Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Sydney Basin'

"1990".
Thesis (PhD)--Macquarie University, School of Earth Sciences, 1991.
Bibliography: p. 596-630.
PART 1. INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY -- General introduction -- Methodology -- Classification of ichnofacies and lithofacies as used in the present study -- Definition of trace fossil zones (intervals, subintervals and levels) -- General classification of the palaeoenvironments and summary overview of the stratigraphic and geographic distribution of palaeoenvironments in the study area -- PART 2. SYSTEMATIC ICHNOTAXONOMY -- Large dwelling-burrows -- U-shaped burrows -- Vertical cylindrical burrows -- Thalassinoides, Ophiomorpha, Spongeliomorpha and turn-arounds -- Pellets and ovoid-shaped structures -- Bedding-parallel feeding and/or dwelling structures -- Dendritic feeding-burrows -- Rosette-shaped structures -- Escape-structures -- Tracks, trails and resting-traces -- Body fossils and root-penetration structures -- Miscellaneous traces -- PART 3. SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS -- Trace fossil assemblages (suites) in intervals IC to IF and their distribution in the study area -- Interpretation of the palaeoenvironmental affinities of the trace fossil zones and depositional setting of the study area -- Palaeogeographic synthesis and conclusions.
The coastal exposures of the Triassic System in the Sydney Northshore area aggregate about 180 m in thickness and comprise the uppermost part of the Narrabeen Group (namely, in ascending stratigraphic order: the Bald Hill Claystone, the Garie Formation, and the Newport Formation, the latter divisible into Lower, Middle and Upper Members) and the overlying Hawkesbury Sandstone. With the exception of mainly allochthonous plant macrofossils and palynomorphs which occur sporadically and with varying abundance in the mudrock facies of these formations, environmentally-diagnostic body fossils are rare, and, where they occur, are nowhere unequivocally indicative of marine affinities. For this reasons, and because of the predominantly fluvial lithofacies characteristics exhibited by these formations throughout much of their stratigraphic extent and especially by their channel-form/channel-like sandstones lithosomes, most previous workers have interpreted these formations to be of fluvial or fluvio-lacustrine origin except possibly for several thin planar-and thinly-bedded fine-grained intervals encompassing the Garie and Newport Formations for which several lines of evidence, including lithofacies, equivocal palaeontological, and ichnological evidence, have prompted several workers to speculate a shallow- marine, possibility coastal lagoonal or estuarine origin. -- Although trace fossils occur in reasonable abundance at various stratigraphic levels within these uppermost Narrabeen Group rocks and particularly within the Newport Formation, they have hitherto received very little systematic study. A comprehensive study of this ichnofauna shows that it is relatively diverse, comprising almost 100 different ichnotaxa (including varietal categories) of predominantly invertebrate origin, and includes several new ichnogenera and ichnospecies among the more notable of which are: two large bioglyph-bearing dwelling-burrows of probable crustacean origin (Turimettichnus conaghani and T. webbyi) and one (Pytiniichnus trifurcatum) made either by a small reptile or an amphibian; a multi-stage spiral star-shaped feeding-trace (Helikospirichnus veeversi), probably made by a worm or worm-like deposit-feeder; several new species and varieties of Rhizocorallium (the first record of this ichnogenus in the Triassic of Australia); a new species and new variety of the saltatorial running vertebrate trackway Moodieichnus (an ichnogenus previously known only from the Late Permian of North America); and a new ichnogenus of vertical/steeply-inclined cylindrical branching dwelling-burrow (Barrenjoeichnus mitchelli). -- An alternating stratigraphic pattern of trace fossil abundance and diversity characterizes the upper Narrabeen Group strata in the Sydney Northshore area, and involves four relatively thin separate assemblage zones of relatively diverse ichnofauna and thicker intervening assemblage zones which lack ichnotaxo-nomic diversity. The assemblage zones of diverse trace fossils contain some elements in common to two or more zones, notably: Thalassinoides, Skolithos, Ophiomorpha, Chondrites, Rhizocorallium Palaeophycus, and Planolites, all of which are known to have unequivocal brackish- to shallow-marine palaeoecological affinities and which globally are characteristic of the Skolithos ichnofacies. Additionally, each of these four diverse assemblage zones is characterized by one or more particular index ichnogen-era which for convenience lend their name(s) to the zones as follows, in ascending stratigraphic order: Turimettichnus-Ophio-morpha assemblage zone; Skolithos-Diplocraterion assemblage zone; Helikospirichnus assemblage zone; and Rhizocorallium-Thalass inoides assemblage zone. The intervening ichnotaxonomically less-diverse and relatively impoverished assemblage zones are not similarly and separately named but are characterized by Barrenjoeichnus mitchelli and some species of Palaeophycus, Planolites and Skolithos as well as various plant-root petrification structures, all of which are here argued to have predominantly non-marine palaeoecological affinities. These latter assemblage zones can be referred to the Scoyenia-Teredolites ichnofacies. This stratigraphic pattern of alternating ichnologi-cally diverse and impoverished assemblage zones confirms the suggestions of previous workers (notably Bunny and Herbert, and Retallack) regarding the presence of brackish-/shallow-marine palaeoenvironmental influence in these Lower and Middle Triassic strata and allow for the first time the stratigraphic resolution of the marine strata into four marine tongues which are here named after their respective type localities. These are, in ascending order: The Turimetta Head Tongue (2 m to 3 m thick; extending from at least the middle part of the Bald Hill Clay-stone almost to the top of this formation); the St. Michaels Cave Tongue (4 m to 5 m thick; encompassing the Garie Formation and the lower part of the lower Member of the Newport Formation); the Bangalley Head Tongue (3 m to 5 m thick; extending from the uppermost part of the Lower Member into the lower part of the Middle Member of the Newport Formation); and the Palm Beach Tongue (3 m to 4 m thick; comprising the uppermost part of the Middle Member of the Newport Formation). The trace fossil assemblages in each of these marine tongues are indicative of a complex of brackish- to very shallow-marine low-energy palaeoenvi-ronments typical of modern coastal lagoons or estuaries and imply the presence of a protecting coeval topographic barrier of some kind to the east or southeast. This lagoon is herein called the Newport (Coastal) Lagoon and its development in the central-eastern part of the Sydney Basin coincides approximately with the geographic and depocentral axis of the basin which trends NW-SE and intersects the present coastline in the Sydney metropolitan area. The non-marine affinities of the impoverished and less-diverse trace fossil assemblages in the intervening and overlying strata are consistent with the fluvial/fluvio-lacustrine environmental interpretations of these thicker and predominantly sandstone-dominant intervals made by many other workers. Palaeocur-rent and petrographic data from these fluvial sediments show that the streams in which they formed debouched episodically into the Newport Lagoon variously from the northwest, west and southwest and were sourced variously from both the craton (Lachlan Fold Belt) to the southwest and the New England Orogen to the northeast.
With the exception of evidence of short-lived brackish-marine conditions at the base of the Narrabeen Group in the northeastern Sydney Basin and in the top of the Ashfield Shale in the Wianamatta Group (above the Hawkesbury Sandstone) in the central part of the basin, the Triassic System of the basin is dominated by fluvial/fluvio-lacustrine sediments and the presently described marine tongues of the Newport Lagoon in the uppermost Narrabeen Group are the only other presently known record of marine conditions during the Triassic history of the basin. The development of the Newport Lagoon in the geographic and depocentral axis of the basin attests to the presence of a mild short-lived marine transgression in the latest Early and early Middle Triassic at the end of a period of declining piedmont clastic alluviation from the coeval New England Orogen to the northeast and immediately prior to the onset of a new phase of fluvial sedimentation sourced from the craton to the southwest and manifested by the deposition of the Middle Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone.
Mode of access: World Wide Web.
xxxv, 630 p. ill., maps

