiana. "Beauty and personal care transnationalization: main changes in its spatial structure." GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY 13, no. 1 (April 1, 2020): 244–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.24057/2071-9388-2019-94.
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At the turn of 21st century global beauty and personal care industry underwent dramatic changes in its territorial structure. The main factors of that changes were world economics institutional changes, primarily – the international trade liberalization, as well as the R&D progress. During abolition of tariffs or tariff cut the competition in beauty and personal care ratcheted up sharply. That was accompanied by sea changes in its macrogeography, particularly, by the manufacturing transnationalization (mainly, in the form of its «drift» to developing countries) and the general expansion of the range of countries specializing in the beauty and personal care production. The main drive-forces of beauty and personal care transnationalization and the resulting territorial changes in the industry are discussed.
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Shabbir, Muhammad Nadir, Wang Liyong, and Muhammad Usman Arshad. "Trade Policy Uncertainty and Medical Innovation: Evidence from Developing Nations." Economies 10, no. 9 (September 14, 2022): 224. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/economies10090224.
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This study explores the influence of trade policy uncertainty on medical innovation investment in developing nations from 1980 to 2020, with a focus on the period of COVID-19. We used exogenous and heterogeneous exposure to trade-policy-uncertainty resolutions from developing countries’ trade policy adjustments, which reduced tariff hikes on imported goods in a double difference-in-differences method. ARDL with PVAR has been studied for long-run and short-run analyses. The findings revealed that reducing tariff uncertainty boosts innovation beyond patent filings and margin reaction and exports. Long-term impacts of sectoral innovation patterns, governmental changes, and foreign technology entering developing nations have little effect on the findings. This paper also shows a long-term link between medical innovation, trade policy uncertainty, and research-and-development spending. Innovation’s negative response to the innovation shock and research and development’s positive response corroborates bidirectional and unidirectional causality. This study contributes to medical innovation and policy uncertainty in terms of developing countries and, most importantly, in trends of medical innovation, contemporaneous policy uncertainty given the inflow of foreign technology, and the importance of that technology recent times.
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Wang, Shuyun. "Developing value added service of cold chain logistics between China and Korea." Journal of Korea Trade 22, no. 3 (September 10, 2018): 247–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jkt-03-2018-0016.
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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to elaborate value-added service of cold chain logistics between China and Korea. The covering strategy for developing the cold chain value-added service between the two countries is proposed. Design/methodology/approach The author expounds the driving power for developing cold chain logistics between the two countries basing on the trade data of agricultural exports and imports, the tariff liberalization agreement of China–Korea FTA and the short distance between the two countries. It analyzes the value-added service of cold chain logistics with exemplary cases from four aspects (customized service, integrated service, consultation/solution and strategic alliance service), and its value-added mechanism for the enhancement of core competences of the entire cold chain. Then, by considering the drawbacks of the current cold chain logistics practices, between the two countries, the author proposes certain measures for fostering the cold chain value-added services between them. Findings There are apparent mutual benefits in developing cold chain value-added service between the two countries, but there exists some shortcomings which impede the sound development of the cold chain logistics, such as low circulation rate and insufficient cold chain facility in China, shortage of integrated and compatible information platform between the two countries, few integrated cold chain service and strategic alliance service and occurrence of some trade frictions. Originality/value The enforcement of China–Korea FTA will greatly reduce the tariff and increase the import and export volumes between the two countries; with the proximity between them, development of cold chain logistics between the two countries holds tremendous potential. This paper thoroughly discusses the mechanism of the value-added service of the cold chain logistics, and brings into focus the development of the value-added service in the two countries.
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Motta-Veiga, Marcelo. "Tariff structuring in water and sanitation: public profiting arrangements on universalization initiatives." Water Policy 23, no. 3 (April 27, 2021): 599–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wp.2021.082.
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Abstract Water and sanitation service access is a global problem, impacting disproportionally poor communities of low-income countries. Failed universalization initiatives highlighted historical negligence, social inequality, and bad governance. Infrastructure developments require large investments, which most local governments cannot afford. Alternative funding might come from private investors through cost-effective project finance arrangements. Public services should be sustainable, conciliating users' willingness to pay with providers' willingness to supply. Governments have implemented profit-driven strategies over taxing outsourced public services to increase budget inflow. Inefficient tax schemes on essential public services have damaged universalization initiatives in developing countries. These negative taxing practices have damaged tariff structure, service sustainability, and project attractiveness. The public sector should not profit from unsustainable outsourced services that are required but they cannot supply. Water and sanitation expansions on low-income communities in developing countries should not take place as tariff-free schemes, but within a tax-exempt policy.
