Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Swimmers'

This thesis has two main parts. The first comprises a collection of nineteen short stories, entitled The World-Swimmers. The second takes the form of an exegesis, 'Framing Fictions & Fictional Friendships,' which provides a critical commentary on the collection, and on the nexus of text and context. The stories vary in length from approximately 1,000 to over 4,000 words. Various writing styles are used to develop fictional explorations of a range of themes, which include: the relationship between the natural and the human worlds, the imbrication of local place and international space, obsession, entrapment, and desire. However, perhaps the most salient theme is that of the continuous interplay between ideas and daily life. The exegesis begins with a consideration of the concept of the artistic frame. A general theoretical analysis of framing, inspired by the chapter 'Parergon' in Jacques Derrida's The Truth in Painting, provides an anchor for more particular speculations about a few of the frames, no doubt actually many in number, which close over the unstable boundary of The World-Swimmers. The exegesis also argues that friendship-especially in its non-intuitive Forms-constitutes a stimulating 'matrix of thought' for considering the relationships that my collection has, to its thematic concerns, to the fiction of Jorge Luis Borges, and to certain literary genres. I suggest that The World- Swimmers is primarily a magical-realist text, which nevertheless presents many of the traits of postmodern writing.

Shoulder pain in elite swimmers is common and its cause is unknown. One hypothesis is that repetitive swimming leads to shoulder laxity, which in turn leads to impingement and shoulder pain. An observational cross-sectional study was designed to test this hypothesis. Eighty elite swimmers (13-25 years of age) completed questionnaires on their swimming training, pain and shoulder function. They were given a standardized clinical shoulder examination, and tested for inferior glenohumeral joint laxity using a noninvasive electronic laxometer designed for this study. Fifty-two swimmers also attended for a shoulder MRI. The laxometer had good-excellent reliability for inter-observer (Intra-class correlation coefficient, ICC = 0.74) and intra-observer (ICC = 0.76) assessments of joint laxity. The reliability of MRI-determined supraspinatus tendinosis was excellent with a single experienced musculoskeletal radiologist (intra-observer ICC = 0.85) and fair for an inter-observer assessment including less experienced radiologists (ICC = 0.55). MRIdetermined supraspinatus tendinosis was present in 36/52 (69%) swimmers, including four international-level athletes. A positive impingement sign correlated with supraspinatus tendinosis (r = 0.49, p = 0.0002). The impingement sign had 100% sensitivity and 65% specificity for diagnosing supraspinatus tendinopathy. Shoulder laxity correlated modestly with impingement (r = 0.23, p < 0.05). There was no association between shoulder laxity and supraspinatus tendinosis (r = 0.24, p = 0.08). The number of hours swum/week (r = 0.36, p = 0.01) and the weekly mileage (r = 0.34, p = 0.02) both correlated significantly with supraspinatus tendinopathy whereas swimming stroke preference did not. Multiple logistic regression analysis performed with supraspinatus tendinopathy as the dependent variable showed the combination of hours swum/week and weekly mileage correctly predicted tendinopathy in 85% of elite swimmers. These data indicate that: (1) supraspinatus tendinopathy is a major cause of shoulder pain in elite swimmers; and (2) this supraspinatus tendinopathy is induced by the volume/dose of swimming; and (3) shoulder laxity per se has only a minimal association with shoulder impingement in elite swimmers. These finding in humans are consistent with animal and tissue culture findings which support the hypothesis that tendinopathy is related to the dose and duration of load to tendon cells.

Athlete satisfaction is often a direct result of coaching behaviours (Iso-Ahola & Hatfield, 1986). Effective coaches adapt to various antecedents such as level of competition, age, gender, and ability of athletes; there is not a 'one size fits all' model of coaching (Cushion, 2010). Although coaching science research has focused on many different levels of competition, one area that has received scant attention is coaches' of masters swimmers. This is important since only 15% of Canadian adults meet the current Canadian exercise guidelines (Stats Canada, 2013) and 75% of seniors are physically inactive (Warburton, Ashe, Miller, Shi, & Marra, 2009). Although athlete motivation is determined largely by their own beliefs, thoughts, and values, coaches represent an important motivational factor (Deci & Ryan, 2002). The purpose of this study was to explore masters swimmers experiences of coaching. In particular, this study examined the journey of masters swimmers in sport and identified the various coaching characteristics and behaviours that they felt promoted ideal training and competition environments that led to improved social, health, and performance outcomes. Qualitative descriptive methodology was used to guide the current analysis and Braun and Clarke's (2006) guidelines of thematic analysis were used for identifying, analyzing, and reporting themes within the data. Results revealed three themes which were called master athlete evolution, coaching knowledge and behaviours and outcomes. Despite the differences in career progression and experience of all the swimmers, several common coaching preferences emerged. These coaches established environments where the skills and values taught from their sport were promoted and encouraged in both sport and in life. Creating these positive environments was not about what the coaches did, but rather how they did it. The current coaches fostered environments that provided their athletes with positive social, health, and performance outcomes. This was accomplished through the coaches' influence on their athletes' motivation through their communication, organization, and teaching. Overall, these findings have provided a greater understanding of the preferred coaching behaviours of masters swimmers. Future studies investigating the influence of coaching on masters athletes or the coaching preferences of masters athletes may use these findings to advance research in this domain.
La satisfaction des athlètes, est souvent directement liée, aux actions et comportements des entraîneurs (Iso-Ahola & Hatfield, 1986). Les entraîneurs qui ont un impact positif, savent s'adapter aux antécédents de chaque athlète tels que : le niveau de compétition, l'âge, le sexe et les habilités de leur athlète. C'est pourquoi, il n'y a pas qu'un seul modèle d'entraînement qui convienne à tous (Cushion, 2010). Même si, ces dernières années, beaucoup de recherches scientifiques sur l'entraînement ont porté sur l'impact des différents niveaux de compétitions, un domaine qui a été grandement négligé est l'entraînement des athlètes maîtres. Ceci est primordial, puisque seulement 15% des adultes canadiens répondent aux critères canadiens d'exercices (Stats Canada, 2013) et 75% des personnes de l'âge d'or sont physiquement inactives (Warburton, Ashe, Miller, Shi, & Marra, 2009). Même si la motivation de l'athlète est grandement déterminée par ses propres valeurs et croyances, les entraîneurs jouent aussi un rôle important en tant que motivateur (Deci & Ryan, 2002). C'est pour cette raison que le but de cette recherche est d'identifier et d'expliquer les caractéristiques et les actions que les athlètes maîtres préfèrent de leur entraineur, basé sur les descriptions de maîtres-nageurs. La méthode qualitative descriptive a été utilisée pour guider la présente analyse. Six athlètes, maîtres nageurs décrivent individuellement leur style d'entraînement préféré et les caractéristiques recherchées chez leur entraîneur dans ce sport. Les critères d'analyse thématiques de Braun et Clarke (2006) ont été utilisées pour identifier, analyser et mettre en place des thèmes à travers les informations recueillies. Les résultats ont dévoilé trois thèmes : l'évolution de l'athlète maître, les connaissances et comportements de l'entraîneur et les résultats. Malgré les différences dans la progression de carrière et dans l'expérience de tous les nageurs, plusieurs préférences communes de style d'entraînement sont ressorties. Ces entraîneurs ont mis en place des environnements dans lesquels les habilités et les valeurs enseignées à travers leur sport ont été promues et encouragées dans le sport et dans la vie. Pour créer ces environnements positifs, l'importance n'était pas dans ce que les entraîneurs ont fait, mais plutôt comment ils l'ont fait. Donc, l'importance n'est pas dans le quoi, mais bien dans le comment. Les entraîneurs concernés ont développé des conditions où l'athlète bénéficie de plusieurs aspects positifs sur sa santé, sa performance et sa vie sociale. Ces réalisations ont été obtenues grâce à l'influence que les entraîneurs ont eu sur la motivation des athlètes, à leurs styles de communication, d'organisation et d'enseignement. Dans l'ensemble, les résultats de cette étude aide à mieux comprendre les comportements que les maîtres nageurs préfèrent de leurs entraîneurs. Les résultats de cette recherche, à propos de l'influence des entraîneurs sur les athlètes maîtres et de leur type d'entrainement préféré, vont pouvoir servir de base pour d'autres recherches dans ce domaine.