The Patonga Claystone, a red bed facies in the Narrabeen Group of the Sydney Basin, is one of the most unfavorable rock units in the basin from a geotechnical point of view. This rock unit is composed of sandstone, siltstone, mudstone and claystone. One of the unfavorable characteristics is the low shear strength, which causes instability of cut slopes; another is its slaking-prone behaviour. Numerous measurements of geotechnical properties, along with extensive mineralogical and geochemical determinations, were carried out to identify cause of this slaking behaviour. Key techniques were the use of quantitative X-ray diffractometry for mineralogical analysis, and the determination of slake durability index and related properties to evaluate the slaking behaviour under both standard and more extended conditions. Standard (two cycle) slake durability test results indicate a range from low to high slake durability index values, with some mudstone samples having very low durability and some sandstones having very high slake durability indices. Jar slake test results indicate that the rock samples break rapidly and/or develop several fractures (Ij = 4) in an as-received state, but degrade to a pile of flakes or mud (Ij = 1) if the samples are oven dried before testing. The results for jar slake testing of oven-dried material are comparable, for individual samples, to those obtained from the more comprehensive slake durability tests. The mineralogy of the samples was evaluated by quantitative X-ray diffraction techniques using the Rietveld-based Siroquant processing system. Comparison to independent chemical data show a generally good level of agreement, suggesting that the mineralogical analysis results are consistent with the chemical composition of the individual rock samples. Good correlations were also obtained between clay mineralogy determined from orientedaggregate XRD analysis of the <2 micron fraction and the results from powder diffractometry and Siroquant analysis of the whole-rock samples. Evaluation of the slake durability characteristics and other geotechnical properties in relation to the quantitative mineralogy suggests that quartz and feldspar form a rigid framework in the rocks that resists the disruptive pressures that cause slaking. Expansion of the clay minerals by various processes, including the incorporation of water into the interlayer spaces of illite/smectite as well as changes in pore pressures associated with entry of water into micro-fractures in the clay matrix, are thought to produce the disruptions that cause slaking and degradation. An abundant clay matrix also reduces the strength of the rock materials, probably because of the less rigid nature of the clay minerals relative to the quartz and feldspar particles. As well as the mineralogy, the loss on ignition (LOI) and water absorption percentage were found to provide good indicators of longer-term slaking behaviour. Both properties are also related to the overall clay content. Rock samples with water absorption values of <10, 10-15 and >15% behave as highly durable, intermediate and less durable materials respectively. Rocks with LOI values of greater than 5% by weight behave as less durable rock materials, at least for the strata encompassed by the present study. The water absorption and LOI values were also used to develop a predictive model of slake durability characteristics for the different rock materials in the Patonga Claystone, providing a relatively simple basis for predicting longer-term stability in a range of geotechnical studies.

The vegetation of the Sydney Basin, Australia, is highly flammable and subject to a wide range of fire regimes. Sclerophyllous shrubs and sedges are common and in some vegetation types up to 70 % of fuel consumed during a fire can be live. Research into fire behaviour and fuel dynamics has been minimal. To address this issue this thesis investigated the principal factor affecting the ease of ignition and rate of combustion of individual fuel particles and fuel beds in bushfires: dead fine fuel moisture (FFM). Two common Sydney Basin vegetation types, eucalypt woodland and heathland, each with a history of problematic fire management, were measured in the field for diurnal fluctuations in FFM following rain, under conditions similar to when prescribed burns are conducted. The FFM components of current operational fire behaviour models were found to be inadequate for predictions of FFM and fire behaviour under these conditions. The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of five fuel types from the field site was investigated in a laboratory study. An existing function describing EMC as a function of temperature and relative humidity was evaluated and found to be very accurate for these fuels. Two FFM predictive models incorporating this function were evaluated on the field data and the laboratory results were shown to be applicable to the estimation of FFM in the field. One model gave very accurate predictions of FFM below fibre saturation point, but its accuracy was reduced when screen level conditions were used instead of those measured at fuel level. A recent process-based model that accounts for rainfall showed promise for predicting when fuel is < 25 % FFM. Systematic problems with the radiation budget of this model reduced the accuracy of predictions and further refinement is required. Live fine fuel moisture content (LFMC) of common heathland shrubs and sedge was investigated over two years and found to be both seasonal and influenced by phenology. LFMC minima occurred in late winter and spring (August to October), and maxima were in summer (December to February) when new growth was recorded. The dominant near-surface fuel in mature heath was sedge. It was found to have little seasonal variation in its??? percentage dead but the percentage dead maxima occured at the same time as the LFMC minima of shrubs and sedge in both years. Simple instantaneous models for duff moisture content in woodland and heathland and LFMC and the percentage dead sedge in heathland were developed. The information gained by this study will form the basis for future development of fuel moisture models for prescribed burning guidelines and fire spread models specific to the vegetation communities of the Sydney Basin.

The patterns of spatial distribution and abundance were investigated for moth assemblages in the eucalypt woodlands of the Sydney Basin. A total of 228 species of Lepidoptera, distributed among 25 families, were recorded from three national parks located on the perimeter of the Sydney metropolitan region.From within the eucalypt woodland habitat of the Sydney Basin, the study investigated the spatial variation of night-flying Lepidoptera present at several different scales of observation, from the trap level through to across the landscape. Assemblages varied with spatial scale, with uniformity occurring across the landscape as a whole, however becoming patchy at finer spatial scales. Multivariate and turnover analysis indicated that although heterogeneity of abundance and richness may vary significantly depending on spatial scale, sites and national parks contained their own unique suite of species in comparison to one another.The structure of the assemblages of moths in the eucalypt woodlands of the Sydney Basin can vary, and is dependant on the level of spatial scale of observation. Further study needs to be conducted at a range of temporal scales to ascertain the presence of patterns in the Lepidoptera communities in the Sydney region in order to contribute to the development of suitable conservation strategies in the Sydney Basin.

It is widely believed that Australian Aboriginals utilised fire to manage various landscapes however to what extent this impacted on Australia???s ecosystems remains uncertain. The late Pleistocene/Holocene fire history from three sites within the Sydney Basin, Gooches Swamp, Lake Baraba and Kings Waterhole, were compared with archaeological and palaeoclimatic data using a novel method of quantifying macroscopic charcoal, which is presented in this study. The palynology and other palaeoecological proxies were also investigated at the three sites. The Gooches Swamp fire record appeared to be most influenced by climate and there was an abrupt increase in fire activity from the mid-Holocene perhaps associated with the onset of modern El Ni??o dominated conditions. The Kings Waterhole site also displayed an abrupt increase in charcoal at this time however there was a marked decrease in charcoal from ~3 ka. Lake Baraba similarly had displayed low levels of charcoal in the late Holocene. At both Kings Waterhole and Lake Baraba archaeological evidence suggests intensified human activity in the late Holocene during this period of lower and less variable charcoal. It is hence likely that at these sites Aboriginal people controlled fire activity in the late Holocene perhaps in response to the increased risk of large intense fires under an ENSO-dominated climate. The fire history of the Sydney Basin varies temporally and spatially and therefore it is not possible to make generalisations about pre-historic fire regimes. It is also not possible to use ideas about Aboriginal fire regimes or pre-historic activity as a management objective. The study demonstrates that increased fire activity is related to climatic variation and this is likely to be of significance under various enhanced Greenhouse scenarios. There were no major changes in the composition of the flora at all sites throughout late Pleistocene/Holocene although there were some changes in the relative abundance of different taxa. It is suggested that the Sydney Sandstone flora, which surrounds the sites, is relatively resistant to environmental changes. Casuarinaceae was present at Lake Baraba during the Last Glacial Maximum and therefore the site may have acted as a potential refugium for more mesic communities. There was a notable decline in Casuarinaceae during the Holocene at Lake Baraba and Kings Waterhole, a trend that has been found at a number of sites from southeastern Australia.

