Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Sugarcane producers'

Bibliography: leaves 68-71.
The Kenyan sugar industry continues to face the task of being competitive in a liberalized global economy that has witnessed a trend in declining sugar prices and increasing local production costs. This dissertation attempts to investigate possible options that could assist Kenyan sugar industry to cope with the crisis. One such option is the diversification of the sugar industry's product base. Expanding their business to energy as a co-product to sugar processing, sugar companies could generate additional revenue from surplus electricity sales to the national utility. In Mauritius, gross revenue of USD 50 million, equivalent to 90% of that accruing to the miller for cane processing is generated from bagasse-based energy sales. On the basis of the Mauritian and other experiences the research concludes that Kenya sugar industries have the potential to export 43, 258, and 306 GWh of electricity to the national grid, depending on the mode of operation of the power plant. Thus the potential for revenue expansion through power sales for the Kenyan sugar industry is substantial. Power sector reforms have seen the entry into the electricity market of independent power producers (IPPs), and so this presents a good opportunity for sugar companies to enter into power purchase agreements with the national utility for the supply of power. Anaerobic digestion systems, used in the treatment and management of industrial effluent provide an additional benefit of generating boiler fuel in the form of biogas in sugar industries of Kenya. This technology and its application to the sugarcane industry are reviewed as part of this thesis.

The environmental performance of production companies is increasingly becoming part of strategies for the competitive marketing of their products, as consumers grow more aware of environmental issues surrounding industry. Similar products can be compared by the tool of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) from the perspective of their impacts on the environment from which their production resources are drawn and to which their burdens are released. There is the inherent perception that products made from renewable resources are environmentally more desirable than those which are produced from finite resources. This thesis investigates whether this conception is valid for the case of ethanol produced from biomass, by describing and interpreting the various stages of the production process by means of an LCA. Sugarcane (Saccharum o/ficinarum) contains 12 - 17% sugars on a wet basis, and 68 -72% moisture. The sugar composition is 90% sucrose and 10% glucose or fructose. In the conventional sugar production industry, syrup containing about 34% sucrose (molasses) remains after sugar crystals are formed from the clarified juice. This sucrose can be fermented to produce ethanol whose uses include potable consumption and the production of chemicals, but there is growing interest in its possible use as an additive for motor-grade gasoline, as well as its use as neat fuel to replace crude-oil based fuels. This thesis presents a cradle to gate life cycle study carried out with the aim of determining the environmental consequences of producing ethanol from sugarcane molasses. The investigation was done for a sugar producing company in the Kwa-Zulu Natal Province of South Africa, whose interests also lie in the beneficiation of value addition products from sugarcane. The goal of the study was to produce a comprehensive inventory of all the energy and material inputs and outputs involved in the production of the 1 kl (1000 litres) of bio-ethanol, using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Concepts of carbon closure and fossil energy ratio were chosen to represent measures of the degree of renewability of the system, and the results were compared to values derived from the literature on life cycle assessments of similar bioenergysystems.