Purpose: The purpose of this thesis was to investigate the nature of the following conditions in competitive swimmers: the occurrence of exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia (EIAH), and the relationship to gender and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) (Study 1), and the development of exercise-induced pulmonary edema (PE), and changes in oxyhemoglobin saturation (Study 2). Methods: Study 1: Twenty-one well-trained swimmers (10 male, 11 female) completed a eucapnic voluntary hyperpnea test and an incremental swim test to exhaustion with pre and post-exercise spirometry. Metabolic data (VO₂, VCO₂, ventilation and heart rate) along with oxyhemoglobin saturation (SpO₂) were collected throughout exercise. Study 2: Baseline lung density was obtained in eight well-trained male swimmers using computerized tomography after 24 hours rest. After a standard warm-up, subjects performed 6 x 50m maximal effort intervals on 90 s. Oxyhemoglobin saturation (SpO₂) and heart rate were collected across exercise intervals. Scans were repeated at 45-60 min post-exercise. Results: Study 1: Eleven of the twenty-one subjects tested positive for EIB. No subjects fulfilled our criteria for EIAH (SpO₂ ≤95% or ≥3% drop from resting values) despite a small mean drop in SpO₂ from rest to maximal exercise in both males and females. There was no correlation between EIAH and EIB (p=0.21). Study 2: For the duration of the intervals, mean saturation levels remained close to resting values. Mean lung density significantly increased (p<0.05) from pre to post-exercise, with no significant changes in lung volume between scans (p=0.28). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that the swimming environment provides some protection against the development of EIAH in this population regardless of sex or presence of EIB. Furthermore, the development of pulmonary edema does occur and appears to be independent from oxyhemoglobin saturation. These results are likely attributable to the physiological response to water immersion and the horizontal body position associated with this form of exercise.

Biological Micro-motors are one of the most remarkable products of evolution; they can perform biological tasks with surprisingly high efficiency. A novel form of miniaturized man-made self-propelled micro-motors based on silk have been designed and fabricated in this thesis. These ‘swimmers’ were made from regenerated Bombyx mori silk fibroin via 3D reactive inkjet printing under ambient processing conditions. While Bombyx mori silk exhibits impressive mechanical properties, remarkable biocompatibility, controlled biodegradability, environmental stability, and morphologic flexibility, silk swimmers have expanded the range of potential applications even to the biomedical platform and sensitive protein therapeutics. Micro-motors are able to convert chemical or external energy into mechanical motion. Two different types of propulsion mechanisms were studied for silk swimmers: catalytically powered bubble propulsion and surface tension gradient powered.

The aim of this thesis was to contribute to the development of an objective, evidence-based international classification system for para-swimmers by quantifying the effect of physical impairment on passive and active drag. The thesis comprises five studies. Study 1 identified a significant relationship between normalised passive drag and the para-swimmers’ International Paralympic Committee (IPC) Class, but an inconsistent difference in normalised passive drag between adjacent classes. High within-class variability in passive drag indicates that the current classification system does not always differentiate clearly between swimming groups. Study 2 found that anthropometric features of para-swimmers, such as height and body mass, differed significantly between IPC Classes, whereas Shoulder Width, Chest Depth, Shoulder Girth and Torso Girth did not. A weak correlation existed between para-swimmers’ anthropometry and their passive drag, which indicates that other factors, such as impairment type, may be more important predictors of passive drag than anthropometry. Study 3 revealed that certain impairments, such as double-leg amputation above knee level, may predispose a para-swimmer to a relatively high passive drag which disadvantages them in competition. Study 4 compared two methods of estimating active drag during front crawl swimming: the Naval Architecture Based Approach (NABA) and the Active Towing Method (ATM). The means were not statistically different. Using a sensitivity analysis, the NABA was identified as the more reliable method of assessing active drag. Study 5 found that active and passive drag of elite para-swimmers are highly correlated but no relationship existed between active drag and International Paralympic Committee S Class (IPC S Class), indicating that factors other than impairment level may be more important in determining active drag. The relationships discovered between drag, IPC Class, anthropometry and impairments will contribute to the development of the future IPC Classification system.

The purpose of this study was to examine the caloric intake and energy output of swimmers and runner during normal daily activities and training. Daily and energy expenditure of twenty college varsity swimmers and runners were measured. Four groups of subjects were categorized as male runners, female runners, male swimmers, and female swimmers with five subjects in each group. An additional twenty runners and swimmers recorded only dietary intake. Despite a large difference in body weight and body fat, the mean daily caloric intake was similar for the two groups (male swimmers: 3377 Kcal/d-1, male runners: 3463 Kcal/d-1, female swimmers: 2491 Kcal/d-1, female runners: 2037 Kcal/d-1). Comparison of data normalized for body weight showed that male runners were more active than swimmers. Male runners burned more calories (53.3 Kcal/kg. d-1) in a twenty four hour period than swimmers (47.6 Kcal/kg.d-1). In the case of the females, the trend was reversed. Female swimmers expended more calories (45 Kcal/kg .d-1) than runners (38.9 Kcal/kg.d-1) despite a lower food intake. Consequently, caloric intake and life style does not seem to explain body fat difference between runners and swimmers. The data in this study suggest that the greater body fat found in swimmers may be related to a physiological adaptation induced by swim training.

We consider a spherical swimmer that undergoes helical motion due to the existence of a propulsive torque which is not parallel to a propulsive force that pulls the cell through the fluid. In addition, the cell is bottom-heavy; the centre of gravity is offset from the centre of buoyancy which generates a gravitational torque. In the presence of shear, fluid viscosity generates a further torque. Because cells swim at low Reynolds number, these torques are balanced. This thesis extends the model developed in Bearon (2013) in two distinct directions. Firstly, we consider an extension to the case of a flow where the shear varies with position. We consider a downward flow in a vertical channel. We observe that depending on the parameters, cells may exhibit the classical accumulation towards the centre of the channel or display a new focussing away from the centre. Secondly, we develop the model to describe randomness associated with changes in cell orientation. This is done by developing a Fokker-Planck equation for helical swimmers in terms of Euler angles. The classical Fokker-Planck equation obtained by Pedley and Kessler (1992) is a special case of the equation derived in this thesis. To implement this model numerically as an individual based model, we derive the corresponding stochastic differential equations. The Fokker-Planck equation and stochastic differential equation are extended to examine the spatial-temporal distribution of helical swimmers. We explore in detail how the horizontal distribution of cells in channel flow evolves to an equilibrium state, and how the evolution depends on the model parameters. For non-helical swimmers, we compare the result of the model to the recent experiments of Croze et al (2017).