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Western Sydney, 2004.
"A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Western Sydney, Sydney, January 2004." Includes bibliography : leaves 359 - 369.

This thesis is primarily concerned with the characteristics and effectiveness of extension and adult learning within a community of Maltese vegetable growers in western Sydney. Extension was practised according to principles of experiential learning theory, action research and andragogy. The recommendation is made that extension agents should concentrate upon experiences that are within the target group's spheres of activity and interest. Kolb's experiential learning theory was found to be applicable to extension in this context. This theory, and similar principles, involve interpretivism, reflection and interaction, all of which were found to be beneficial. It was found to be sufficient for the author to inspire growers with broad concepts, which were then applied by growers to their situations. It is suggested that extension agents concern themselves less with attempts to change clients' attitudes and instead encourage them to trial innovations and draw their own conclusions. Future research should consider characteristics of the internalisation of knowledge and the role of clients' emotional well-being. Guidelines for extension with Maltese vegetable growers of the Sydney region are listed, and many of these are generalisable to other circumstances of extension.
Master of Science (Hons) (Systems Agriculture)

Thesis (MSc. Sys. Ag. (Honors))--University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury, 1994.
"A thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirement of the Degree of Master of Science (Hons) in Systems Agriculture."

Introduction: This thesis explores student learning in the context of the Critical Care Medicine Rotation (CCMR) during the Sydney Medical School Program (SMP). It focused on how medical students learn basic airway management skills as a means, to explore student learning in this environment. Study Design: The use of assessment was deliberately used in order, to identify both the effect of assessment and the experience of the rotation on student learning.This was explored from a interpretative/constructive theoretical approach. The mixed methods study design included a combination of pre and post testing of theory and practical skills assessment conducted by simulation and clinicial assessment of basic airway skills. Then focus groups explored student perceptions of the assessment and the components of the Critical Care rotation on their learning. Limitations: Study limitations include the conduct of the study at a single site by a single researcher, the results however, provide very useful insights into student learning and areas identified for future research. Study findings: The study found a significant change in declarative knowledge and a consistent level of student ability to manage basic airways in both simulation and clinical setting. The students identifying, that the assessments guided their learning during the rotation. The themes of ‘Goal setting’, ‘active learning’ ,’peer continuum’ and ‘conflict’ identified. Observation, questioning, guidance and participation were core features of student learning. The students’ valued time to observe peers, wanting to understand their peers ‘thought processes’ (clinical reasoning) and the ‘process of clinical activities’ as a stage before active participation, with active participation core to their learning. The students demonstrated a strong preference for clear direction from their tutors, specifically students identified questioning, being questioned and being able to teach back were important to the process of their learning. Students identified that ‘Conflict’ with curriculum requirements external to the clinical rotation, were a major problem. These requirements restricted the students’ ability to gain an adequate clinical experience, within the CCM context by reducing time spent in the clinical environment. Conclusion: The current program was found to be effective for student learning, however, opportunities exist for additional improvements.

The Upper Nepean River catchment in the Sydney Basin has a rich repertoire of visual imagery - rock-art, and a variety of other types of marks on stone. This thesis examines the diversity and spatial distribution across the land of these rock markings and change over time. The theoretical focus is on materiality, practice and performance. In previous research conducted in the Sydney Basin, rock-art located in shelters has been considered, at least implicitly, to be functionally equivalent across both space and time. The research in this thesis, by comparison, has been developed to explore both synchronic and diachronic variability in sheltered rock-art and to give consideration to the occupational and contextual diversity this represents. The rock-art corpus is analysed in accordance with its material diversity in order to explore the qualitatively different forms of behavioural expression that this variation may embody. A fundamental distinction is made between graphically structured, imposed form on the one hand, and gestural marks on the other. The material relationship between the rock-art and the rock on and within which it is set, is also examined. The different data sets are explored dialectically and in accordance with their geographic and environmental location in order to gain an appreciation of the experience and engagement between Aboriginal people and the land in this part of the Sydney Basin. The analysis employs both quantitative and explicitly narrative approaches to examine the spatial and temporal dimensions of occupation. While this research has been conducted without the support of any direct dating or archaeological context, the methodology has, nevertheless allowed for the discrimination of temporal diversity in spatial patterns, and concomitantly, the manner in which the land has been occupied and created as landscape, over time. In order to achieve this, it has been crucial to analyse the rock markings not only in respect of their behaviour correlates, but also their material locations within geographic, environmental and micro-topographic space. The analysis of the Upper Nepean rock-art reveals a pattern of diachronic change in which the marking of the land with imagery became increasingly diverse in a number of formal and material ways, and geographically and environmentally common and widespread. The results suggests that regional bodies of rock-art are likely to have been produced in accordance with a diversity of motivations and functional purposes and that significant temporal change in the impetus to mark the land, and the choice of how and where to do so, can occur over relatively short time frames. It is argued that the practice of marking the land in the Upper Nepean was a dynamic dialectic, both constitutive and transformative, of being and place. Over time, people drew the land into an object world which became, with ever increasing inscription and embellishment, a marked and painted landscape, both productive of and reflecting, a complex history.

The research examines prehistoric rock art which occurs in the Sydney region in coastal south-eastern Australia. The rock art is located in two distinct contexts provided by the sandstone bedrock which defines this region. Engravings, or petroglyph, sites occur in open locations. In rockshelter locations the art consists of drawings, stencils, paintings and engravings. The principal aim of this thesis is to define a model for cultural interaction which can describe a prehistoric art system. The basis for this proposed model is information exchange theory. By perceiving art and ‘style’ from a functional perspective it is possible to view the region’s art as a conduit for the expression of social affiliations. Depending in the level of interaction- individual, local, regional – different types of information about social interaction might be expected. Patterns in stylistic variability are examined, with three possible sources of variability being investigated. The effects of medium, diachronic change and synchronic variability are all considered. The contemporaneity of art and occupation evidence is also investigated across the region. Four rock shelter art sites were excavated for this purpose. Using information exchange theory, as has been developed ethnographically, it is argued that varying levels of stylistic heterogeneity reveal different types of social information. Higher levels of stylistic homogeneity demonstrated by prehistoric art can be interpreted in terms of larger-group cohesion. In the Sydney region, complex patterns in the levels of variability in both contexts demonstrate the nature of the contacts between language groups, as well as areas where the stresses resulting from these contacts may have been the greatest. It is argued that the rock art in the Sydney region functioned as a prehistoric information superhighway. Through stylistic behaviour, groups around the region who are not in constant verbal contact with each other were able to communicate important social messages and demonstrate both broad-scale group cohesion and within-group distinctiveness.