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Klein-Bernard, Pablo. "The Cushioned Negotiation: The Case of WTOs Industrial Tariff Liberalization." Journal of World Trade 46, Issue 4 (August 1, 2012): 847–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/trad2012026.
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This article is about the World Trade Organization's Doha Round negotiation on industrial tariffs - i.e., WTO law making process. We make a number of observations on the most recent negotiating text, the December 2008 modalities, based on simulations of its implementation for different types of WTO members. The imports of developed countries and advanced developing countries, which represent one third of the WTO membership but 95% of world trade, are liberalized to a small degree. The other two thirds of the WTO membership are covered under a complex web of special categories and exceptions that calls into question their future participation in the international trading system. Moreover, the tariff reductions are to be achieved in a highly differentiated manner across WTO members. All the different cases and carve outs in the text are like cushions that members use to avoid undertaking a more significant trade liberalization, but in doing so they also defeat the Doha mandate in terms of the degree of ambition required.
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Schmülling, Ulrike. "A New Approach to Preferences: The Review of the European GSP Scheme." Global Trade and Customs Journal 6, Issue 1 (January 1, 2011): 9–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/gtcj2011002.
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Unilateral trade preferences granted by industrialized countries are a common and widely used instrument to foster exports from developing countries, thereby stimulating economic growth and alleviating poverty. The European Union (EU)’s Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) is one of the most generous schemes worldwide, offering tariff preferences for about 6,200 tariff lines to 176 countries. The authors are of the view that the current EU’s GSP scheme contains some fundamental flaws, in particular with respect to the selection of beneficiary countries and the graduation mechanism. The ongoing reform of the EU’s scheme provides a unique opportunity for overhauling the system as such and targeting trade preferences to those countries that mostly need them. The European Parliament being a new player at the table when it comes to trade policy legislation will certainly shape the reform.
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Rodil-Marzábal, Óscar, Ana Laura Gómez Pérez, and Hugo Campos-Romero. "The Global Textile and Apparel Value Chain: From Mexico–US–China Linkages to a Global Approach." Economies 10, no. 10 (October 18, 2022): 258. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/economies10100258.
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The aim of this paper is to analyze the participation in the global textile and apparel value chain with special attention, first, to the case of three dynamic and interrelated economies (Mexico, the United States, and China); and second, to a general approach to a larger sample of countries through the analysis of trade in value added. From the descriptive analysis, a high domestic share in each country’s exports is found. However, China is the leading exporter in the industry, accounting for around a third of the domestic value added in the global textile final demand. An econometric estimation has also been carried out to observe the effects of tariffs, FDI, and labor costs on the total and backward participation in the textile GVC. In this case, the sample has been extended to 39 developed and 22 developing countries. The results reveal tariff protection as a determinant of the degree of participation of the sector, especially when backward participation and developing economies are considered. However, FDI and labor costs only show the expected results in the case of developing countries. This may be due to the different tasks performed by developing economies (primarily manufacturing) versus developed economies (branding, design) within the sector’s value chain.
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Cipollina, Maria, and Federica Demaria. "The Trade Effect of the EU’s Preference Margins and Non-Tariff Barriers." Journal of Risk and Financial Management 13, no. 9 (September 9, 2020): 203. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13090203.
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Nowadays, trade negotiations afford both liberalism- and protectionism-oriented policies. Indeed, in recent decades, the developed countries have been actively engaged in negotiating many preferential agreements to integrate developing countries (DCs) into world trade and encourage their economic growth, but many of these schemes contrast with the complex rules, often imposed on international markets, that still are an obstacle for exporters. Their presence and related costs reduce the importance of preferential trade agreements (PTAs) in increasing trade flows. This article attempts to assess the impact of preferential trade policies on trade flows controlling for different non-tariff barriers (NTBs), using a structural gravity model. The analysis uses disaggregated data, registered in the year 2017, on EU imports (defined at level HS-6 digit) from a large number of exporters (187 developed and developing countries) and also includes the intra-EU trade. Our results show robust and positive estimates for the impact of preferences on bilateral trade flows, however, higher non-tariff barriers are likely to play a role in reducing both the extensive margins of trade, and so tariff preferences alone are not sufficient to access international markets. The impact of NTBs on the intensive margin of trade is ambiguous; some measures may act as catalysts and therefore increase trade, and others may act as an additional cost of trade and thus hinder trade.