This thesis examined the benefits of physiological and performance testing of elite swimmers. The study considered the following research questions: the degree to which physiological and performance measures in training contribute to swimming performance; sources and magnitude of variability in testing, training and competition performance; the magnitudes of changes in test measures during routine training; and the reliability, validity and utility of miniaturised and automated smart sensor technology to monitor the stroke and performance times of swimmers in training. The experimental approach involved the retrospective analysis of five years of physiological and performance testing of elite level swimmers, the development of a new accelerometry-based smart sensor device to monitor swimmers in the pool, a cross-sectional study comparing the physiological and performance responses of swimmers of different levels, and the effects of an intensive 14-day training program on submaximal physiological and performance measures. Collectively, the outcomes of these studies provide a strong justification for the physiological and performance testing of elite swimmers, a quantitative framework for interpreting the magnitude of changes and differences in test scores and sources of variation, and highlight the potential utility of new smart sensor technology to automate the monitoring of a swimmer�s training performance. The first study (Chapter 2) characterises the changes and variability in test performance, physiological and anthropometric measures, and stroke mechanics of swimmers within and between seasons over their elite competitive career. Forty elite swimmers (24 male, 16 female) performed a 7 x 200-m incremental swimming step test several times each 6-month season (10 � 5 tests, spanning 0.5 to 6.0 y). Mixed linear modeling provided estimates of change in the mean and individual responses for measures based on submaximal performance (fixed 4-mM lactate), maximal performance (the seventh step), and lean mass (from skinfolds and body mass). Submaximal and maximal swim speed increased within each season from the pre to taper phase by ~2.2% for females and ~1.5% for males (95% confidence limits �1.0%), with variable contributions from stroke rate and stroke length. Most of the gains in speed were lost in the off-season, leaving a net average annual improvement of ~1.0% for females and ~0.6% for males (�1.0%). For submaximal and maximal speed, individual variation between phases was �2.2% and the typical measurement error was �0.8%. In conclusion, step test and anthropometric measures can be used to confidently monitor progressions in swimmers in an elite training program within and between seasons. The second study (Chapter 3) quantified the relationship between changes in test measures and changes in competition performance for individual elite swimmers. The primary question addressed was whether test measures could predict a swimmers performance at the major end-of-season competition. The same sample group as in Study 1 was examined. A 7 x 200-m incremental swimming step-test and anthropometry were conducted in up to four training phases each season. Correlations of changes in step-test and anthropometric measures between training phases between and within seasons, with changes in competition performance between seasons, were derived by repeated-measures mixed modeling and linear regression. Changes in competition performance were best tracked by changes in test measures between taper phases. The best single predictor of competition performance was skinfolds for females (r = -0.53). The best predictor from the step-test was stroke rate at 4-mM lactate (females, r = 0.46; males, r = 0.41); inclusion of the second-best step-test predictor in a multiple linear regression improved the correlations marginally (females, r =0.52 with speed in the seventh step included; males, r = 0.58 with peak lactate concentration included). Changes in test measures involving phases other than the taper provided weak and inconclusive correlations with changes in performance, possibly because the coaches and swimmers took corrective action when tests produced poor results. In conclusion, a combination of fitness and techniques factors are important for competitive performance. The step test is apparently a useful adjunct in a swimmer�s training preparation for tracking large changes in performance. These initial studies identified stroke mechanics as a major determinant of a swimmer�s performance. Chapter 4 details the development of a small tri-axial accelerometry-based smart sensor device (the Traqua) that enables continual monitoring of various performance/stroke characteristics in swimming. The initial focus was to develop a device that automated the detection of a swimmer�s movements, specifically lap times, stroke rate and stroke count. The Traqua consists of a tri-axial accelerometer packaged with a microprocessor, which attaches to the swimmer at the pelvis to monitor their whole body movements while swimming. This study established the failure/error rate in the first generation algorithms developed to detect the swimming-specific movements of stroke identification, laps (start, turn and finish), and strokes (stroke count and stroke rate) in a cohort of 21 elite and sub-elite swimmers. Movements were analysed across a range of swimming speeds for both freestyle and breaststroke. These initial algorithms were reasonably successful in correctly identifying the markers representing specific segments of a swimming lap in a range of swimmers across a spectrum of swimming speeds. The first iteration of the freestyle algorithm produced error-rates of 13% in detection of lap times, 5% for stroke rate, and 11% for stroke count. Subsequent improvements of the software reduced the error rate in lap and stroke detection. This improved software was used in the following two studies. The next study (Chapter 5) evaluated the reliability and validity of the Traqua against contemporary methods used for timing, stroke rate and stroke count determination. The subjects were 14 elite and 10 sub-elite club-level swimmers. Each swimmer was required to swim seven evenly paced 200-m efforts on a 5-min cycle, graded from easy to maximal. Swimmers completed the test using their main competitive stroke (21 freestyle, 3 breaststroke). Timing was compared for each 50-m lap and total 200-m time by electronic touch pads, video coding, a hand-held manual stopwatch, and the Traqua. Stroke count was compared for video coding, self-reported counting, and the Traqua, while the stroke rate was compared via video coding, hand-held stopwatch, and the Traqua. Retest trials were conducted under the same conditions 7 d following the first test. All data from the Traqua presented in this and the subsequent studies were visually inspected for errors in the automated algorithms, where the algorithms had either failed to correctly identify the start, turn, finish or individual strokes and corrected prior to analysis. The standard error of the estimate for each of the timing methods for total 200 m was compared with the criterion electronic timing. These standard errors were as follows: Traqua (0.64 s; 90% confidence limits 0.60 � 0.69 s), Video (0.52 s; 0.49 � 0.55 s); Manual (0.63 s; 0.59 � 0.67 s). Broken down by 50-m laps, the standard error of the estimate for the Traqua compared with the electronic timing for freestyle only was: 1st 50-m 0.35 s; 2nd and 3rd 50-m 0.13 s; 4th 50-m 0.65 s. When compared with the criterion video-coding determination, the error for the stroke count was substantially lower for the Traqua (0.6 strokes.50 m-1; 0.5 � 0.6 strokes.50 m-1) compared to the self-reported measure (2.3 strokes.50 m-1; 2.5 � 2.9 strokes.50 m-1). However, the error for stroke rate was similar between the Traqua (1.5 strokes.min-1; 1.4 � 1.6 strokes.min-1) and the manual stopwatch (1.8 strokes.min-1; 1.7 � 1.9 strokes.min-1). The typical error of measurement of the Traqua was 1.99 s for 200-m time, 1.1 strokes.min-1 for stroke rate, and 1.1 strokes.50 m-1 for stroke count. In conclusion, the Traqua is comparable in accuracy to current methods for determining time and stroke rate, and better than current methods for stroke count. A substantial source of error in the Traqua timing was additional noise in the detection of the start and finish. The Traqua is probably useful for monitoring of routine training but electronic timing and video are preferred for racing and time trials. Having established the reliability and validity of the Traqua, Chapter 6 addressed the ability to discriminate the pattern of pacing between different levels of swimmers in the 7 x 200-m incremental step test. This study also sought to quantify the differences in pacing between senior and junior swimmers. Eleven senior elite swimmers (5 female, 6 male) and 10 competitive junior swimmers (3 female, 7 male) participated in this study. Each swimmer was required to swim seven evenly paced 200-m freestyle efforts on a 5-min cycle, graded from easy to maximal. The Traqua was used to measure time, stroke rate and stroke count. The senior swimmers were better able to descend in each of the 200-m efforts. Overall the senior swimmers were ~2-3 s per 50 m faster than the junior swimmers. Both groups were fastest in the first 50-m lap with the push start. The senior swimmers then descended the 50- m time for each of the subsequent laps, getting ~0.5 s faster per lap, with the final lap the fastest. In contrast, the junior swimmers swam a similar time for each of the subsequent laps. The junior swimmers were marginally more variable in their times (coefficient of variation: ~2%) compared with the senior swimmers (~1.8%). In comparison to junior swimmers, the senior swimmers in this study were faster, adopted a more uniform negative split strategy to pacing within a 200-m effort, and were more consistent in reproducing submaximal and maximal swimming speeds. The final study (Chapter 7) analysed the effect of 14-d of intensive training on the reproducibility of submaximal swimming performance in elite swimmers. Submaximal physiological and performance testing is widely used in swimming and other individual sports but the variability in test measures, and the effects of fatigue, during intensive training have surprisingly not been quantified systematically. Seven elite swimmers (3 male and 4 female) participated in an intensive 14-d training camp one month prior to the National championships. The aim of the study was to characterise the intra-session, daily and training block variability of submaximal swimming time, physiological and stroke characteristics in elite swimmers. The swimmers performed a specified submaximal 200-m effort in most sessions, after the warm-up and at the end of the session for both morning and afternoon sessions. During the efforts, swimming time and stroke mechanics were measured and physiological measures were recorded immediately on completion. The Traqua was worn by all swimmers in every training session. Mixed linear modeling was used to provide estimates of changes in the mean and individual responses (within-athlete variation as a coefficient of variation) for all measures. The swimmers were moderately slower (1.4%; �1.4%) over the 14-d training camp. The mean submaximal 200-m effort was very likely to be faster (0.7%; confidence limits �0.7%) in the afternoon compared with the morning session. The females were more variable in their submaximal performance times (CV=2.6%) than the male swimmers (1.7%). Blood lactate concentration was almost certainly lower (-23%; �10%) following higher volume in the previous session; however a higher intensity workout the previous session almost certainly leads to higher lactate (21%; �15%) in the current session. Considered together, these results indicate that the 200-m submaximal test is useful in monitoring submaximal physiological and performance measures and the negative effects of cumulative fatigue. In conclusion, changes in the physiological and performance measures derived from the poolbased progressive incremental step test are moderately correlated with changes in end-ofviii. season competition performance. The magnitudes of changes and differences in test measures between phases within a season, from season to season, and between males and females, established in this study can be applied to similar elite level swimmers preparing for major competition. The quantification of typical error of the same measures demonstrates that coaches and scientists can distinguish real and worthwhile improvements using the 7 x 200-m step test. Continual pool-based monitoring with the automated smart sensor Traqua device may provide more accurate and detailed information about a swimmer�s training adaptation than current fitness tests and monitoring methods. Finally, submaximal testing in trained swimmers is useful in monitoring progress in physiological and performance measures, and the impact of cumulative fatigue during an intensive period of training. Collectively, the outcomes of these studies indicate that routine physiological and performance testing can provide measurable benefits for elite swimmers and their coaches.