This research surveys water quality and chemistry, river sediment chemistry and aquatic macroinvertebrates in eight streams that are the recipient of coal mine wastewaters from seven collieries across the Sydney Basin. The study also surveyed water quality and chemistry at five of the seven collieries wastewater discharge streams (effluent streams). Most of the coal mine wastewater discharges are licensed and regulated by the New South Wales Environment Protection Authority (NSW EPA) through a series of Environmental Protection Licences (EPL’s). During this study four of the collieries were actively mining ore, while three were inactive. One of these had permanently ceased mining more than 20 years previously. Results revealed that all seven mines caused mild to significant modifications to a plethora of water quality and water chemistry parameters, river sediment chemical parameters and macroinvertebrate community structure. Many of the pollutant concentrations recorded in this survey were above, or outside of their respective ANZECC 2000 guidelines for protection of aquatic ecosystems. pH and salinity (electrical conductivity) were often above the recommended guidelines and substantially differing from their background conditions. Of widespread concern are the elevated concentrations of the metals nickel and zinc, with the majority of samples collected from coal mine wastewater streams and downstream of their inflow to rivers well above the recommended ANZECC 2000 guidelines. Iron and manganese were also found to be of elevated ecological concern with aluminium, cadmium, chromium, copper and lead also often above the recommended ANZECC 2000 guidelines for protecting ecosystems. Macroinvertebrates were collected from upstream and downstream of all eight mine wastewater discharges to measure the impact of the coal mine wastewaters on aquatic ecosystems. Results of the study show that the coal mine wastewaters being discharged were having varying negative impacts to the receiving waterways aquatic ecosystem that this research quantified through assessment of aquatic macroinvertebrates. The findings of this research have revealed major flaws in the current environmental regulation of seven licenced coal mine wastewater discharges within the Sydney Basin. This comprehensive research has shown that at many levels the current NSW EPA water pollution regulation of the seven coal mines fails to protect the downstream waterway from the pollution. The NSW EPA regulation of coal mine wastewaters focus on the waste attributes at the ‘end-of-pipe’ waste discharge. Along with the NSW EPA method of “monthly focus” on a selection of colliery wastewater pollutant concentrations, these approaches do not fully take into account the impact of the waste discharges on the receiving waterways aquatic ecosystems.

Title page, abstract and table of contents only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University of Adelaide Library.
A 2002 report by Australian National Greenhouse Gas Inventory suggests that since 1990 Australia's net emissions of carbon dioxide equivalent from stationary combustion sources are on the rise and they are likely to rise even at a higher rate in keeping with continued economic and industrial growth. In order to reduce Australian CO₂emissions, there is a need to identify and explore large-capacity storage locations for CO₂ sequestration. In that context, Australian coal seams, notably the coal-bed methane (CBM) reservoirs in Sydney and Bowen Basins, could potentially be attractive sites to sequester large volumes of greenhouse CO₂ emissions while also recovering the methane gas, a relatively cleaner source of fossil fuel. This study investigates the deliverability and economic feasibility of CO₂ sequestration through CO₂-Enhanced CBM recovery (CO₂-ECBMR) in the Camden area, Sydney coal basin. The results of the study show that the CO₂-ECBMR impacts the absolute pelmeability of the Camden area significantly. Because of a good reticulated fracture system, the CO₂ breakthrough from the producers is faster. The enhancement of CH₄ recovery by preferential adsorption of CO₂ occurs simultaneously with the abatement of CH₄ recovery by overall decrease in permeability in the CBM reservoir. Hence, the actual CH₄ is produced under the overall effect of these two competing processes, with the operating parameters like producer-injector spacing and injection pressure affecting their relative dominance over each other. The study also addresses the opportunities of a niche for CO₂ sequestration in these coals, which will be dictated mainly by the factors of sequestration economics and status of these coals being "unmineable". The results derived from the study could help the design of an optimum operating strategy in implementing the CO₂ sequestration and enhanced CBM recovery in Sydney Basin, Australia and elsewhere.
http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1259968
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Australian School of Petroleum, 2006

Persoonia hirsuta Pers. (Proteaceae) is an Endangered shrub species endemic to the Sydney Basin region of New South Wales. This species has been in significant decline over the past two decades and is presently threatened by urban development, limited seedling recruitment, and observed dieback (a condition in which a plant begins to die from the tips of its leaves or backwards often owing to disease or an unfavourable environment) of a presently unknown cause. Understanding what causes dieback and limits new seedling recruitment is critical for the successful conservation and management of this species. The overarching goal of this research is to address key biological knowledge gaps associated with this species biology and explore potential drivers of dieback with an aim to improve the conservation and management of this species. My thesis has identified that soil pathogens, fire severity and climate change and/or environmental extremes may be involved in driving dieback and decline for P. hirsuta. However, further research is necessary to explore the intricacies of how these factors are involved in driving dieback. Additionally, these threats necessitate further conservation actions and improved management recommendations for this species. Therefore, the information in this PhD thesis has been prepared to serve in part of a NSW Threatened Species Scientific Committee Conservation Assessment as the combined results from this thesis, and other work suggest this species is eligible to be up listed to Critically Endangered. The increased understanding of ecological processes affecting dieback and decline gained from this thesis will inform future research activities and conservation recommendations for this species through improved delivery of adaptive management strategies such as translocations. Additionally, the novel strategies employed throughout thesis may improve future research associated with addressing possible drivers of dieback in native ecosystems.