The interest in using sugarcane straw as a feedstock for bioenergy production has been increased considerably. However, indiscriminate straw removal may negatively affect soil functioning. Therefore, this work aimed to quantify and characterize soil solution translocating along the profile, under straw removal rates from the soil surface. Lysimeter systems were built with 1, 20, 50, and 100 cm soil columns, with a sandy clay loam texture, from a commercial sugarcane field in Piracicaba-SP, southeastern Brazil. The experiment was conducted in open area, where the lysimeters were subjected to rainfall and sun radiation. After the soil stabilization within the lysimeters, the treatments were added, consisting of four straw amounts (0, 3, 6, and 12 Mg ha-1), representing straw removal rates of 100 (bare soil), 75, 50, and 0%, respectively. After one year of the first straw addition, the same straw amounts were added again simulating the second harvest. Drained solution was collected and quantified by 17 months and soil moisture was determined over a period of two months using sensors. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration was measured in automatic analyzer. The soil solution and straw solution, made in water infusion, were characterized in High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to verify the presence of toxic compounds. After that, straw and soil solution were used in tests with soybean seed to evaluate the effects in plant germination and initial growth. At the end of the experiment, soil bulk density and soil organic carbon (SOC) analyses were performed. Remaining straw was weight before the new addition, and weight again at the end to determine the decomposition rates. The accumulated volume of solution drained was 30, 11 and 4% lower under 100, 75 and 50% removal rates compared to no removal. Bare soil stored less water, indicating susceptibility to lose water by evaporation. Simulation showed that 100% and 75% removal can induce longer periods of water restriction, which impair sugarcane growth. The DOC production on topsoil was higher in no straw removal; the retention was higher in 1 to 20 cm in no removal and higher in 20 to 50 cm in 50 and 75% removal rates. Bare soil released more DOC below 01 cm indicating a possible C loss. Below 100 cm DOC leachate was quite similar in all treatments, what shows a higher C retention and small C loss even in higher DOC production. Even with differences in DOC retention, increases in C stock below 5 cm were not noticed. We found many phenolic compounds in the straw solution, not found in the soil solution, indicating that in natural conditions straw does not release toxic compounds into soil solution. Plant growth was negatively affected by straw solution, but not by soil solution. Our findings suggest that the medium straw maintenance prevents variations and loss on soil water content. Higher straw amount increases DOC production, which likely alters its composition and subsequent retention in soil. Carbon stock did not increase in the soil subsurface, but probably will in the long-term. The higher straw removal, proportionally, the higher the C losses in the form of CO2 and DOC, consequently the lower soil C retention. More straw on soil surface release more C amounts to the soil, retained or translocated with soil water, may be stored in deeper soil layers. Higher water percolation in the soil profile does not mean higher C losses by leaching in deeper soil. This study has the practical objective of finding an amount of straw to be maintained in the field that ensures the C storage and the better soil functioning, and also supply feedstock for bioenergy production.
O interesse no uso da palha de cana-de-açúcar como matéria-prima para a produção de bioenergia vem crescendo consideravelmente. No entanto, a remoção excessiva da palha pode afetar negativamente o funcionamento do solo. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi quantificar e caracterizar a solução ao longo do perfil sob níveis de remoção de palha da superfície do solo. Para isso, foi construído um sistema de lisímetros com colunas de 1, 20, 50 e 100 cm de solo, de textura franco argilo arenosa, proveniente de área comercial de cana-de-açúcar em Piracicaba-SP, Brasil. O experimento foi conduzido em área aberta, sujeito a precipitação e luz natural. Depois da estabilização do solo dentro dos tubos, foram adicionados os seguintes tratamentos: 0, 3, 6 e 12 Mg ha-1 de massa seca, representando 100 (solo nu), 75, 50 e 0% de intensidade de remoção de palha, respectivamente, sendo adicionados novamente após um ano. A solução percolada foi coletada e quantificada por 17 meses, a umidade do solo foi determinada por dois meses usando sensores. A concentração de carbono orgânico dissolvido (COD) foi mensurada com analisador automático. A solução do solo e solução da palha, feita por infusão em água, foram caracterizadas em HPLC para verificar a presença de compostos tóxicos. Posteriormente, as soluções da palha e solo foram usadas em testes de sementes de soja para avaliar os efeitos na germinação e crescimento inicial. Ao final do experimento, foram realizadas análises de densidade do solo e carbono orgânica do solo (COS). A palha remanescente foi pesada após um ano, anterior a nova adição, e pesada novamente ao final do experimento, para determinar a taxa de decomposição. O volume de solução percolado foi 30, 11 e 4% menor em 100, 75 e 50% do que em 0% de remoção, respectivamente. O solo descoberto armazenou menos água, indicando susceptibilidade à perda de água por evaporação. A simulação mostrou que 100 e 75% de remoção induzem longos períodos de restrição hídrica, que pode prejudicar o crescimento da planta. A produção de COD na camada superficial foi maior no solo sem remoção; a retenção foi maior de 1 a 20 cm em solo sem remoção, e maior em 20 a 50 cm em 50 e 75% de remoção. O solo descoberto liberou mais COD em de 20 cm do que em superfície, indicando perda de C. Abaixo de 100 cm, o COD lixiviado foi similar nos tratamentos, indicando grande retenção de C e pequenas perdas por lixiviação, mesmo em alta produção de COD. Mesmo com diferenças na retenção de COD, não foi identificado aumento no estoque de C abaixo de 5 cm. Foram encontrados compostos fenólicos na solução da palha, não encontrados na solução do solo, indicando que em condições naturais a palha não libera quantidades significativas de compostos tóxicos na solução do solo. O crescimento de plantas foi negativamente afetado pela solução da palha, mas não pela solução do solo. Nossos resultados sugerem que a manutenção de quantidade média de palha previne perdas e variação no conteúdo de água do solo. Maior quantidade de palha aumenta a produção de COD, que provavelmente altera sua composição, alterando a retenção no solo. O estoque de C não aumentou consideravelmente em subsuperfície, mas muito provavelmente aumentará em escala de tempo maior. Quanto maior a remoção de palha, proporcionalmente maior as taxas de C liberadas na forma de CO2 e COD em subsuperfície, consequentemente, menor a retenção de C no solo. Maiores quantidades de palha na superfície liberam mais C para o solo, retido ou translocado com a água, podendo ser estocado em maiores profundidades do solo. Maior percolação de água no solo não significa maiores perdas de C por lixiviação em profundidade.

This thesis investigates the use of near infrared (NIR) spectroscopic methods for rapid measurement of nutrient elements in mill mud and mill ash. Adoption of NIR-based analyses for carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and silicon will allow Australian sugarcane farmers to comply with recent legislative changes, and act within recommended precision farming frameworks. For these analyses, NIR spectroscopic methods surpass several facets of traditional wet chemistry techniques, dramatically reducing costs, required expertise and chemical exposure, while increasing throughput and access to data. Further, this technology can be applied in various modes, including laboratory, at-line and on-line installations, allowing targeted measurement.

Even though the Brazilian ethanol and sugar production system (based on sugarcane industry) have been providing large amounts of bioenergy, the extensive amounts of organic wastes generated cannot be ignored when it comes to sustainability. Using these biomasses to produce biomethane through anaerobic digestion has been proven as a promising way to tackle this issue. This study investigated the biomethane potential of the co-digestion of these biomasses: SF (sugarcane straw : filter cake = 8:2), SFV (sugarcane straw : filter cake : vinasse = 1:4:45), and D (digestate separated from AD of SFV). Three treatments autoclaving (AU), alkaline (AL) treatment using 6% (w/w) NaOH and the combination of these two (AUAL) were then conducted on SF and SFV as pre-treatments; on D as post- treatments. In the biomethane potential tests of untreated material, the highest methane yield was achieved by SFV with 275.28 ± 11 N ml CH4/g VS, followed by SF with 223.25 ± 10 N ml CH4 g-1 VS, substrate D also resulted in a methane potential of 144.69 ± 2 N ml CH4 g-1 VS. As pre-treatments, AL and AUAL both showed increase in methane yield (between 36.0% and 49.1%) and methane production rate. As post-treatments, AU, AL and AUAL showed distinctive results in methane production, with 33.8%, 99.8% and 128.8% increase, respectively. In comparison with pre-treatment, post-treatment showed a better performance in increasing methane production. The following feeding experiments performed in continuous stirred-tank reactors showed that AL treatment led to an average of 248% increase in methane yield.
Sugarcane waste: towards a zero C emission in the Brazilian bioenergy sector

Thesis (M.S. (Hons.))-- University of Western Sydney, 2008.
A thesis sumitted to the University of Western Sydney in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science (Honours), School of Natural Sciences, College of Health and Science. Includes bibliography.