There is great controversy regarding the methods in attenuating the epidemic of being overweight and obese among our population. For years, low-fat diets have been prescribed as the best approach to solving this problem, however, low-carbohydrate diets have become increasingly popular despite the widespread opinion that they result in large reductions in muscle tissue and function. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a Step-I and carbohydrate-restricted (ketogenic) diet on changes in body mass (BM), fat mass (FM), lean body mass (LBM), and resting metabolic rate (RMR). Eight overweight men (>25% body fat) consumed Step-I (<30% fat) and ketogenic (<10% carbohydrate) diets for 6 weeks in a randomized cross-over design. Body composition (dual energy X-ray absorptiometry) and RMR were examined before and after each diet. Energy intake was significantly reduced during the Step-I (1506 kcal/day) and ketogenic (1766 kcaL'day) diets compared to habitual dietary intake (2443 kcal/day). The following changes in body composition were observed during the Step-I and ketogenic diets, respectively: BM -4.1 and -5.9 kg, FM -3.5 and -4.4kg, LBM +0.1 and -1.7kg. The changes in RMR for the Step-I and ketogenic diets respectively were -155 and -26 kcal/day, relative RMR -0.68 and +0.81 kcal/kg BM. Although changes in BM, LBM, and FM tended to be greater during the ketogenic diet and changes in both absolute and relative RMR tended to be greater during the Step-I diet, no significant differences were noted between diets. These data indicate that hypoenergetic diets greatly differing in macronutrient distribution result in similar changes in body composition and that very low-carbohydrate diets do not result in significant losses in LBM and metabolic rate.
School of Physical Education

Thesis: Ph. D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 2018.
This electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.
Cataloged from student-submitted PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 143-151).
Fish present a natural source of inspiration for the design of high-performance under-water robots. Conventionally, fish-like robotic systems consist of a chain of rigid links connected by a series of rigid actuators. Devices of this nature have demonstrated impressive speeds and maneuverability, but from a practical perspective, their mechanical complexity can make them expensive to build and prone to failure. One possible solution is to replace the mechanical body of the swimmer with a passive elastic element. In this scenario, the robot uses a single actuator, housed within a rigid forebody, to generate a fish-like propagating wave along a flexible trailing tail. A number of groups have explored this approach, but so far, these devices have demonstrated relatively limited performance. Here, we study the kinematics and dynamics of elastic swimmers and apply the results of this process to guide the design and testing of a high-performance passive robotic swimmer. We begin the investigation with a first-principles approach. We use analytical models of fish hydrodynamics to characterize the kinematics of efficient propulsion in swimming animals. Armed with the insight developed through this process, we construct a numerical model of a passive elastic swimming sheet. Through the application of optimization methods, we demonstrate that the sheet can achieve 70-80% of the efficiency of an equivalent swimmer with actuators along its entire body. Based on this, we design, build, and test a passive elastic swimming robot which uses a novel inertia-based actuation system. Experiments with the robot show that it can achieve a top speed of 1m/s (3.17 body lengths/s) and a peak turning rate of 515 deg/s, among the highest reported to date, while swimming at efficiencies comparable to those of fully actuated systems.
by Alexander Joshua Wiens.
Ph. D.

Titrating training volume to optimize physical readiness and avoid training distress in swimmers is a difficult challenge for coaches. The purpose of this study was to examine alterations in mood state in collegiate swimmers throughout an entire season and determine if there were differences across time, between training groups, gender, and year in school. A swim test was also employed to determine if alterations in swim times were associated with mood disturbance. Mood state and the swim test times were measured every three weeks. The results showed significant alterations in total mood disturbance (TMD) across time; and between genders, year in school and training group. When training volume was the highest, TMD in the swimmers had the greatest perturbations. These time periods were also associated with small but significant increases in the swim test times. These results indicate that use of the Profile of Mood States Questionnaire and a physiological swim test may be useful for detecting training distress in swimmers. Swim coaches may benefit from employing either or both of these tools for designing and tailoring training sessions and tapering for optimal performance.

Thesis (Ed.D.)--Boston University
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American comprehensive high schools are faced with the genuine dilemma of a democratic education: offering equal opportunities to students while recognizing individual differences. In attempting to accommodate a diverse student population, schools have made compromises in quality and have set less challenging expectations for many students. Consequently, not all are benefiting from positive educational experiences. This dissertation was concerned with student experiences with curriculum differentiation. It was a descriptive case study whose major aims were to determine: 1. The characteristics of the students profiled in each of the curricular programs; 2. The role curriculum differentiation played in each student's experience. Fifteen high school freshmen from a variety of curricular programs at one Massachusetts high school were interviewed and videotaped. Students were asked questions designed by the researcher. In addition, student records were analyzed, and feedback was sought from students' grade 8 and grade 9 teachers through surveys and interviews. Seven years later, a follow-up study was conducted to determine if students' perceptions of their high school experience had changed. Three groups of students existed within the school: the high achievers, the achievers, and the under/non-achievers. The high achievers combined innate ability with effort to maximize academic success. The achievers met the school's standard of achievement in varying degrees with the biggest range of ability and effort; some students maximized their potential, while others did not. The under/non-achievers did not meet the school's standard of achievement; they combined varying degrees of ability with a lack of effort to produce academic failure. The high achievers benefited the most from their high school education. They reported challenging teachers and rigorous curriculum. The achievers had mixed experiences. Achievers who pursued upper level courses had more positive experiences than those who pursued middle or lower level courses. Achievers who required or pursued special programs benefited from individualized attention but often suffered from a weak academic program. The under/non-achievers did not complete high school. This study supports the conclusion that student choice, teacher expectations, and school indifference had an impact on student experiences. The experiences of the largest group--the achievers--suggest that schools must pay more attention to the average student and work harder to motivate all students to maximize their potential.
2031-01-01

Competitive swimmers frequently injure their shoulders. The risk factors for shoulder injuries in competitive swimmers have not been clearly identified. The primary purposes of this study were to describe the characteristics of female collegiate swimmers at the onset of a swim season, identify the risk factors of shoulder injury in female collegiate swimmers, characterize the swim volume of female collegiate swimmers, and determine if swim volume is a predictor of shoulder injury. A prospective longitudinal cohort multi-center design was utilized. Female collegiate swimmers [n=53, mean age=19.3+/– 1.2] from four NCAA Division II universities were recruited to participate in this study. Preseason screening data that included demographics and sport history, swimming characteristics, and a musculoskeletal assessment was collected on 106 shoulders. Participants completed a weekly survey to track exposure data over the course of the season. Shoulder injury data was also collected. A shoulder injury was defined as swimming-related shoulder pain that resulted in one or more limited or modified athletic practices or competitions. Female swimmers reported a history of shoulder pain in 18/106 (17.0%) shoulders, and 14/106 (13.2%) of swimmers presented with obvious scapular dyskinesis at preseason. No differences in shoulder characteristics were found between swimmers with a history of shoulder pain and those without and those with obvious dyskinesis compared to those with normal scapular motion. There was a positive correlation between anterior glenohumeral laxity and shoulder external rotation range of motion (r=0.37, p Previous injury was the sole predictor of new shoulder injury in the group studied. Further research into the predictors of shoulder injury in female collegiate swimmers is warranted.

The past few decades have heralded a paradigm shift in the psychology, oncology, and trauma literature. This shift has involved a re-focusing of the empirical lens from the distress and pathology of traumatic experiences to a focus on growth and thriving in response to adversity or traumatic events. Multiple studies have identified that individuals recognise positive changes following their experiences of adversity to the extent that many individuals report development beyond their pre-trauma functioning. These positive changes have been broadly conceptualised as growth, a multidimensional concept, which typically involves an increased appreciation for life, more meaningful relationships, an increased sense of personal strength, a change in priorities, and a richer existential and spiritual awareness. Growth following adversity, or adversarial growth, is still relatively new in sport, and specifically elite sport, and accordingly the purpose of this doctoral research was to explore adversarial growth in elite athletes with a particular emphasis on the experiences of elite level swimmers. The research was grounded in a constructivist paradigm which assumes changing and sometimes conflicting social realities, and seeks to understand people's constructions of their lived experiences.

Both biological micro-organisms and synthetic micro-robots propel through viscous liquids to achieve their goal, be it to invade new territories or to deliver drugs to infected regions. Considerable attention is devoted to learning how to prevent or encourage these processes, and understanding the interactions between micro-swimmers and their complex environments is an essential part of this. In vivo conditions provide a challenge to model, although novel experimental, computational and theoretical techniques have provided clear insights into the continuous interplay between the effects of strong confinement, hydrodynamic interactions, and local activity that drives living systems out of equilibrium. To analyse the underlying mechanisms of micro-swimmer processes, we develop a hydrodynamic framework based on the fundamental solutions of the Stokes equations to compute swimmer-generated flow fields. These flows affect the motion of swimmers via reflections in surfaces, mix and enhance the uptake of nutrients, and enable cells to sense one another's presence. Hence, we study the accumulation of microbes on surfaces, which could be relevant for the initial stages of biofilm formation, and compute the strength required for externally imposed flows to detach them. Moreover, we evaluate the ability to swim upstream and uncover that viscoelasticity can provide a natural sorting mechanism for sperm cells. Other ecological effects are considered, including the transport of nutrients by micro-flows, the interaction with water-air interfaces, and the impact of thermal noise and biological fluctuations. To verify our results, we compare our theory to extensive simulations using a `Raspberry' swimmer model in combination with the Lattice-Boltzmann fluid solver algorithm. This allows us to determine previously unknown model parameters and hence make suggestions to improve micro-organism treatment and micro-robot design.