This thesis concerns a sedimentological study of the Late Permian Broughton, Pheasants Nest and Erins Vale Formations, southern Sydney Basin, New South Wales, aimed at producing a palaeoenvironmental interpretation of these sequences. It is based on facies analysis of borecore data, vertical and lateral profiling of outcrop sequences, including architectural element analysis, and an integration of the results of these studies with previous work. The sequences studied begin with the interdigitating lower offshore silt of the upper Berry Siltstone and lower offshore sand-belt of the lower Broughton Formation, including progradational volcanic shoreface sequences. Sedimentation occurred in the 'Broughton Seaway' between the western cratonic landmass and a north-northeast oriented volcanic barrier in the east. River-derived meltwater underflows, massflows, tidally-driven longshore currents and migration of large sandwaves into the lower offshore sand-belt were the major depositional processes. The upper offshore sand-sheets of the middle Broughton Formation represent a widespread development of time-transgressive, above storm wave base, aggradational sedimentation. The progradational sandskirts of volcanic alluvial fans in the south (Jamberoo Sandstone Member) constructed a delta which was of a mixed type between a pyroclastic and alluvial fan delta. These kinds of deltas probably served as significant sources and depositional conduits for the offshore sediments which were dispersed mainly through wave action in a storm-dominated setting._ Submarine volcanic flows and associated shallow marine environments, and emerged volcanic islands with woodlands were coevally present in the southeast during the deposition of the Broughton Formation. The upper Broughton Formation is generally marked by a northeastward diachronous progradation of the southern shoreline, which progressively filled up the Broughton Seaway. Progradational evolution of the deltaic to barred shoreline, reflecting waning influence of the Gerringong volcanic barriers, was contemporaneous with the upper deltaic and distributary coastal zone sedimentation of the Pheasants Nest Formation. Actually, the periglacial braided subaerial fans and subaerial volcanism modelled for the lower and middle Pheasants Nest Formation greatly contributed to a northward progradation of the shoreline and retreat of the Broughton Seaway. With additional contributions from the western craton, a centripetal sediment transport pattern toward a northeast-oriented depocentre resulted. This meant development of a northeasterly flowing longitudinal drainage system. Physiographically, most of the former Broughton Seaway had now transformed into a broad valley between the volcanic and cratonic hinterlands. During the upper Pheasants Nest Formation time, extensive development of a flat, alluvial plain with an axial drainage pattern, low-lying coastal swamps and networks of high sinuosity, single channel or multiple channel anastomosing river systems is postulated. A shallow epeiric Erins Vale sea was caused by transgression across the topographically low-lying northeastern to northern alluvial plains of the Pheasants Nest Formation . The lower-middle Erins Vale Formation represents shoreface-offshore conditions in the east and north, including an oxygen-deficient, lower offshore regime (Kulnura Marine Tongue) - and shoreline fades of a transgressive barrier system in the west and south. Deposition during the upper Erins Vale Formation occurred through fan delta progradation from the western craton, which passed upward into the subaerial fan of the Marangaroo Conglomerate; a central and southern regressive barrier system and an energetic shoreface sand in the east which passed upward into the Wilton Formation. The upper Nowra Sandstone and lower Berry Siltstone form a transgressive systems tract. A sustained tectonic loading producing protracted subsidence was apparently the primary cause of basin subsidence. The upper Berry Siltstone and lower to middle Broughton Formation represent an overall highstand systems tract with portions of the upper Berry Siltstone and the lowest Broughton Formation showing interludes of minor transgressive pulses. This reflected a more stabilized base-level situation, following a reduction of basin subsidence rate. The upper Broughton Formation and lower-middle Pheasants Nest Formation constitute a lowstand systems tract, including early regressive phases represented by the upper Broughton Formation. It was related to the development of a foreswell on the basin margin and subsidence in the depocentre caused by the propagation of compressional energy from the orogen. The upper Pheasants Nest Formation indicates an early transgressive stage and the lower Erins Vale Formation, including the Kulnura Marine Tongue, is a transgressive systems tract. The middle Erins Vale Formation represents a highstand systems tract. Subsequently, the early regressive phases represented by the upper Erins Vale Formation, the lowstand wedge of the basal Wilton Formation and the Marangaroo Conglomerate constituted a lowstand systems tract. They developed as a result of erosion of a fores well produced on the cratonic margin. This study provides evidence in support of the Currarong Orogen. The Offshore Uplift is probably a preserved portion of the Currarong Orogen and the Newcastle Sub-basin was a likely depocentre for the Late Permian sequences. A periglacial climate with seasonal freezing and thawing had significant influence on sedimentation. Episodic meltwater discharge mobilized large volumes of volcaniclastic materials in spring (as lahars at times of large floods and/ or volcanic eruptions) and associated ice floes enroute to the sea. The major variables for the studied sequences in the southern Sydney Basin are constrained in this thesis, and comparative studies identified modern and ancient global examples that are broadly similar to the Late Permian sequences.

Global warming due to anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases notably carbon dioxide, could lead to the irreversible melting of the polar ice and significant increases in global mean temperature. One of the mitigating strategies that can be carried out on a larger scale is the capture and geological sequestration of this gas. Notable among proven geological resources is deep unmineable coal seams. Geological sequestration in these systems has a value added advantage because of coal bed methane production which is a source of cleaner burning fuel than coal. Accordingly the injection of carbon dioxide to a coal seam for long term storage accompanied by the production of methane requires adequate knowledge of the two phase flow characteristics of the methane/brine and carbon dioxide/brine systems. The most important characteristics of the two phase flow are relative permeability and capillary pressure. The coal core was characterized by proximate and ultimate ASTM measurements, x-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses. These analyses identify the existence of clay minerals in the coal structure, which shows that origin of coal formation was from swamp plants. These minerals were used to fill the pores and reduce the permeability. Relative permeability and capillary pressure data for Sydney basin coal samples were collected. This study has also obtained pore size distribution and its indexes both from capillary pressure data and statistical methods based on the hyperbolic model of capillary pressure versus saturation data. The elaborate experimental design and precise measurements using capillary pressure unit (TGC-764) with a pressure control module makes the acquired petro-physical data a valuable asset for future carbon dioxide enhanced coal bed methane production.

碩士
國立臺灣師範大學
地球科學系
99
This study constructed the Early to Middle Permian paleoenvironrnent of southern high latitude by analyzing the stable isotope compositions of brachiopod shells from the Southern Sydney Basin and Tasmania , Australia. Ninety-two brachiopod and bivalve shells we collected from 7 formations (Sakmarian to Wordian) in Sydney Basin. Fossil brachiopods were collected from the Berriedale Limestone Formation (Artinskian) in Tasmania. All sample were thin sectioned and examined under the petrographic and cathodoluminescence microscopes for evaluating shell preservation. In addition, 20 brachiopod shells and 2 bivalve shells were selected to measure the element contents for further evaluation of shell preservation. A total of 638 isotopic analyses were performed. Only 401 isotopic analyses were determined micro-sampled from well preserved portions (non luminescent ; NL) to provide original environment signals. The average carbon isotope values of the NL brachiopod shells from these intervals are greater than 5‰, were comparable to those of eastern Pangea, but different from those of western Pangea. This comparability with eastern Pangea in carbon isotope records is interpreted to indicate similar oceanographic conditions and chemistry between southeastern Gondwana shelf water and that of eastern Pangea. The highest value of 7‰ at Lower Wandrawandian Siltstone (late Kungurian) indicate the possible presence of upwelling systems and thus increasing burial rate of organic matter. Difference in oxygen isotope values between high southern latitudes and low latitudes fluctuated during Early to Middle Permian. Mean oxygen isotope values of NL brachiopod shells were heavier than those of low latitudes in early Sakmarian (-0.3‰), early Late Artinskian (-1.1‰), late Kungurian (-1.0‰), Roadian (-0.2‰), and Wordian (-0.7‰); comparable to those of western Pangea in early Artinskian (-2.1‰) and early Kungurian (-2.5‰); and lighter than those of western Pangea in late Late Artinskian (-3.9‰). Assuming the oxygen isotope value was -1‰ for Permian seawater in southeast Australia, most of the calculated oxygen isotope temperatures (between 12°C and 16°C) reflected southeast Australia's high latitude cool temperature. However, the higher Upper Pebbly Beach Formation (29°C, late Late Artinskian), Berriedale Limestone (21°C, early Artinskian), Snapper Point Formation (22°C, early Kungurian) intervals were apparently relatively warmer, which may be attributed to a combination of warmer temperature and depleted seawater oxygen isotope composition in this region.