A compost consisting 95% of the sugar mill byproducts: bagasse, filter press mud, and fly ash, applied at 5 t ha$ sp{-1}$, increased vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection of sugarcane roots in one of three experimental fields in Barbados. In a plant cane field, compost stimulated formation of intracellular hyphal coils and arbuscules, but not vesicles or hyphae. Infection was greater in roots 35 cm and 65 cm than 5 cm distant from the plant stem, and compost effects were not significant at 5 cm. Two other sources of phosphorus, filter press mud and triple superphosphate, did not affect and suppressed mycorrhizal infection, respectively. Two ratoon crops showed no residual effect of compost on mycorrhizal infection. Compost also stimulated tillering, phosphorus content, and perhaps yield of cane, but did not differentially effect high versus low tillering or sloped versus flat areas. Root length, weight, and specific root length were unaffected by compost addition, but root branching was decreased.

This thesis is a contribution to the development of catalytic processes for the production of platform chemicals from agricultural residues. It examined catalytic processes for the production of chloromethylfurfural and hydroxymethylfurfural from sugar cane bagasse and molasses. These chemicals can be used for the production of fuels, pharmaceuticals and polymers.

There have been a number of support initiatives rendered to the small-scale sugarcane farmers in Mpumalanga but the sugarcane production there has remained low. This raised some questions on the efficient use of available resources and the fruitfulness of the Producer Development Initiatives (PDIs). Justification for further assistance to the small-scale farmers requires empirical evidence of efficient resource use. This study employed the stochastic frontier production function to calculate the technical, allocative and cost efficiency. This study provides insight into three issues: the levels of technical, economic and allocative efficiencies of small-scale sugarcane farmers; the relationship between efficiency level and various farm/farmer specific factors; and implications of policy and strategies for improving small-scale sugarcane production. The technical, allocative and economic efficiencies of small-scale sugarcane farming were estimated in order to identify the potential increase in production without incurring additional costs. The study used data obtained from a field survey covering 231 small-scale sugarcane farmers in the Nkomazi region for the 2009/2010. sugarcane production season. According to the stochastic frontier production function using the Cobb-Douglas model, labour, herbicides and fertilizer showed significant positive effects on sugarcane production. The results also indicated that the small-scale sugarcane farmers suffer from considerable lack technical, allocative and cost efficiency. The mean technical, allocative and cost efficiency estimates are 68.5%, 61.5% and 41.8% respectively. A Tobit regression was used to analyse the impact of the farm/farmer characteristics on efficiency. The impact analysis revealed that age, level of education and gender are significant determinants of technical efficiency. On the other hand, level of education, off-farm income, land size and experience are significant determinants of allocative efficiency. In so far as cost efficiency is concerned, the significant determinants are level of education, land size and experience in sugarcane farming. The findings of the study justify the need for improved agricultural partnerships between the sugar mills and the sugarcane farmers. An example of such collaboration would be if millers were to not only give credit to the farmers, but also give technical guidance to small producers in return for the delivery of a specific quantity and quality of cane at a stipulated time. The collective efforts of these farmers and millers, once harmoniously co-ordinated, can enhance production efficiency and economic prosperity. Also, appropriate policy formulation and implementation is an effective instrument to improvement in farm efficiency and productivity which promotes overall growth of the economy. Therefore, there is need for all stakeholders (both private and public sector) to make combined efforts to remove the bottlenecks that have constrained effective policy implementation in, and its accrued benefits to, South African agriculture.
Dissertation MSc (Agric)--University of Pretoria, 2013.
gm2014
Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development
unrestricted