Physical exercise have several health benefits, but it can also be a source of cellular damage. The energetic demands of physical exercise and training promote an increase on metabolic rate, and its pathways may produce secondary harmful compounds that will cause cellular damage. Some of those compounds are the free radicals and Reactive Oxygen species, which are highly instable molecules that react quickly, oxidizing important functional molecules such as proteins, membrane lipids and DNA, in a condition known as oxidative stress. To dampen the action of these molecules, the cells express antioxidant defence proteins. One of the most ubiquitous and polymorphic of those is the family of Gluthatione STransferases (GSTs). The great physical load of competitive training creates serious oxidative stress on athletes so, it is expected that their expression of GSTs will vary throughout the season to overcome such aggression, quickly recovering from one training session and preparing the antioxidant defence for the next one. Our main objective was to verify if the expression of a GST (GSTT1) varies throughout the season, as expected theoretically, and how it fluctuates after a competition. We also check if the distribution of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 Null/Present genotypes had some influence in the preparation and performance of our sample, consisting in 20 national level swimmers. A control group of 52 random individuals was also used to compare genotype distribution. We collected blood samples in analytic filter paper, at 5 different moments throughout the winter season. DNA was isolated from a sample of each individual, amplified by PCR for our interest genes, and ran in agarose gel by electrophoresis to genotype our 20 swimmers. RNA was isolated from all the samples of a swimmer and converted in cDNA by reverse transcriptase. The relative expression of GSTT1 was done using β-actin (a housekeeping gene) as a control gene and the first collected sample of the swimmer as control condition, by the RT-PCR technic. Three swimmers were accessed for the whole 5 moments, while eight were only evaluated their expression at 48h and 72h after competition. The results showed little influence in the distribution of genotype from swimmers to controls. The expression results show influence of the GSTT1 expression profile throughout the season and after an intense exercise with sport performance and as a fitness check tool.
O treino desportivo com o objetivo de performance competitiva coloca os atletas sob um forte risco de desequilíbrio oxidativo, conhecido por stress oxidativo. A produção de radicais livres e espécies electrofílicas, como as Espécies Reativas de Oxigénio (ROS), são uma constante no metabolismo normal do organismo, no entanto, a maior taxa metabólica exigida pela demanda energética do exercício físico intenso, provocam uma produção de tais espécies a um nível superior às defesas antioxidantes disponíveis. Nesta situação de stress oxidativo, os radicais livres e ROS provocam danos a fulcrais estruturas e macromoléculas celulares, reagindo forte e rapidamente com estas, ameaçando a homeostasia celular. Para controlar a ação nefasta dessas agressões oxidativas, os organismos possuem mecanismos de defesas antioxidantes, podendo estas ser de origem endógena ou exógena. Entre as defesas antioxidantes endógenas encontram-se proteínas expressas pelas células, e cuja expressão pode ser influenciada pelo ambiente oxidativo celular, como é o caso das Glutationa S-Transferases (GST). Desta forma, situações que criem stress oxidativo, como no treino desportivo, ativam a expressão das defesas antioxidantes. Assim sendo, o treino desportivo regular e bem planeado, de forma a evitar danos constantes ao organismo, deve ativar uma resposta deste de forma a protege-lo dessa agressão, preparando-o previamente para essa agressão. Essa preparação pode ser verificada através da expressão génica de fatores antioxidantes endógenos. Além disso, certos genótipos podem revelar-se vantajosos nesta proteção, nomeadamente os genótipos associados às várias isoformas das GSTs. Nestes, constam vários e frequentes genótipos Null (ausência do gene), o que permite uma grande variabilidade entre indivíduos para a disponibilidade de isoformas de GSTs. O objetivo deste trabalho foi precisamente verificar a distribuição de genótipos Null/Present para duas isoformas de GSTs, a GSTM1 e a GSTT1, numa amostra de 20 nadadores portugueses de nível nacional. Para comparação de genótipos, foi recolhida semelhante informação a partir de um grupo de controlo constituído por 52 indivíduos aleatórios. Além disso, observou-se a expressão relativa de GSTT1 ao longo de 5 momentos distintos ao longo da época de Inverno (preparação geral, preparação específica, fase taper e dois momentos pós-competição) em 3 desses atletas, e a expressão relativa, também de GSTT1, 48h e 72h após uma competição, para 8 desses atletas. Para conseguir alcançar isto, foi necessário montar uma técnica totalmente nova para recolher as amostras de forma rápida, fiável e praticável nas condições de treino, e otimizar todos os procedimentos laboratoriais para conseguir processar essas amostras de forma eficiente e rigorosa. As amostras foram recolhidas em papel de filtro de análises clínica, através de uma picada no dedo dos nadadores, antes do início do treino do dia definido previamente para recolha de amostras. As amostras foram ainda conservadas em invólucros individuais para cada recolha a cada momento e de cada atleta, numa câmara-fria 4°C, no Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS) da Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde (FCS) da Universidade da Beira Interior (UBI). Para genotipagem dos nadadores em amostra, DNA foi extraído da amostra de sangue em papel utilizando o método do Chelex 100. Após extração, o DNA foi usado para amplificação enzimática da sequência específica dos genes da GSTM1 e GSTT1, pela técnica de PCR. Por fim, os resultados foram corridos por electroforese em gel de agarose, usando Green-safe como fator de marcação de DNA, e os resultados foram visualizados à luz ultravioleta num transiluminador. A presença de GSTM1 foi identificada pela presença de uma banda com cerca de 215bp, enquanto a presença de GSTT1 foi identificada pela presença de banda aos 473bp. Para análise da expressão génica, RNA foi isolado a partir das amostras de sangue em papel, pelo método do Trizol. O RNA era correspondente a cada um dos momentos de recolha. De seguida o RNA foi convertido a cDNA através da técnica de transcriptase reversa, utilizando a enzima M-MLV. Por fim, o cDNA foi amplificado pela técnica de RT-PCR, para o gene GSTT1, tendo ainda como controlo a amplificação da β-Actin, também para cada um dos momentos de recolha e fazendo duplicados por uma questão de rigor. A expressão foi calculada através das curvas de amplificação de RT-PCR e utilizando o método ΔΔCT. Não foram encontradas distribuições de genótipos GSTM1 e GSTT1 Null/Present estatisticamente significativas entre a nossa amostra de teste e o grupo de controlo. No contexto da expressão relativa de GSTT1, verificou-se que variações muito acentuadas ao longo da época desportiva ou após um exercício foram prejudiciais à performance física dos nadadores. Encontramos também algumas diferenças na recuperação das nadadoras, mantendo uma expressão mais alta e por um maior período de tempo após o exercício físico intenso que os homens. Além disso, verificou-se uma tendência para os indivíduos GSTM1 Null manterem os níveis de expressão relativa de GSTT1, ao longo da época e após um exercício intenso, mais estáveis, o que parece favorecer o seu rendimento. Conclui-se ainda que a análise da evolução da expressão relativa de GSTT1 em vários treinos, após uma competição ou outro exercício de elevada intensidade, pode ajudar a perceber qual a forma atual de um nadador.

The transition from high school to college can be a difficult and stressful experience for a student-athlete. University athletic departments across the country, in conjunction with the office of student life, implement transition programs in an attempt to assist freshmen with their new environment. The purpose of this study was to determine a head coach's role in the transition process between high school and college of a freshman student-athlete. Furthermore, the study sought to address to what extent a student-athlete could benefit from evaluating the effectiveness of the transition process. Fifteen participants from a large NCAA Division I swim program took part in this study in the fall of 2003. Each participant was officially recruited to attend the institution and was entering college for the first time. A two phase approach was utilized to obtain data on the swimmers' first three weeks in college and also their first semester in college. Each swimmer was interviewed after his or her first three weeks in school in a semi-structured environment. Each participant was asked the same series of questions. Each participant was also interviewed near the conclusion of his or her first semester and was asked a series of follow up questions. The data was analyzed utilizing qualitative methods. The results of the study indicated that a head coach has a critical role in assisting freshmen student-athletes in their program with the transition from high school to college. Student-athletes look to their head coach as a mentor who can affect the new environment, and thus the head coach is a significant factor in their transition experience. Further, a head coach should know the components of the transition programs offered by both the university and athletic department, and develop his or her own transition model to increase the chances of a well adjusted freshman student-athlete. The results of the study also indicated that a student-athlete can benefit from evaluating the effectiveness of a transition program annually. Universities, athletic departments, and coaches should make needed changes each year to address the specific needs of freshmen student-athletes entering college for the first time.
Ph. D.

The purpose of this study was to first examine the role of coaches, peers, and significant others in the development of relatedness as it applies to the motivation of adult Master swimmers, and second to develop recommendations for coaches. The participants in this study were 87 Masters swimmers from the Wasatch Front region of Utah in the counties of Davis, Weber, Utah, Wasatch, Salt Lake, and Summit. Participants in this study were registered members of United States Masters Swimming(USMS) and were spread across eleven age-group classifications in five-year increments and ranging in age from 18 to 74. There were 43 adult males and 44 adult females that participated in completing an open-ended response questionnaire. The results of this study show that relatedness, fostered by coaches, peers and significant others, plays a key role in getting and keeping adult Masters swimmer in the water to train and compete.