Habitat requirements and habitat use for Pseudophryne australis and Heleioporus australiacus were investigated to aid management of these threatened frogs around Sydney, Australia. Much of the work focussed on roads, commonly encountered features in the habitat of both species. The habitat requirements based on locality records of both frogs in the Sydney Basin were investigated at four spatial scales. Both species are habitat specialists. They showed a strong geological association with Hawkesbury Sandstone and occupy upper topographic areas with ephemeral watercourses of gentle gradients. Both frogs occur predominantly in areas of higher precipitation and milder temperature regimes compared to averages representative of the region. Leaf litter is an important feature of P. australis breeding sites, whereas H australiacus generally associate with crayfish burrows. Both species are dependent on natural vegetation with a complex structure. H australiacus have a relatively long larval period (3 - 12 months) and breed in ephemeral pools, exposing their tadpoles to the risk of dying due to early pond drying. In the laboratory, tadpoles responded to decreasing water levels by shortening their larval periods and metamorphosing earlier than siblings held at constant water level. Despite this plastic response, a number of pools in the field failed to produce metamorphs due to early drying, an observation also made on P. australis. Regular monitoring of breeding sites revealed increased reproductive success away from roads for both species probably because of relatively longer hydroperiods. Spatial distributions and associations with habitat features, and movement patterns of both frogs were further investigated using mark-recapture methods. Both species showed strong site fidelity. P. australis formed small aggregations and predominantly selected leaf litter piles despite their relatively low availability. Leaf litter piles in creeks moved over time and the animals moved with these piles. In contrast, H australiacus individuals formed no aggregations and showed no preference for any available structural vegetation type. Locations of individuals were independent of relative distances to creeks and artificial drains, but males appeared to be more common near culverts. However, individuals were randomly distributed in space and nearest-neighbour distances were high relative to individual movement distances, suggesting minimal overlap between relatively large home ranges. Radio-telemetry demonstrated that some H australiacus individuals burrow in the road environment. There they would be at risk of being dug up and possibly injured during road works. The results are discussed in relation to the spatial requirements of both species and the protection of utilised habitat features. Management options are suggested to mitigate the impacts of road works. Differences in spatial dynamics of both frogs with overlapping habitats highlighted in this study require species-specific management approaches.

Habitat requirements and habitat use for Pseudophryne australis and Heleioporus australiacus were investigated to aid management of these threatened frogs around Sydney, Australia. Much of the work focussed on roads, commonly encountered features in the habitat of both species. The habitat requirements based on locality records of both frogs in the Sydney Basin were investigated at four spatial scales. Both species are habitat specialists. They showed a strong geological association with Hawkesbury Sandstone and occupy upper topographic areas with ephemeral watercourses of gentle gradients. Both frogs occur predominantly in areas of higher precipitation and milder temperature regimes compared to averages representative of the region. Leaf litter is an important feature of P. australis breeding sites, whereas H australiacus generally associate with crayfish burrows. Both species are dependent on natural vegetation with a complex structure. H australiacus have a relatively long larval period (3 - 12 months) and breed in ephemeral pools, exposing their tadpoles to the risk of dying due to early pond drying. In the laboratory, tadpoles responded to decreasing water levels by shortening their larval periods and metamorphosing earlier than siblings held at constant water level. Despite this plastic response, a number of pools in the field failed to produce metamorphs due to early drying, an observation also made on P. australis. Regular monitoring of breeding sites revealed increased reproductive success away from roads for both species probably because of relatively longer hydroperiods. Spatial distributions and associations with habitat features, and movement patterns of both frogs were further investigated using mark-recapture methods. Both species showed strong site fidelity. P. australis formed small aggregations and predominantly selected leaf litter piles despite their relatively low availability. Leaf litter piles in creeks moved over time and the animals moved with these piles. In contrast, H australiacus individuals formed no aggregations and showed no preference for any available structural vegetation type. Locations of individuals were independent of relative distances to creeks and artificial drains, but males appeared to be more common near culverts. However, individuals were randomly distributed in space and nearest-neighbour distances were high relative to individual movement distances, suggesting minimal overlap between relatively large home ranges. Radio-telemetry demonstrated that some H australiacus individuals burrow in the road environment. There they would be at risk of being dug up and possibly injured during road works. The results are discussed in relation to the spatial requirements of both species and the protection of utilised habitat features. Management options are suggested to mitigate the impacts of road works. Differences in spatial dynamics of both frogs with overlapping habitats highlighted in this study require species-specific management approaches.

The Mekong River, also known as the Lancang River in China, is ‘both a uniting and dividing force for Southeast Asia’. The initial focus of the thesis will identify the major environmental challenges on the Mekong River ecosystem and the status quo of water resources management in the Mekong region, focusing on the existing water-related legal arrangements and mechanisms at both domestic and regional levels. It will discuss the ongoing difficulties and as well as aspirations for reform of the water management regime. The capacity of governments and inter-governmental organisations with regard to implementation and legal regulation will also be analysed, as well as the role of non-state actors on decision-making processes concerning development activities in the region. Research studies over the past few years have made it clear that despite attempts to reshape the management of Mekong water resources into a more integrated regime, the current frameworks at both domestic and regional levels remain fragmented. Under these circumstances, the thesis attempts to explore procedural implications of integrated water resources management and its application in the Mekong region. The increasingly polycentric nature of transboundary cooperation must be borne in mind, with the emergence of newly recognised stakeholders who represent a broader range of interests than has been the case in the past. The following major procedural requirements can be identified in the proposed procedural framework: information exchange and data collection on a regular basis (chapter three);notification and consultation(chapter four);the public’s right of access to information and participation(chapter five) and environmental impact assessment, strategic environmental assessment, and their applications in the transboundary context(chapter six). In order to tailor and better understand the procedural requirements in the context of the Mekong region, both the ideal and practical scenarios are considered, combined with selected case studies. Existing legislation and practice concerning the use and application of procedural mechanisms in the Mekong region will also be analysed. The discussion on procedural mechanisms will also consider how to improve their implementation in light of the ongoing tradition and strong preference for soft law documents and approaches to transboundary cooperation. The relationship between legally-binding agreements and the capacity for compliance in the context of the Mekong region will be discussed. In addition, the relationship between the procedural and substantial elements of integrated river basin management will be re-examined in the final chapter. The final chapter will also outline the conclusions, identify the limitations of the thesis and suggest possible areas for future research.

The Wybong Creek catchment is located in the upper Hunter Valley of New South Wales, Australia, and contains award winning beef and wine producing operations. Solute concentrations in Wybong Creek are often too high for irrigation use, however, with previous research showing that the saline and Na-Cl dominated water discharged from Wybong Creek decreases water quality in both the Goulburn and Hunter Rivers into which it flows. This study therefore aimed at identifying the source of solutes to the Wybong Creek catchment and the processes which cause salinisation of surface water, soil (regolith) and groundwater. Surface water was sampled at ten sites along Wybong Creek over three years, while groundwater was sampled from most of the bores and piezometers occurring in the Wybong Creek valley. Surface and groundwater in the upper catchment were dominated by Na-Mg-HCO3. Ratios of 87Sr/86Sr and cation/HCO3 indicated these facies were due to silicate weathering of the Liverpool Ranges, with localised groundwater bodies recharging in the Liverpool Ranges and discharging in the upper Wybong Creek valley. Wybong Creek became saline, and Na-Mg-Cl dominated in the mid-catchment area, with salinity doubling between the 55 and 60 km sample sites on some dates. Changes in surface water chemistry occurred independently of surface water input from tributaries, with abrupt salinity increases within a pool between these sites attributed to groundwater input via fractures beneath the Creek. One of two salt scalds in the Wybong Creek catchment also occurs adjacent to this stretch of river. A field site was established at the mid-catchment locality of Manobalai, therefore, in order to constrain the relationship between surface water, regolith and groundwater salinity. Ten piezometers were established at Manobalai, including three piezometer nests. Most regolith at Manobalai was found to be non-saline, including that within the salt scald, with the most saline and Na-Cl dominated regolith samples occurring in some of the most moist and coarse sandy/gravel layers. Groundwater sampled from piezometers installed in the holes drilled for regolith samples had salinities up to 20 times higher than the regolith on a per weight basis, and were similarly dominated by Na-Cl. A lack of carbonate and sulfate minerals within the soils and no indication of Ca-Mg/HCO3- SO4 dominated facies within alluvial soil solutions indicated groundwater did not evolve from rainwater to Na-Cl dominated facies while infiltrating the regolith. Groundwater samples from Manobalai were instead found to be amongst the most fresh and the most saline within the Wybong Creek catchment, and changed salinity abruptly down-gradient along a transect. Groundwater flow occurred through fractures in the Narrabeen Group sandstones and conglomerates, with vertical groundwater flow via fractures causing abrupt changes in salinity. Ratios of Na/Cl, Cl/Br and 87Sr/86Sr indicated saline groundwater at Manobalai and in the lower catchment was influenced by a marine endmember and halite dissolution. A poor relationship between salinity and d18O indicated this marine endmember was not evapoconcentrated rainwater. The occurrence of saline surface and groundwater in the Wybong Creek catchment was instead attributed to discharge from the regional groundwater system occurring in the Wittingham Coal Measures, with the abrupt increases in salinity at Manobalai indicating mixing between local, intermediate and/or regional groundwater systems. Salinity is likely to function similarly to this in the rest of the Hunter Valley also. The occurrence of salinity in both the Hunter River and Wybong Creek catchments is a naturally occurring phenomenon with salinity mitigation difficult due to the regional extent of the saline groundwater systems. Living with salt strategies are therefore recommended, such as limiting irrigation using both saline and fresh water and continuing with restrictions on saline discharge from coal mines.
This work was supported by ARC Linkage grant number LP05060743. Scholarship funding was provided by The Australian National University Faculty of Science and Research School of Earth Sciences, with project funding and support also provided by Hunter Central Rivers Catchment Management Authority and the New South Wales Office of Water.