Orientador: Alcides Lopes Leão
Coorientador: Ivana Cesarino
Banca: Carla dos Santos Riccardi
Banca: Lucia Helena Innocentini Mei
Resumo: As preocupações ambientais e o esgotamento dos combustíveis fósseis resultaram em um interesse crescente em materiais ambientalmente amigáveis, à base de polímeros naturais. Esforços estão sendo feitos para introduzir a lignina em compostos plásticos, tais como polipropileno, com o objetivo de produzir materiais com boas características mecânicas e, ao mesmo tempo, ambientalmente amigáveis. A lignina é uma matéria-prima amplamente disponível na natureza, que contém alta densidade de compostos aromáticos, os quais são atualmente, em sua maioria, derivados do petróleo. No entanto, grande parte da lignina é utilizada para geração de energia e pode ser um potencial agente poluidor se não destinada de forma adequada. Desse modo, é importante encontrar uma maneira econômica de converter esse polímero natural em materiais de alto valor agregado, como compósitos com alto desempenho mecânico e térmico. Neste estudo, compósitos de polipropileno e de lignina kraft de pinus (LKI) e de bagaço de cana (LBC) foram submetidos à extrusão, e os corpos de prova foram produzidos pelo processo de injeção. Os materiais produzidos foram analisados quanto às propriedades mecânicas, térmicas (TGA, DSC, HDT), química (FTIR), reológica (índice de fluidez) e morfológica (MEV). Os objetivos desta pesquisa foram desenvolver novos compósitos de polipropileno contendo lignina e proporcionar propriedades mecânicas comparáveis aos polipropilenos comerciais, além de obter compósito com alto grau de afinidade e...
Abstract : Environmental concerns and the depletion of fossil fuels resulted in a growing interest in environmentally friendly materials based on natural polymers. Efforts are being made to introduce the lignin in plastic composites such as polypropylene, in order to produce materials with good mechanical characteristics and at the same time environmentally friendly. Lignin is a biopolymer widely available which contains high density of aromatic compounds. Nowadays, the aromatic compounds are almost exclusively derived from petroleum. However, the lignin is used mainly to generate energy and can be a pollution potential if not properly treated. Lignin, however, can improve the performance of composites. Moreover, it is important to find an economical way to convert lignin into high value-added materials. In this study, blends of polypropylene, pine kraft lignin (LKI) and sugar cane bagasse lignin (LBC) were subjected to extrusion and the specimens were produced by injection process. The materials produced were analyzed for their mechanical, thermal (TGA, DSC, HDT), chemical (FTIR), rheological (melt flow index) and morphological (SEM) properties. The objective of this research was to develop new lignin-based polypropylene composite with mechanical properties comparable to commercial polypropylene. The results showed that the incorporation of lignin in polypropylene matrix resulted in composites, in general, with properties suitable for various industrial segments, especially those in which mechanical and thermal properties are crucial, such as the replacement of engineering plastics and polypropylene mineral ...
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Ethanol production on a large scale has been questioned by segments of the international market, which value clean and social mechanisms in the production of commodities and bioenergy (employment, income, migration, climate change and pollution). Pressures to banning the burning of sugar cane are examples. Ethanol production on a small scale by small and medium farmers can bring benefits that large plants are not able to provide, such as supplying local and regional markets, generating income and employment for poor communities and regional development, permanent family manpower, with return on investment and business itself. With the participation of small and medium farmers, the supply of alcohol could be more evenly distributed, regardless of the large plants that frequently opt for sugar production due to its higher profitability. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the technical, economic and environmental viability of ethanol production from the "head" and "tail" fractions of sugarcane brandy at the association of producers. Production parameters were determined since the sugarcane harvest until obtaining the alcohol fuel. The potential for production of fuel ethanol on the farm, from the "head" and "tail" of sugarcane brandy in producers association, in the micro- region of Viçosa, was determined from the production coefficients obtained experimentally. Technical coefficients of production such as cutting productivity, volume of juice, amount of bagasse and tip, the volume of "head" and "tail", and finally the volume of ethanol from the "head" and "tail" were obtained from data collected in the field. The economic analysis of the production of ethanol was performed for four cases, which varied according to the volume of the pan of the alembic. The cases were alembic with capacity for 300, 500, 700 and 1,000 liters and the results showed that the production of fuel alcohol from the "head" and "tail" of sugar cane brandy producers association is a feasible activity. The cost of producing a liter of alcohol for the first cycle of sugar cane was around $ 0.42 for all cases studied and $ 0.30 for the second cycle. Since the marketing of alcohol can only be made between associated or sold to distributors it was xvfound in this study the possibility of integrating the local taxi drivers association for consumption of the fuel produced. The results of this option were also positive for the parties involved in the project. Finally, it was investigated the relationship of the production of vinasse and wastewaters with the environment. The study showed that small-scale production do not harm the environment and the amount of produced vinasse is not an environmental problem and can be used for fertigation, animal feed or be biodegraded, with biogas production. The wastewaters by presenting a few biodegradable compounds should be chemically treated and reused in cleaning operations, or as fluid for cooling the alcohol produced before being released into the environment.
A produção de etanol em grande escala vem sendo questionada por segmentos do mercado internacional, que valorizam mecanismos limpos e sociais na produção de commodities e bioenergia (emprego, renda, fluxo migratório, mudanças climáticas e poluição). Cita-se como exemplo as pressões para a proibição da queima da cana. A produção de etanol em pequena escala por pequenos e médios agricultores pode trazer benefícios que as usinas de grande porte não são capazes de propiciar, tais como o abastecimento de mercados locais e regionais gerando renda e emprego para comunidades carentes e desenvolvimento regional, mão-de-obra familiar permanente, com retorno e investimento no próprio negócio. Com a participação do pequeno e médio agricultor, a oferta do álcool poderia ser mais bem distribuída e desatrelada da posição das grandes usinas, que muita das vezes opta pela produção de açúcar por apresentar maior lucratividade. Sendo assim, neste trabalho objetivou-se realizar a viabilidade técnica, econômica e ambiental da produção de álcool combustível, a partir da cabeça e cauda da cachaça em associação de produtores. Foram determinados parâmetros de produção desde a colheita da cana até à obtenção do álcool combustível. Com os coeficientes de produção obtidos determinou-se o potencial de produção de álcool combustível de fazenda a partir da cabeça e da cauda em associação de produtores de cachaça na microrregião de Viçosa. O potencial de produção de álcool combustível na fazenda, a partir da cabeça e da cauda da cachaça em associação de produtores, na microrregião de Viçosa, foi determinado a partir dos coeficientes de produção obtidos experimentalmente. Coeficientes técnicos de produção, tais como produtividade de corte, volume de caldo, quantidade de bagaço e de ponta, o volume de cabeça e de cauda , foram determinados a partir dos resultados obtidos no campo. Finalmente, o volume de etanol foi determinado a partir da cabeça e cauda . A análise econômica da produção de álcool combustível foi realizada para quatro casos, que xiiivariaram de acordo com o volume da panela do alambique. Os casos estudados foram para alambiques de 300, 500, 700 e 1.000 litros e os resultados mostraram que a produção de álcool combustível a partir da cabeça e cauda da cachaça em associação de produtores é uma atividade viável. O custo de produção de um litro de álcool para o primeiro ciclo da cana- de-açúcar ficou em torno de R$ 1,00 para todos os casos estudados e R$ 0,70 para o segundo ciclo. Como a comercialização do álcool só pode ser realizada entre associados ou vendido a distribuidores verificou-se, neste estudo, a possibilidade de integrar à associação os taxistas locais para consumo do combustível produzido. Essa opção apresentou, também, resultados positivos para as partes envolvidas no projeto. Finalmente, foi verificada a relação da produção de vinhaça e do restilo com o meio ambiente. O estudo mostrou que, em pequena escala, esta produção não agride o meio ambiente e a quantidade de vinhaça produzida não é um problema ambiental e pode ser utilizada para fertirrigação, alimentação de animais ou ser biodegradadas, com produção de biogás. O restilo, por apresentar poucos compostos biodegradáveis, deve ser tratado quimicamente e reutilizado em operações de limpeza ou como fluido para resfriar o álcool produzido antes de ser lançado no meio ambiente.