In the first study, a method was proposed to fit an appropriate mathematical function based on the equation of motion of the gliding body, to the kinematic position-time data of a swimmer performing a rectilinear glide with horizontal alignment and direction of motion. From the fitted function a glide factor that represents the ratio of inertial to resistive factors was deduced that defined the glide efficiency. This factor represented a combined kinematic and hydrodynamic measure of glide as it is an indicator of a normalized rate of changes in velocity, and demonstrates a ratio of assistive to resistive hydrodynamic parameters. The glide factor is a measure of glide efficiency and enables comparison between glide intervals both within and between individuals. It was found that this method of quantifying glide efficiency of a human body in a streamlined position is a valid, accurate and reliable method that is able to account for both the inertial and resistive characteristics of a body as well as the differences in the instantaneous velocity. A method of quantifying the hydrodynamic parameters of a human body in a streamlined position proposed in study 2 was found to be a valid, accurate and reliable method that is able to determine the inertial and resistive characteristics of a body at different velocities. In study 3 it was determined if the coefficients gathered from study 1 and 2 were sensitive enough to reflect the differences between different body shape characteristics. Series of anthropometric and shape characteristics, including dimensionless shape indices and joint angles which have been established as covariates of hydrodynamic coefficients, were examined, from which some showed to be significantly correlated to the hydrodynamic and glide characteristics of the human body in a streamlined position.

The purpose of this study was to analyze specific biomechanical and physiological variables in disabled swimmers performing a functional backcrawl. The effect of selectively placed flotation devices on the body position, exercise heart rate, and perceived exertion of the swimmer was compared to swimming with no flotation. The participants in the study included eight able-bodied males 21.5 (+2.51) yrs. and four disabled males 29.25 (+2.22) yrs. Each subject performed the backcrawl for 3 consecutive lengths of a 25 meter pool under four separate trial conditions: free swimming, swimming with the hip flotation device, the knee flotation device, and the ankle flotation device. Immediately following each trial a post-exercise heart rate was taken and the subject was asked to rate perceived exertion. Full recovery was allowed after each trial. Trials were video taped and digitized to determine the mean angles at the neck, trunk, hip, and knee during one complete stroke cycle. The investigator recognizes that this generalization presents the possibility for a bias in the data and that further study would warrant the utilization of the different phases of the stroke for determination of body angles. The results of the study demonstrated that a significant difference did exist between the disabled and able-bodied hip angle during free swimming. Within the disabled group, no significant differences were evident when comparing the body angles during free swimming to the same angles while swimming with each of the flotation devices. Correlations between heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion for all subjects (n=12) were significant in each of the four trial conditions.
School of Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to expand on goal orientation theory and its relationship with beliefs about the causes of sport success by differentiating by age group in youth USA Swimming registered swimmers, ages 11-18. 80 swimmers from six different USA Swimming clubs completed the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ) and the Beliefs About the Causes of Sport Success Questionnaire (BACSSQ) after providing parent consent and child assent to take part in the study. Similar to previous research, the ego orientation was found to have a significant positive relationship with ability and deception as beliefs about the causes of sport success and the task orientation was found to have a significant positive relationship with higher effort as well as a significant negative relationship with deception as a belief about the cause of sport success. New findings included the 13-14 year old and 15-18 year old age groups having a significantly higher ego orientation than the 11-12 age group, the 15-18 age group having a significantly lower task orientation than both the 11-12 and 13-14 age groups, and the 13-14 age group believed deception caused success in swimming significantly more than the 11-12 age group. It is concluded that older swimmers could develop a higher ego orientation and lower task orientation as they age due to more visible differences in ability and an increased focus on performance.

The aims of this thesis were to: 1) develop and validate tests of propulsive force and mechanical power that can be used to monitor British Disability swimmers; and 2) contribute to the development of an objective, evidence-based international classification system for swimmers with a physical impairment. The propulsive force produced by unilateral arm amputee and able-bodied swimmers was assessed during a 30 s fully tethered swim (Chapter 3). It was concluded that as a consequence of their physical impairment, arm amputee swimmers produced significantly lower tether forces than able-bodied swimmers. Due to the limitation of the fully tethered method, an Isokinetic Tethered Swimming (ITS) Ergometer was developed (Chapter 4). To establish the setting in which peak power occurs on the device, external power was calculated at a range of tether speeds (Chapter 5). The results demonstrated that peak power occurred at a tether speed of 50 or 60% of the swimmer’s maximal swimming speed, and peak power was significantly related to the level of the swimmer’s physical impairment (IPC Class). Using the peak power setting, the decline in external power was quantified during a 30 s maximal effort swim (Chapter 6). All swimmers exhibited a decline in external power during the swim; however this decline was not related to the swimmer’s IPC Class. The validity of the movement on the ITS Ergometer was established using electromyography (EMG). The data revealed that muscle activation and recruitment patterns were similar to that of free swimming (Chapter 7). Using EMG the effect of neuromuscular fatigue on the contractile properties of the muscles during a 30 s maximal effort swim was examined (Chapter 8). Of the muscles tested, the muscle which appeared to fatigue the most was different for each swimmer.

Swimming performance is primarily judged on the overall time taken for a swimmer to complete a specified distance performing a stroke that complies with current regulations defined by the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA), the International governing body of swimming. There are three contributing factors to this overall time; the start, free swimming and turns. The contribution of each of these factors is event dependent; for example, in a 50m event there are no turns, however, the start can be a significant contributor. To improve overall performance each of these components should be optimised in terms of skill and execution. This thesis details the research undertaken towards improving performance-related feedback in swimming. The research included collaboration with British Swimming, the national governing body for swimming in the U.K., to drive the requirements and direction of research. An evaluation of current methods of swimming analysis identified a capability gap in real-time, quantitative feedback. A number of components were developed to produce an integrated system for comprehensive swim performance analysis in all phases of the swim, i.e. starts, free swimming and turns. These components were developed to satisfy two types of stakeholder requirements. Firstly, the measurement requirements, i.e. what does the end user want to measure? Secondly, the process requirements, i.e. how would these measurements be achieved? The components developed in this research worked towards new technologies to facilitate a wider range of measurement parameters using automated methods as well as the application of technologies to facilitate the automation of current techniques. The development of the system is presented in detail and the application of these technologies is presented in case studies for starts, free swimming and turns. It was found that developed components were able to provide useful data indicating levels of performance in all aspects of swimming, i.e. starts, free swimming and turns. For the starts, an integrated solution of vision, force plate technology and a wireless iii node enabled greater insight into overall performance and quantitative measurements of performance to be captured. Force profiles could easily identify differences in swimmer ability or changes in technique. The analysis of free swimming was predominantly supported by the wireless sensor technology, whereby signal analysis was capable of automatically determining factors such as lap times variations within strokes. The turning phase was also characterised in acceleration space, allowing the phases of the turn to be individually assessed and their contribution to total turn time established. Each of the component technologies were not used in isolation but were supported by other synchronous data capture. In all cases a vision component was used to increase understanding of data outputs and provide a medium that coaches and athletes were comfortable with interpreting. The integrated, component based system has been developed and tested to prove its ability to produce useful, quantitative feedback information for swimmers. The individual components were found to be capable of providing greater insight into swimming performance, that has not been previously possible using the current state of the art techniques. Future work should look towards the fine-tuning of the prototype system into a useable solution for end users. This relies on the refinement of components and the development of an appropriate user interface to enable ease of data collection, analysis, presentation and interpretation.

Researchers’ methods of estimating water’s resistance (drag) to a swimmer include the Assisted Towing Method (ATM) with fluctuating speed. This thesis aimed to assess the ATM method’s reliability with fluctuating speed, using it to examine the estimation of active drag’s validity. Chapter 3 investigated its reliability using Intra-class Correlation Coefficients (ICC) within-subject for one day and over two other days. The ICCs within-subject were moderately reliable for Day 1 (0.82) and Day 2 (0.85) but there was high reliability (0.92) when averaged active drag values were used. In chapter 4, mean active drag values resulted from two assisted and resisted methods compared to see if they measured the same values for active drag: both methods showed large differences in active drag with some swimmers. The ATM method calculates active drag from a function of three measured variables (swim speed, tow speed belt force) with two assumptions about power output between trials and the square relationship between drag force and swim speed. In chapter 5, each variable’s uncertainty and its contribution to active drag value were calculated. Results showed that a power change of 7.5% between trials meant about 30% error in calculated drag, showing that uncertainty in a range exponent of 1.8–2.6 would mean about 5% error in active drag value. The measured variables’ contributions to active drag were approximately 6–7% error for free and tow swim speeds and 2–3% error for belt force. Previous ATM method studies have presented an active drag profile of front crawl swimmers calculated from instantaneous values of three variables: free swim speed, tow speed and tow force. In chapter 6, comparison of the free swim profile with the two methods’ tow speed profiles, to see if these fluctuations are as large as in free swimming, showed the difference between maximum and minimum speeds was approximately 36%, 25.3% and 12.7% for the free, assisted and resisted swimming respectively.