Freshwater turtle populations have been declining globally due to a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors, with nearly half of the world freshwater turtles threatened with extinction. Australia is high on the list of contributing countries, with one third of its native species threatened with extinction. The Murray River is an obvious example with populations of its native species Emydura macquarii declining by 69% and Chelodina longicollis declining by 91% over the past 30 years. Nest predation by the red fox and the installation of water regulators, which have affected dispersal and changed water quality, are likely main causes of these population declines This thesis used meta-population and population viability analyses to evaluate the impacts of dams on turtle populations in areas where recruitment may be severely limited because of predation by foxes. The aims are to determine levels of recruitment required throughout a system to eliminate risks of extinction, as well as determine how the placement of dams and weirs may restrict movement and potentially increase risks of extinction. I show that turtle populations of the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) can sustain relatively high losses of source recruitment populations, if relief populations are located between dams and impoundments. Areas of South Australia are of most concern. The scarcity of available habitats between dams, combined with high nest predation rates, increases the risk of extinction significantly. Water quality is also another significant factor that has hastened population declines and led to localised extirpation of MDB turtle populations. Management of MDB turtles centres on increasing the number of source populations for several species, increasing connectivity between populations and minimising risks for species moving terrestrially. This study also used modelling and population viability analysis to compare the cost to benefit ratio of two management techniques; headstarting and 1080 poison baiting, to determine which management technique would require the least cost to be the most effective. Vortex modelling showed that headstarting is significantly more efficient, economically beneficial, and uniformly more successful than baiting. Headstarting cost up to 40 times cheaper than baiting yet produced the same results. Headstarting cost an average of $0.22 AUD per hectare, whilst baiting cost as much as $8.73 AUD per hectare. Furthermore, modelled headstarting success was unaffected by the proportion of waterbodies in an area, the proportion of waterbodies baited/supplemented into or the proportion of forests (areas of lower nest predation) present, and could be used uniformly throughout the river. However, baiting required more baits when a lower number of waterbodies and low proportion of forests were present and would therefore need to be tailored to the area.

Climate change is one of the most serious global challenges of our time. It is not just a scientific issue but an economic, social, cultural, political and legal issue as well. The world community has taken many steps to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases to mitigate climate change. However, they have failed to take the drastic measures needed to address it effectively. This failure of the international community to effectively address climate change has encouraged environmental activists and victims of climate change to take recourse to international as well as national legal systems to better address these issues. India is particularly vulnerable to the changing climate and its Himalayan-fed rivers, such as the Ganga River, will be seriously affected because of the melting glaciers and changes in rainfall patterns due to climate change. Moreover, climate change can cause a violation of the ‘Right to Life’ provided to the people of India by its Constitution. The Indian Supreme Court has liberally interpreted this right to include the right to a healthy environment and has taken an active interest in protecting the environment and related rights of the people of India. The Supreme Court could potentially play an important role in addressing climate change issues in India by applying the broad constitutional provisions and the rich environmental jurisprudence developed by it in landmark environmental cases. This thesis discusses the potential role the Indian Supreme Court could play in future in addressing climate change issues with a focus on the Ganga Basin in India.

This thesis is primarily concerned with the characteristics and effectiveness of extension and adult learning within a community of Maltese vegetable growers in western Sydney. Extension was practised according to principles of experiential learning theory, action research and andragogy. The recommendation is made that extension agents should concentrate upon experiences that are within the target group's spheres of activity and interest. Kolb's experiential learning theory was found to be applicable to extension in this context. This theory, and similar principles, involve interpretivism, reflection and interaction, all of which were found to be beneficial. It was found to be sufficient for the author to inspire growers with broad concepts, which were then applied by growers to their situations. It is suggested that extension agents concern themselves less with attempts to change clients' attitudes and instead encourage them to trial innovations and draw their own conclusions. Future research should consider characteristics of the internalisation of knowledge and the role of clients' emotional well-being. Guidelines for extension with Maltese vegetable growers of the Sydney region are listed, and many of these are generalisable to other circumstances of extension.