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The extraction of hemicelluloses prior to pulping that would have been dissolved in black liquor during pulping process, is an attractive alternative for pulp and paper mills as they, in addition to their core products, can increase their revenue by producing biofuels, biopolymers, paper additives and other chemicals. However, the amount of hemicelluloses extracted will be limited by the requirement to maintain pulp yield and pulp quality in comparison to existing pulping processes. In the present study, mild alkaline (NaOH) and dilute sulphuric acid conditions were used to extract hemicelluloses from Eucalyptus grandis, giant bamboo (Bambusa balcooa) and sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) bagasse (SCB) prior to kraft or sodaAQ pulping processes. The effects of catalyst concentration, temperature and reaction time on hemicelluloses pre-extraction were studied, using a statistical experimental design to investigate conditions under which hemicelluloses could be extracted prior to alkaline pulping with minimal interference on cellulose (glucan) content. Subsequently, selected pre-extracted materials were subjected to kraft or sodaAQ pulping to evaluate the effect of the hemicelluloses pre-extraction on cooking chemicals, pulp yield and properties. This study also included evaluation of hot water hemicelluloses pre-extraction of SCB as it was part of a dilute sulphuric acid experimental design. The pulp yield, cooking chemicals and handsheet strength properties were compared with those obtained from kraft or sodaAQ pulping of non extracted raw materials. The results showed that alkaline pre-extraction options investigated preserves the pulp yield with minimal effect on handsheet strength properties depending on the choice of the subsequent pulping method while a fraction of xylan was extracted in polymeric form. In addition, less active alkali was required to delignify the xylan extracted materials. The integration of hemicelluloses pre-extraction by alkaline methods into a kraft pulping process was preferred for giant bamboo and E. grandis since it maintained pulp yields at desired industrial levels of 50%, and pulps within a bleachable kappa number range. Another advantage observed was the reduction in total cooking active alkali required to delignify alkaline extracted giant bamboo or E. grandis by 8or 3 percentage points respectively. However, the compromise to maintain the pulp yield was obtained when only 13.6% or 12.4% polymeric xylan was solubilised from giant bamboo or E. grandis respectively. Slight improvement in burst index of the handsheet was observed for extracted giant bamboo. On the other hand, pulp viscosity was increased by 13% due to the removal of low molecular weight hemicelluloses, while the breaking strength of the handsheet was also increased by 8.9% for pulps produced from extracted E. grandis. In the case of sugarcane bagasse, hemicelluloses pre-extraction by alkaline methods integrated well with the sodaAQ pulping process. It enabled a xylan recovery of 69.1%, while providing pulp with higher screened pulp yield (45.0%), with an advantageous decrease in kappa number (15.5). The handsheet tear index was superior without reduction in viscosity compared to pulp produced from non extracted SCB. On the contrary, results obtained from optimised dilute sulphuric acid pre-extraction of all the tested feedstocks were found to negatively impact subsequent kraft or sodaAQ pulping processes resulting in lower pulp yields and poorer strengths properties. Nonetheless, the differences were better when sodaAQ pulping was used compared to kraft pulping. SodaAQ protects the carbohydrates against the peeling reaction under alkaline medium. Conversely, pre-extraction of SCB with hot water resulted in low concentration of xylooligomers (5.7%), while the subsequent sodaAQ pulping resulted in no pulp yield reduction. The tear index and optical brightness of the handsheet papers produced from hot water extracted SCB were slightly improved while the breaking length, tensile and burst indexes were similar to those of pulps produced from non extracted SCB fibres. Of equal importance were the observed higher tear and burst indexes of handsheets produced from giant bamboo compared to E. grandis for both extracted and non extracted materials prepared under similar pulping processes. The advantage of bamboo was due to the larger fibre length and different morphological properties to those of hardwoods. However, the pulps produced from giant bamboo showed higher kappa numbers than those pulps produced from E. grandis due to the high condensation behaviour of bamboo lignins under alkaline conditions. Higher kappa numbers explained the higher demand for subsequent bleaching chemicals. In conclusion, the pulp mill biorefinery concept through hemicelluloses pre-extraction with NaOH can be achieved with modified kraft pulping or the sodaAQ pulping processes, but it depends on the type of raw material, extraction method and quality and performance requirements of a particular paper. The low pulping chemicals demand, comparable pulp yields and the improvement in some physico-chemical properties of the pulps from preextracted materials were observed. Furthermore, owing to xylan pre-extraction a larger amount of (extracted) material could be loaded into the digester as when non-extracted materials were used.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ekstraksie van hemiselluloses wat tydens verpulping in die swartloog opgelos word, bied ‘n aantreklike alternatief aan pulp- en papiermeulens om, addisioneel tot hul hoofprodukte, hul inkomste deur die vervaardiging van biobrandstowwe, biopolimere, papierbymiddels en ander chemikalië, daardeur te kan verhoog. Die hoeveelheid hemiselluloses wat ge-ekstraheer kan word, sal egter beperk word deur die vereiste dat pulpopbrengs en –kwaliteit tydens bestaande verpulpingsprosesse gehandhaaf moet word. In hierdie ondersoek is matige alkaliese (NaOH) en verdunde swawelsuurtoestande gebruik om hemiselluloses vóór kraft- of natriumantrakinoonverpulping uit Eucalyptus grandis, reuse bamboes (Bambusa balcooa) en suikerriet (Saccharum officinarum) bagasse, mee te ekstraheer. Die invloed van katalisatorkonsentrasie, temperatuur en reaksietyd is mbv ‘n statistiese, eksperimentele ontwerp ondersoek om die toestande te bepaal waaronder hemiselluloses, met minimale effek op die sellulose (glukaan) –inhoud, vóór alkaliese verpulping ge-ekstraheer kan word. Die pre-ge-ekstraheerde materiale, met hoë glukaan- en voldoende hemisellulosesinhoud, is vervolgens aan kraft- en natriumantrakinoonverpulping onderwerp om die invloed van pre-ekstraksie van hemiselluloses op die verpulpingsreagense, pulpopbrengs en - eienskappe vas te stel. Hierdie studie het ook die evualering van warmwater hemisellulosespre-ekstraksie van suikerrietbagasse, wat deel is van ‘n verdunde swawelsuur eksperimentele uitleg, ingesluit. Pulpopbrengs, die hoeveelheid verpulpingsreagense en handveleienskappe van dieselfde materiale wat nie vooraf ge-ekstraheer is nie, is vergelyk. Die resultate toon dat alkaliese pre-ekstraksie metodes wat ondersoek is die pulpopbrengs met minimale effek op handvel sterkte-eienskappe afhangende van die keuse van daaropvolgende pulpmetode kon handhaaf terwyl ‘n fraksie van xilaan in polimeriese vorm ge-ekstraheer is. Addisioneel, is minder aktiewe alkali benodig om die xilaan ge-ekstraheerde materiale te delignifiseer. Die integrasie van hemisellulosespre-ekstraksie dmv alkaliese metodes tydens ‘n kraft verpulpingsproses is vir reuse bamboes en E. grandis verkies omdat pulpopbrengste op ideale industriële vlakke van 50% gehandhaaf en is en pulp in ‘n bleikbare kappa nommergebied interval kon lewer. ‘n Verdere voordeel wat waargeneem is was die vermindering in die totale gekookte aktiewe alkali benodig vir reuse bamboes of E. grandis met 8 of 3 persentasiepunte onderskeidelik. Die kompromie om die pulpopbrengs te handhaaf is verkry toe slegs 13.6% of 12.4% polimeriese xilaan opgelos is vanuit reuse bamboes of E. grandis onderskeidelik. ‘n Effense verbetering in bars-indeks van die handvelle is waargeneem vir ge-ekstraheerde reuse bamboes. Pulpviskositeit het met 13% gestyg agv die verwydering van die lae molekulêre massa hemiselluloses, terwyl breeksterkte van handvelle ook met 8.9% toegeneem het vir pulp verkry uit pre-gekstraheerde E. grandis. NaOH pre-ekstraksie van 69.1% xilaan (droë massa) uit suikerriet bagasse (SCB) het ‘n hoër natriumantrakinoon, gesifte pulpopbrengs gelewer (45.0%) met ‘n verbeterde afname in kappa-getal (15.5) en uitstekende skeursterkte sonder verlaging in viskositeit, soos vergelyk met nie-ge-ekstraheerde suikkerrietbagasse. Daarteenoor het die resultate verkry met die geoptimeerde verdunde swawelsuur preekstraksie van al die getoetste rumateriale getoon om‘n negatiewe effek te gehad het op die daaropvolgende kraft- of natriumantrakinoonverpulping dws het laer pulpopbrengste en swakker sterkte-eienskappe opgelewer. Die verskille was nietemin kleiner toe natriumantrakinoonverpulping ipv kraftverpulping gebruik is. Antrakinoon beskerm die koolhidrate teen die afskilreaksie in alkaliese medium. Daarteenoor het pre-ekstraksie van suikerrierbagasse met warm water tot 'n lae hoeveelheid (5.7%) xilaanoligomere gelei, terwyl die daaropvolgende natriumantrakinoonverpulping geen verlaging in pulpopbrengs veroorsaak het nie. Skeursterkte en optiese helderheid van handvelle wat uit warm water ge-ekstraheerde suikerrietbagasse vervaardig is, het ietwat verbeter terwyl breek-, trek- en barssterkte dieselfde was as van suikerrietbagasse pulp wat nie ge-ekstraheer is nie. Net so belangrik was die waargenome hoër skeur- en barsindekse van handvelle vervaardig van reuse bamboes in vergelyking met E. grandis van beide geekstraheerde en nie ge-ekstraheerde materiale voorberei onder dieselfde verpulpings toestande. Bamboes se sterker eienskappe was as gevolg van die hoër vesellengte en ander morfologiese eienskappe as diévan loofhout. Pulp wat vervaardig is van reuse bamboes het ‘n hoër kappanommer getoon as pulp van E. grandis as gevolg van die hoë kondensasiegedrag van bamboeslignien onder alkaliese toestande. Hoër kappanommers kon die gepaardgaande hoër aanvraag vir bleikchemikalieë verklaar. Ten slotte, die pulpmeul bio-raffinaderykonsep nl. deur hemisellulosesekstraksie met NaOH gekombineer met óf ‘n gemodifiseerde kraft verpulping óf ‘n gemodifiseerde natriumantrakinoon verpulping, is wel uitvoerbaar. Dit word egter sterk beïnvloed deur die tipe ru-materiaal en die ekstraksie-metode gebruik, asook deur die kwaliteits- en gebruiksvereistes van verskillende tipes papier. ‘n Lae aanvraag vir verpulpingschemikalieë, vergelykbare pulpopbrengste en die verbetering in fisies-chemiese eienskappe van pulp vanaf pre-ge-ekstraheerde materiale is waargeneem. Verder kon, as gevolg van xilaan ekstraksie, meer ge-ekstraheerde materiaal in die verteerder gelaai word as wanneer nie-ge-ekstraheerde materiaal gebruik is.