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Pinto, Francisco Silva, Alain Michel Tchadie, Susana Neto, and Shahbaz Khan. "Contributing to water security through water tariffs: some guidelines for implementation mechanisms." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 8, no. 4 (August 23, 2018): 730–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2018.015.
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Abstract The reform of water pricing practices and tariff mechanisms plays an important role in improving water supply services. However, setting tariff policies is a process that is rife with controversy. The current urban development rhythm and consequent challenges, in several developing cities, requires an urgent review and the establishment of an increasingly more ‘integrated’ management system with a suitable water tariff policy to promote water security. Many lessons can be learned from the successes and failures of water pricing policies in other countries and world regions, taking into account the context, status and development of the water supply sector. In this paper, several case studies are assessed throughout different countries or regions (South Africa, Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and Europe) to provide key information able to support successful policy ‘transfer routes’. Based on those lessons, key policy recommendations are summarized to pave the way towards water security, particularly in rapidly growing urban centres that suffer already from water stress.
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Zahore, Martin Gnoleba. "Common External Tariff and Dynamism of Economic and Regional Integration in the WAEMU Zone: An Analysis Based on the Econometric Approach of Panels." International Journal of Business and Management 11, no. 10 (September 18, 2016): 224. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v11n10p224.
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This article discusses the implications of the introduction of the Common External Tariff on the dynamism of economic and regional integration in the WAEMU zone. The sample includes eight countries and covers the period from 1990 to 2014. The study is based on the econometric approach of panels. The results suggest that the common external tariff has significantly contributed to strengthen the dynamism of the economic and regional integration in the Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa. These results show that the WAEMU countries have an interest in developing new Community mechanisms conducive to strengthen the integration within them. > Transformational leadership does not significantly affect technology transfer effectiveness. tor in Egypt. rsonal authority of the leader; On technology transfer effectiveness.
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Adedokun, Ayoade, Oladipo Idris, and Tolulope Odujoko. "Patients’ willingness to utilize a SMS-based appointment scheduling system at a family practice unit in a developing country." Primary Health Care Research & Development 17, no. 02 (April 8, 2015): 149–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1463423615000213.
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AimThe investigators aimed to assess the willingness of patients to utilize and pay for a proposed short message service- (SMS) based appointment scheduling service.BackgroundTelecommunication applications have been introduced to improve the delivery of healthcare services in developed countries; however, public-funded healthcare systems in developing countries like Nigeria are mostly unfamiliar with the use of such technologies for improving healthcare access.MethodsWe proposed a SMS-based (text message) appointment scheduling system to consenting subjects at an outpatients’ clinic and explored their willingness to utilize and pay for the service. Using semi-structured interview schedules, we collected information on: estimated arrival time, most important worry when seeking for healthcare services at public hospitals in the study setting, ownership of a mobile phone, willingness to utilize a SMS-based appointment for clinic visits and willingness to pay for the service. In addition, respondents were asked to suggest a tariff for the proposed system.FindingsA total of 500 consecutively recruited patients aged 16–86 (42.1±15.4) years participated; 54% (n=270) were females. Waiting time ranged from 1–7.5 h (3.9±1.1). Two overlapping themes emerged as most important worries: crowded waiting rooms and long waiting time. Ownership of mobile phones was reported by 96.4% (n=482) of subjects. Nearly all favoured the proposed appointment scheduling system (n=486, 97.2%). Majority of patients who favoured the system were willing to pay for the service (n=484, 99.6%). Suggested tariff ranged from 0.03 to 20.83 (1.53±2.11) US dollars; 89.8% (n=349) of the subjects suggested tariffs that were greater than the prevailing retail cost of the proposed service. In sum, our findings indicate that patients in this study were willing to utilize and pay for a proposed SMS-based appointment scheduling system. The findings have implications for policies aimed at improving healthcare access and delivery of healthcare services at the primary care level in developing countries like Nigeria.
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Anyaka, Boniface O., and Chudi J. Edokobi. "The Negative Impact of High Electricity Tariff on Consumers/End-Users in Some Developing Countries." IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering 9, no. 3 (2014): 27–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.9790/1676-09332724.
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Cirera, Xavier, Dirk Willenbockel, and Rajith W. D. Lakshman. "EVIDENCE ON THE IMPACT OF TARIFF REDUCTIONS ON EMPLOYMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW." Journal of Economic Surveys 28, no. 3 (April 11, 2013): 449–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/joes.12029.
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