This thesis reports results from a comprehensive crystallographic and spectroscopic investigation of natural and synthetic samples of the basic Cu(II) chloride minerals, with focus on substitution phenomena in the group. A series of composition-induced phase transformations occur in the group. They are possibly anatacamite P1→ clinoatacamite P21/n → paratacamite R3→ herbertsmithite R3m, when Zn is the dominant substituting cation in the formula Cu4-xZnx(OH)6Cl2. The role of paratacamite in this series is poorly understood. It was originally described with the formula Cu2(OH)3Cl, but it is likely its structure is stabilised by the presence of essential Zn. An analogous series with Ni substitution to the end-member R3m phase known as gillardite, which is isostructural with herbertsmithite, also occurs. Based on the group theory, two series of space group symmetries are possible, P1→ R3→ R3m and P1→ C2/m → P21/c → R3m. These possibilities are explored through an analysis of the inherent structural changes related to compositional effects. A crystal from the type specimen of paratacamite (British Museum specimen BM86958), with composition Cu3.71Zn0.29(OH)6Cl2, was analysed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction at several temperatures (100, 200, 300, 353, 393 and 423 K). Its structure at 300 K is confirmed in space group R3for the unit cell a ≈ 13.6, c ≈ 14.0 Å, with a pronounced substructure corresponding to a′ ≈ ½a and c′ ≈ c, in space group R3m (analogous to the structure of herbertsmithite). Paratacamite undergoes a reversible phase transformation to the R3m substructure at elevated temperatures. This establishes that paratacamite is thermodynamically stable at 300 K for the composition studied. The loss of the superstructure at elevated temperature indicates that the substitution phenomenon is statistical between both interlayer metal sites, rather than being preferential at M(1) as has been suggested in the literature. It is suggested that the observed (2+2+2) octahedral configuration at M(2) is a consequence of a superimposition of non-tetragonally elongated Zn(OH)6 octahedra with dynamic (4+2) Jahn-Teller distorted Cu(OH)6octahedra occupying two orientations. In the course of this investigation the single-crystal X-ray structure of two new analogues of paratacamite were determined. One is an Mg-rich specimen from the Quebrada Mine, Camerones, Chile, Cu 3(Mg,Cu)(OH)6Cl2, and the other is a Ni-rich specimen from the Carr Boyd Rocks Mine, Western Australia, Australia, Cu3(Ni,Cu)(OH)6Cl2. The supercell analogous to that reported for paratacamite was identified and the structure was solved in space group R3. Both analogues exhibit a substructure with a' ≈ ½a, c' ≈ c in space group R3m. They are the first examples of naturally occurring substituted paratacamite congeners to be reported. Substitution phenomena in the Mg analogue is confirmed as being statistical in nature by refinement of the site scattering factors of interlayer sites M(1) and M(2). The substitution behaviour in the Ni analogue, as well as paratacamite containing from Zn from the holotype specimen was assumed to be statistical throughout this investigation, but the possibility remains that Zn and Ni preferentially occupy one of the interlayer sites. Furthermore, the single-crystal X-ray structure of naturally occurring Cu3(Co,Cu)(OH)6Cl2from the Torrecillas Mine, Salar Grande provence, Chile, is reported with unit cell parameters and structure analogous to that of herbertsmithite. Raman spectroscopy analyses, supported by single-crystal X-ray diffraction of samples exhibiting a range of compositions, have revealed several trends associated with variation in composition. An examination of both natural and synthetic samples indicate that the transformation series proceeds as P1→ P2 1/c → R3m, with decreasing Cu2+ content in Cu4-xMx(OH)6Cl2. The composition-induced changes in the paratacamite Raman spectrum with high interlayer Cu2+ content, suggests a distortion towards that of anatacamite. With excess substitution for interlayer Cu2+, the structure converges with that of the R3m aristotype. This corresponds to the space group series P1→ R3→ R3m, with decreasing Cu2+content as described above. The stability of paratacamite appears to be dependent on the type of substituting cation. Finally, the synthetic series of Zn- and Ni-substituted members was explored in order to determine the behaviour of the solid state activity coefficient (γ). In clinoatacamite, Zn 2+ occupation exhibits non-ideal behaviour for dilute solid solutions and γ > 1. With increasing Zn content, γ approaches unity near the composition Cu3.80Zn0.20(OH)6Cl2. (NOTE: SOME OF THE SCIENTIC SYMBOLS CAN NOT BE REPRESENTED CORRECTLY IN THE ABSTRACT. PLEASE READ WITH CAUTION AND REFER TO THE ORIGINAL THESIS.)

It is known that some individuals with chronic pain go on to develop high blood pressure. Indeed, patients with post-surgical chronic pain have nearly twice the prevalence of clinical hypertension than medical patients without pain (Bruehl, Chung, Jirjis, & Biridepalli, 2005). Accordingly, we could postulate that a person who consistently exhibited increases in muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA), blood pressure and heart rate during experimental muscle pain may – if he or she developed chronic pain from an injury in the future – go on to develop hypertension (Bruehl et al., 2005). Interestingly, long-lasting experimental muscle pain induced by hypertonic saline solution in humans causes a sustained and consistent increase in muscle vasoconstrictor drive and blood pressure in some subjects, and a sustained decrease in others (Fazalbhoy, Birznieks, & Macefield, 2012, 2014). To further our understanding of the complex physiological changes that bring about these divergent responses, this thesis has explored the association of baseline physiological and psychological levels with the direction of the sympathetic response during tonic muscle pain. Furthermore, this project included combined microneurography and neuroimaging techniques to identify areas of the brain involved in generating sustained increases or decreases in sympathetic nerve activity to muscle, as well as changes in the brain associated with the generation of MSNA bursts during experimental muscle pain. The final chapter explored the effects of an audio-visual stimulus on the direction of the response. The results reported in this thesis highlight the fact that the muscle sympathetic responses to experimental muscle pain are not based on baseline physiological or psychological parameters but are associated with different signal intensity changes in important autonomic brain regions. Furthermore, distraction from the painful stimulus through audio-visual distraction does not influence the direction of the response. While this series of experiments has shed light on the neurophysiological mechanism through which the divergent sympathetic response to experimental muscle pain arises, many questions remain to be answered. For instance, it is unknown why such divergent responses would occur in humans. Furthermore, whether these responses remain sustained over a longer period of time needs to be determined.

Aged people who live independently require continuous monitoring of their health and activities of daily living in order to be supported by different health services and maintain their health status. This need can be addressed in the home setting, by providing a “health smart home” living environment for them. Using a health smart home approach has many advantages, such as, reducing the cost of health services by minimizing visits to hospitals, improving the quality of life for aged people recovering from illness at home instead of hospital, providing a secure and safe place for aged people who live independently, and routinely monitoring health status and daily activities to assist in improving health life of aged people. To provide such solution, it is required to classify the activities of daily living by using an activity recognition system. The development of sensing technologies that are cheap in price and provide an appropriate level of accuracy has opened the door for a wide range of research in the field of human activity recognition, including health applications. Different types of sensing technologies, modelling approaches and computational methods have been proposed for use in activity recognition systems, some of which are very complex. However, no one system solution has been widely accepted as optimal, providing scope for more investigations and improvements in this very rapidly growing area. The aim of this thesis is to develop a rule-based system to classify the activities of daily living in different hierarchical levels by using a cheap and sufficiently accurate ultrasonic location system (Hexamite19). Moreover, using a simple classification method based on initial application of activity distinguishing rules and then improving these results using finite state machine methods that can provide a high level of accuracy similar or better to previous research. In addition, a comparison of the system performance with existing classification methods is desirable, and in this case a decision-tree method (implemented in Sipina software) was used. To achieve the aims of the thesis, a systematic approach was followed, that included defining the research questions, setting up the experimental facility, selecting wearable sensor technology, collection of data on typical daily activities, development of methods for pre-processing of data followed by windowing, feature extracting, classification and finally the analysis of the rule-based system performance and accuracy. The rule-based system deployed three classification methods (range-based method, backward range-based method and symmetric range-based method). Range-based method deploys only rules, where backward range-based method and symmetric range-based method deploy rules and finite state machine extensions. The difference between backward range-based method and symmetric range-based method is the improvement of classification for undefined activity. System testing accuracy was used to assess the accuracy values of the different hierarchical levels. The rule-based system performance and accuracy was improved by using the finite state machine and the best method was symmetric range-based method for all hierarchical levels, except for the second hierarchical level where the accuracy of the three classification methods was equal. Moreover, it was found that the accuracy range of rule-based system was 83.4%-100%. By comparing the accuracy range of rule-based system with previous research and decision-tree method of Sipina software, it was found that the performance and accuracy of rule-based system were comparable with previous research and better in some cases. By using the decision-tree method of Sipina software, the accuracy range was 74.4%-99.3%. By comparing the accuracy range of rule-based system and decision-tree method of Sipina software, it is obvious that the rule-based system performance and accuracy was better, except for the activities sleep, walk straight and walk curvy. In conclusion, based on the analysis it was found that the rule-based system succeeded in classifying the activities of daily living into hierarchical levels; the finite state machine improved the accuracy of the rule-based system and the rule-based system accuracy was comparable with previous research and better than the decision-tree method of Sipina software (for all activities except for sleep, walk straight and walk curvy). It is therefore claimed that the deployed rule-based system has fulfilled the objectives of providing a robust and computationally inexpensive solution for common home-based activity recognition.