Published Article
This study was conducted to ascertain which of two techniques would result in more diagnostic films of patients with possible neck trauma. Twenty individuals were examined at the Radiology Department, Universitas hospital, Bloemfontein. Two exposures were done on each member of the sample: firstly the swimmers projection and secondly the orientation of the patient's arms was reversed. Using specific criteria to standardize evaluation, the films were evaluated by a radiologist. The adapted swimmers projection had better results in 50% of the categories. The swimmers projection was better in 33.3% of the categories. One category for both projections (16.7%) was equal.

The purpose of the present study was to examine goal setting strategies, locus of control beliefs and personality characteristics of swimmers (108 males and 111 females) from top twenty 1999 NCAA Division IA programs. Three questionnaires were completed: (a) Goal Setting in Sport Questionnaire (GSISQ: Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 1993), (b) the Internal, Powerful Others, Chance Scale (IPC: Levenson, 1973), and (c) the compliance subscale and six conscientiousness subscales from the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R: Costa & McCrae, 1985). Descriptive statistics from the GSISQ indicated that most of the swimmers set goals to improve overall performance (51%) and set moderately difficult goals (58%). Results associated with the IPC scale revealed that most of the swimmers attributed their sport performance to internal factors. Results pertaining to the NEO-PI-R indicated that most swimmers were highly conscientious, disciplined, purposeful, and determined.

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 2008.
This electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 121-126).
Research interests in fish-like devices are generally driven by the notion that through eons of evolution fish have developed optimal mechanisms for efficient propulsion and high degrees of maneuverability. Engineered fish-like devices have been developed in hope of mimicking the capabilities of their biological counterparts, but success has been marginal. This thesis considers a unique class of underactuated biomimetic swimmers with compliant bodies that swim by exploiting their structural dynamics. Practical matters surrounding the design and modeling of these swimmers are addressed and explicit references are made to fish morphology and swimming behaviours with the aim of linking biological and engineering design elements, a deficiency in existing literature. A hybrid modeling scheme is presented drawing upon conventional engineering primitives and experimental data. Both a hardware prototype swimmer and a unique motion capture system were developed to demonstrate the described methods. Experimental and simulated results are compared.
by Adam Joseph Wahab.
S.M.

The general aim of this thesis was to contribute to the body of scientific knowledge regarding the biomechanical characteristics of highly-trained single-arm amputee front crawl swimmers, thus allowing for the application of this knowledge to enhance swimming performance. With this in mind, five experimental studies were undertaken, which focused on three main areas: Firstly, how swimmers adjusted their stroke parameters in order to swim faster and which of the swimmers’ anthropometric characteristics were related to performance. Secondly, what inter-arm and leg-to-arm coordination patterns were exhibited by these swimmers and how inter-limb coordination was related to the attainment of maximum swimming speed. Thirdly, what three-dimensional arm movements were used by these swimmers during the front crawl stroke cycle and how these movements contributed to propulsion and as a consequence the overall progression of the swimmers through the water. The findings of this thesis suggest that when single-arm front crawl swimmers are sprinting: (a) the attainment of a high stroke frequency is more important than swimming with the longest possible stroke; (b) reducing the length of time the affected-arm is held stationary in front of the body will help attain a high stroke frequency; (c) the rhythmical alignment of leg kicks to arm strokes may enhance performance and contribute to the stability of inter-arm coordination; (d) amputees use a more linear underwater hand movement, than able-bodied swimmers and use one of three distinct movement patterns to pull their affected-arm through the water; (e) increases in intra-cyclic swimming velocity can be achieved with the unaffected-arm, but not so with the affected-arm. The findings of this thesis will be of interest to scientists working in the area of swimming biomechanics. They should also be of some practical benefit to unilateral arm-amputee front crawl swimmers and to those who coach and teach them.

After more than a century, there are no analytical solutions for the Navier-Stokes equations to describe complex fluid behavior, and we often resort to different computational methods to find solutions under specific conditions. In particular, to address many biological questions, we need to use techniques which are accurate at the mesoscale regime and computationally efficient, since atomistic simulations are still incredibly computationally costly, and continuum methods based on Navier-Stokes present challenges with complicated moving boundaries, in the presence of fluctuations. Here, we use a novel particle-based coarse-grained method, known as MPCD, to study ciliated swimmers. Using experimentally measured beating patterns, we show how we recapitulate the emergence of metachronal waves (MCW) on planar surfaces, and present new results on curved surfaces. To quantitatively study these waves, we also analyzed their effect on beating intervals, energy fluctuations, and fluid motion. We then extended our model to realistic cellular geometries, using experimentally obtained Basal Bodies locations.\par In the second part of our study, we focused on the intracellular fluid motion, neglecting hydrodynamic interactions. We developed the Digital Confocal Microscopy Suite (DCMS) that can run on multiple platforms using GPUs and can input realistic cell shapes and optical properties of the confocal microscope. It has this ability to simulate both (Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching) FRAP and Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) experiments, as well as the capability to model photo-switching of fluorophores, acquisition photo-bleaching, and reaction-diffusion systems. With this platform, in collaboration with the Vidali Lab, we were able to elucidate the role of boundaries in interpreting FRAP experiments in \textit{moss} and estimate the binding rates of myosin XI.

For the past three decades performance development in sport has been steered by traditional Psychological Skills Training (PST) programmes. However, in the last decade, the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach to performance development in sport has been introduced. To date, there is limited research on the MAC approach and there are currently no published studies in South Africa. The goal of this study was to explore the participant’s experiences of the MAC programme with reference to what they learnt through the programme, how they applied their learning to their swimming and how they transferred their learning to their lives. This study is an Interpretive Phenomenological view of five adolescent swimmers (two female and three male) at the High Performance Centre (hpc), in South Africa (SA). The participants partook in a one-day swimmingspecific MAC programme and thereafter, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the participants. An interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was used for analysing the data gained from the interviews. The findings indicate that the participants had experiences which were consistent, inconsistent or unique in relation to the literature review.
Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2013.
lk2014
Psychology
MA
Unrestricted

Magister Artium (Sport, Recreation and Exercise Science) - MA(SRES)
Swimming, as a sport, is constantly developing, both through the resources employed in training and assessment, and through the technological development of the fundamental aspects of swimming. In the freestyle events, swimmers spend between 38% and 50% of their competition time executing turns in short pool competitions over distances that vary from 50 m to 1500 m. The importance of the turn has been noted and analyzed for several decades, where it was found that the final turn velocity was second only to mid-pool swimming velocity for determining a medal finish in the men’s race. Due to the impact that the tumble turn has on swimming performance, the present study investigated the importance of the tuck index, foot-plant index and wall-contact time (WCT) on swimming performance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of the tuck index, foot-plant index, and WCT on the round trip time (RTT) in the tumble turn performance in level 3 swimmers in the freestyle swimming stroke. A quantitative cross-sectional and descriptive design was used in this study. A convenient sample of ten (10) swimmers were tested, five male and five female, all being level 3 swimmers affiliated to the high performance team of Swimming South Africa (SSA). Video analyses of the turns were recorded. Each subject performed thirty (30) trials, each consisting of a 50 m freestyle swim with flip turns at race pace. Descriptive statistics and multiple stepwise regression analyses were used to analyse the data. A p-value of below 0.05 indicated statistical significance. The mean tuck index was 0.57 ± 0.14°. The mean foot-plant index was 0.45 ± 0.10 cm. The mean WCT was 74.31 ± 11.57 %. The mean RTT was 2.47 ± 0.40 s. A significant negative correlation was found between tuck index and RTT (r = -0.41; p < 0.05). No significant relationship was found between foot-plant and WCT. Further regression analysis showed that the tuck index was a significant predictor of RTT (F = 21.745, p < 0.001). Following the freestyle tumble turn, the flutter kick technique remained the superior method of exiting the wall, based on the 5 m RTT. Therefore, the introduction of optimal turning practice for age-group swimmers is likely to result in significant reductions in turning times and should be noted by coaches and swimmers alike.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2007.
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The last decade has seen an increase in empirical research pertaining to coaching science and education. A great deal of research has focused on coaches of elite able-bodied athletes, while coaches of athletes with a disability have generally been overlooked. In a recent analysis of disability sport, only 5% of empirical publications pertained to coaching. Thus, the current study addressed the gap in the literature by examining the knowledge of disability sport coaches. Six elite level Canadian coaches of swimmers with a physical disability were interviewed using an unstructured, open-ended interview format. Four categories emerged from the analysis: coach background and characteristics, training, competition, and contextual factors. Results revealed who the coaches were, what they did, and similarities with elite able-bodied coaches, as well as differences that were specific to coaching swimmers with a physical disability. Specifically, it was essential for coaches to become knowledgeable of their athletes' disabilities, deal with issues of equality between able-bodied and swimmers with a physical disability, and accommodate a large array of individual needs. These findings augment knowledge in coaching psychology by including elite level coaches of athletes with physical disabilities.