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A cana-de-açúcar é uma cultura de grande importância econômica para o país, servindo de matéria prima para produção de açúcar e álcool. A vinhaça é um importante subproduto da produção alcooleira utilizada na fertirrigação por ter matéria orgânica e nutrientes em sua composição. Em contrapartida, pelo seu pH ácido e alta carga orgânica, pode apresentar um grande potencial poluente. Dentre os herbicidas mais utilizados na cultura da cana-de-açúcar, destaca-se o tebutiurom que apresenta toxicidade moderada a extrema e alta persistência, podendo ocasionar impacto ambiental. Por este motivo, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o efeito da aplicação de diferentes doses de tebutiurom associadas ou não à vinhaça em solo de manejo convencional na cultura da cana-de-açúcar em condições laboratoriais. Foram avaliadas a biodegradação mediante respirometria, a fitotoxicidade das amostras de solo utilizando sementes de alface, e a quantificação da comunidade bacteriana. As análises foram realizadas nos tempos inicial (t0) e final (t51) do experimento. Os resultados foram analisados estatisticamente utilizando teste de Tuckey a 5,0% de significância. Na biodegradação, as doses de tebutiurom não apresentaram efeito significativo na atividade microbiana dentre os tratamentos que receberam o mesmo volume de vinhaça. Entretanto, o herbicida proporcionou mudanças nas relações de significância entre outros tratamentos, sugerindo que a adição de tebutiurom ao solo causa pequena alteração no metabolismo da microbiota do solo. O aumento do volume de vinhaça aplicado gerou maior produção de CO2, sugerindo aumento do metabolismo microbiano na biodegradação. Nos bioensaios de fitotoxicidade, a presença do herbicida não causou impacto significativo nos tratamentos, entretanto alguns resultados sugerem que a adição de vinhaça beneficiou o desenvolvimento das plantas. Quanto à comunidade bacteriana do solo, a adição de doses maiores de vinhaça aumentou a concentração de bactérias no tempo inicial dos tratamentos que a receberam, mas após o período de atenuação natural, houve redução neste parâmetro. A adição de herbicida não apresentou impacto significativo nos tratamentos.
Sugarcane is a crop of great economic importance for the country, serving as raw material for sugar and alcohol production. Vinasse is an important by-product of the alcoholic production, which it is used in fertirrigation by having organic matter and nutrients in its composition. On the other hand, by its pH acid and high organic load, it can present a great polluting potential. Among most commonly used herbicides in sugarcane crops, tebuthiuron exhibits moderate to extreme toxicity and high persistence, and may have an environmental impact. For this reason, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the application of different doses of tebutiurom associated or not to vinasse in conventional management soil in sugarcane cultivation under laboratory conditions. Biodegradation through respirometry, phytotoxicity of soil samples using lettuce seeds, and quantification of the bacterial community were evaluated. The analyzes were performed at the initial (t0) and final (t51) times of the experiment. The results were statistically analyzed using the Tuckey test at 5.0% probability. The doses of tebutiurom had no significant effect on biodegradation among the treatments that received the same volume of vinasse. However, the herbicide provided changes in the significance relationships between other treatments, suggesting that the addition of tebutiurom to the soil causes a small change in soil microbiota metabolism. The higher volume of vinasse applied resulted in higher CO2 production, suggesting increased microbial metabolism in biodegradation. In the ecotoxicity bioassays, the presence of the herbicide did not have a significant impact on the treatments, however some results suggest that the addition of vinasse benefited the development of the plants. As for the bacterial community of the soil, the addition of larger doses of vinasse increased the number of CFU at the initial time of the treatments that received it, but after the period of natural attenuation, there was a reduction in this parameter. Again, herbicide addition had no significant impact on treatments.

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With the retake of the agro-energetic policies, the Central Government in Brazil was forced to present public policies to stimulate the expansion of the sugarcane agribusiness in the nation. The agroindustrial sector related to the production of juices and sugarcane derivatives in the Goiás state, experiencing a time of great expansion due to the construction of new industrial unities, opened possibilities for the participation of new segments of the society -sugarcane suppliers and landlords- in the sugarcane agroindustrial complex via rental contracts for available lands and contracts for the supply of raw material. This research was carried out via a qualitative approach and was based upon a range of methodological procedures literature research, documental research, and interviews to obtain the dataset. Since the 1930 s the Brazilian Central Government has stated laws to regulate and to discipline the contractual relationship dealt amongst the social segments involved in the sugarcane agribusiness with the purpose to promote the development of the productive segment of the country s industry, and to establish patterns for social behaviour in accordance with a rational bureaucratic administration. The conclusion is that the agrarian contracts dealt amongst the different social segments involved in the sugarcane industry, although founded upon legal apparatus, did not guarantee the farmers right, or even it did minimize the conflicts amongst the involved agents in this sector of the economy. The agroindustry holds the power of the information which generates asymmetry in the social relationship established in the agrarian contracts. From their side, the farmers landrenters or sugarcane suppliers , comply with the impositions from the sugarcane agroindustry, and continue linked to it because of the lack of better options of economic insertion.
Com a retomada das políticas agroenergéticas, o Estado instituiu políticas públicas para estimular a expansão da produção canavieira. O setor sucroalcooleiro goiano, vivenciando um momento de grande desenvolvimento, com a implantação de novas unidades industriais, ampliou a possibilidade da participação de novos agentes sociais fornecedores de cana e arrendadores de terras no complexo agroindustrial canavieiro, por meio de contratos de arrendamentos e contratos de fornecimento de matéria-prima. O objetivo da dissertação foi analisar os contratos agrários firmados entre as agroindústrias canavieiras, proprietários de terras e fornecedores de cana para obtenção de matéria-prima, avaliando em que medida as cláusulas contratuais são suficientes para normatizar as relações sociais e se engendram situações de conflitos entre os agentes sociais. Para isso, utilizou-se, como referencial teórico, do fundamento da dominação racional weberiana, associada aos pressupostos teóricos das assimetrias de informações. Esta pesquisa é do tipo qualitativa, e tem como foco a partir da década de 1930, em que o Estado instituiu leis para normatizar e disciplinar as relações contratuais firmadas entre os agentes sociais integrados no complexo agroindustrial canavieiro, com o propósito de promover o desenvolvimento da atividade produtiva e estabelecer padrões de comportamentos sociais em conformidade com a administração burocrática racional. Conclui-se que os contratos agrários firmados entre os agentes sociais, embora fundamentados nos dispositivos legais, nem sempre garantem os direitos dos agricultores ou minimizam os conflitos. As agroindústrias detêm o poder de informações, gerando assimetrias nas relações sociais estabelecidas pelos contratos agrários. De sua parte, os agricultores arrendatários ou fornecedores de cana conformam-se com as imposições das agroindústrias canavieiras e permanecem integrados a elas, por falta de alternativas mais eficientes de inserção econômica.