Guidelines for sustainable swim-with tourism for large whales are not welldeveloped, as researchers have focused on delphinids. Nations that signed the Convention on Biological Diversity at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 are obligated to consider sustainable use principles when allowing new ecotourism activities, yet the fast-growing worldwide swim-with-whales industry is lacking the research needed to create successful management guidelines that can be implemented by local communities. From September to November of 2005 and July to October of 2006, I collected movement and behavioral state data for southern right whales in proximity of swimmers at Península Valdés, Argentina. Whales were observed before, during, and after a series of directed interactions with swimmers. I quantified the behavioral and movement effects relative to group composition of whales (mother/calf pairs, juveniles or adult/mixed groups) and activity level of swimmers. Group composition had a significant effect on the response of whales to swimmers. Swimmer activity level did not substantially affect the reaction of whales. Resting and socializing activities significantly decreased and traveling activities significantly increased when boats approached and when swimmers entered the water. Resting and socializing bout length in the presence of swimmers decreased to less than a third of the length of bouts when swimmers were not present. Whales swam faster, reoriented more often, and followed a less linear path during interactions. Effects were greater for mother/calf pairs than juveniles, while mixed adult/juvenile groups showed no significant changes in behavior or movement. The initial reaction of whales to the approach of the boat and the entry of swimmers into the water was a good predictor of the magnitude of effects on the behavior and movement patterns of the whale. Increased levels of activity are a concern for the whales that are resting and not feeding in this area. To provide quality resource management guidelines for this activity, additional research is needed to determine long-term effects of boat and swimmer activities on the behavior of whales. It is also important to obtain energetic data for right whales to determine the magnitude of impacts.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of ribose supplementation on swimming performance in collegiate male swimmers. Twenty trained collegiate male swimmers (mean ± SE; age: 19.7 ± 0.4 years; height: 182.6 ± 1.2 cm; weight: 75.9 ± 0.6kg) completed three randomly assigned trials; two prior to the supplementation period and one immediately after supplementation. The period between the first and the second trial was used as a control period and all subjects (n=20) participated. During the supplementation period the ribose group (n=10) received 20 g of ribose per day, while the placebo group (n=10) received 20 g of dextrose. The first day involved body composition, swim bench, and swim power measurements. The second day a test set consisting of 15x45.8 m freestyle swimming was performed. A blood sample was obtained from the antecubical vein prior to the swim and 1 minute after the completion of the last repeat. Swimming performance during the test set showed significant improvements for either group from T1 to T3. (mean ± SE 27.44 ± 0.32 and 27.55 ± 0.26 for the ribose and placebo groups respectively at T1). The times at the end of the supplementation period were 27.33 ± 0.28 and 27.36 ± 0.22 seconds. No significantdifferences were reported in swim power or swim bench. Lactate, uric acid, ammonia, and hypoxanthine did not significantly change for either group between the trials. The results from the study suggest that swimming performance does not appear to be enhanced with the supplementation of ribose during exhaustive exercise in collegiate male swimmers.
School of Physical Education

Core training is a popular technique for athletes and coaches concerned with improving sports performance. Achieving an appropriate level of muscular activation is a vital ingredient in a successful training programme. However, the evidence base with regard to the effectiveness of core training on improving an athlete’s core ability and resultant sporting performance is limited. This thesis aims to 1) develop a core training programme for highly trained swimmers and 2) evaluate its effect on sporting performance using the Medical Research Council (MRC) framework for developing complex interventions. The thesis outlines current theories and findings in both the clinical and sporting sectors regarding core stability and core strength training and also the MRC framework. It determines the most appropriate method of measuring muscular activation of the core muscles (EMG) and establishes the reliability of the technique for assessing different exercises. Key core muscles were found to produce significantly reliable (P < 0.05) measurements of below 25% CV and > 0.7 ICC values while performing MVIC and core training exercises. Subsequently, popular low and high threshold core training exercises were analysed and muscle activation levels of 1 - 110% MVIC were identified. A new training programme was developed and tested on a group of highly trained swimmers over 6 and 12 week training intervention periods. Significant improvements (P < 0.05) and a large likelihood of beneficial improvement during the performance tests were observed following 6 and 12 weeks of training (P < 0.05) along with significant reductions in muscle activation (%MVIC) during the performance tests and training exercises. Conclusions from the intervention studies are used to develop a theoretical model outlining how to structure an effective core training programme for highly trained athletes. It is proposed that this model could be used by coaches and athletes to help plan, conduct and evaluate their core training to maximise the potential benefits that core training could have on sporting performance.

The current advice for a sports analyst when filming a large performance area is to use multiple fixed cameras or a single panning one. Neither of these options is ideal: multiple cameras must be positioned, have their shutters synchronised and their footage combined for analysis; a panning camera makes it difficult to determine an athlete’s movement relative to an external frame of reference. The aim of this study was to establish a process that enabled the confident, accurate and precise use of a wide field of view for measuring distance and speed in large performance areas. Swimming was used as an example sport as it had a large performance area, which measured 50 m by 25 m. A process for determining the accuracy and precision with which distance and speed could be reconstructed from a wide field of view was developed. A nonlinear calibration procedure was used to account for radial distortion. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of reconstructed distances for a wide field of view was 16 x 10-3 m. This compared favourably with a three camera system reported in the literature, which had an RMSE of 46 x 10-3 m. In addition, it was shown that a wide field of view could be used to identify a 1% enhancement in speed when it was measured over 10 m or more. A wide field of view was used to capture video footage of a swimming competition. This was used to track swimmers using two methods: manual and automated. The two methods showed good agreement for mean speed, but the automated one had higher variability in instantaneous speed than did the manual.

碩士
國立中央大學
化學工程與材料工程學系
101
Self-propelled micro-swimmers are biological organisms or synthetic objects that propel themselves through the surrounding fluids. Examples are a fish in a school, traveling birds, various swimming bacteria such as Escherichia coli and the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, etc. In the microscale living system, various self-propelled bacteria mostly have the same pattern of motion, which is called run-and-tumble motion. The trajectory of its motion is linear in a short interval, then punctuated by sudden and rapid randomizations in direction. The above process is repeated continually. This dynamics has something similar with Brownian motion but also something different. In addition, these swimmers can be classified as having pusher or puller polarity, which means that they are driven from the rear or the front fluids, respectively. In this study, dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) based on the mode of run-and-tumble motion is employed to simulate self-propelled nano-swimmers in bounded/unbounded system. For the unbounded system, it is found that the diffusion coefficient of nano-swimmers is higher than that of passive swimmers. The sedimentation length is increasing for nano-swimmers at sedimentation equilibrium state which is consistent with results from experiments. For the bounded system, the diffusion coefficient of nano-swimmers was obtained as well. It has a high probability for nano-swimmers to detain at the wall because of the motion mode of ballistic trajectory, which leads to the increment of friction and decrement of diffusion coefficient. Based on Buckingham Pi theorem, the expression of diffusion coefficient is obtained which is associated with the velocity, distance between the two walls, and rotation characteristic time. Furthermore, when the walls are designed with a funnel shape, owing to the existence of diffusion coefficient difference between two opposite sites, the nano-swimmers tend to move toward the site with higher diffusion coefficient.

The present study quantitatively investigated the difference in internal and external shoulder rotation strength and endurance in swimmers with painful shoulders compared with those without pain. In previous literature elite swimming athletes have been investigated, however little research has been conducted on the effects of shoulder pain in recreational swimmers. 12 amateur swimmers (5 male and 7 female participants) were recruited from metropolitan swimming squads, 7 with shoulder pain and 5 without shoulder pain. Internal and external shoulder rotation were measured using a Biodex isokinetic dynamometer. Peak torque, internal to external peak torque ratios, peak torque to body weight ratios and work to body weight ratios were recorded at speeds of 60sec and 240sec. There was a significant difference between swimmers with pain and swimmers with no pain for internal rotation peak torque to body weight ratio at 240sec. Effect size data demonstrated large to very large differences between those with pain and those with no pain for peak torque to body weight, work to body weight ratios and internal to external ratios for both speeds. The results suggest that swimmers with pain generally produce lower measures of shoulder strength and endurance, particularly when comparing internal rotation endurance strength. This may indicate that internal rotators should not be neglected when rehabilitating injured shoulders. This minor thesis was written by a post-graduate student as part of the requirements of the Master of Health Science (Osteopathy) program.