Submitted in fulfillment of the academic requirements for the Masters in Applied Sciences (Chemistry), Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016.
The main aim of this work was to produce levulinic acid (LA) from sugarcane bagasse (SB) and since there is approximately 3 000 000 tons of bagasse produced per annum by 16 factories that are located on the north coast of Kwa-Zulu Natal, after the extraction of sugar. For this project fructose was firstly used for the production of LA, thereafter SB was used to produce LA. Cellulose was extracted from sugarcane bagasse using two types of pre-treatments namely (i) acid-alkali pre-treatment and (ii) liquid hot water (LHW). In the latter method acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis was used to hydrolyse cellulose to glucose. For the acid-alkali pre-treatment work, two types of bagasse was used namely (i) mill-run bagasse and (ii) depithed bagasse and for the LHW a mill-run bagasse (pellets form) was used. In both pre-treatment methods the glucose solution was then acid catalysed by two different acids (i) an environment friendly acid, methanesulfonic acid (MSA) and (ii) sulphuric acid, producing levulinic acid. The results showed that MSA and sulphuric acid produced almost the same yield of LA but, MSA is preferred for the production of LA since it is less toxic and less corrosive than sulphuric acid.
M

The relative importance of demographic or 'grower characteristics' as variables that influence adoption of environmentally innovative canegrowing practices is questioned in this thesis. Research, which involved a quantitative study of over 1000 sugarcane producers from Queensland, New South Wales and Western Australia, indicates that 'socio-cultural' factors are equally, and in some cases more, significant predictors of the adoption of environmentally innovative canegrowing practices than growers' personal attributes. The research indicates that the social, cultural and economic contexts that growers operate within considerably influence the extent to which knowledge is acquired and environmentally innovative canegrowing practices adopted. Analysis of the data utilises a range of demographic and property characteristics variables, and socio-cultural variables (such as group involvement, gendered division of labour and on-farm knowledge production) to determine their relationship to the adoption of environmentally innovative canegrowing practices.

Research and development into new and environmentally innovative canegrowing practices, as well as the transfer of such innovations, has primarily occurred through the medium of science and technology. Established methods of 'extension', which have previously been used to transfer knowledge in relation to new cane varieties and more productive means of producing sugarcane, are now being turned towards encouraging producers towards environmentally innovative agricultural practices. The degree to which scientific research and development, coupled with traditional methods of 'technology transfer' has been successful in promoting the adoption of environmental innovations is a topic that members of the sugar industry and the wider community have increasingly called into question. The adoption of environmental innovations has not been readily discernible at a ground level and has led to a belief that the extent of take-up of environmentally innovative canegrowing practices has been quite limited.

Scientific organisations involved with the sugar industry had expected that the adoption of new technology would relate in some way to the producer's age, level of education, years of experience or other 'personal' or demographic characteristics. Furthermore, the perceived low rate of adoption led industry personnel to believe that established methods of research and extension no longer had the support or confidence of sugarcane growers. To the contrary, the research for this thesis has found that growers do hold traditional methods of extension in high regard. This is particularly so in the case of advice received from the Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations (BSES), the oldest and most established research, development and extension agency in the sugar industry.

This thesis is substantially based upon a 'materialist' premise and argues that knowledge in relation to innovative canegrowing practices is both produced and diffused through social relationships and social practices. A sociological approach, which brings the 'materiality' of human existence to the forefront of analysis, is used to argue that scientific and lay forms of knowledge are produced through the actions of and interactions between human subjects.

The research indicates that the adoption of environmentally innovative canegrowing practices is quite widespread but in the main does not bear sufficiently strong significant relationships to grower's personal (demographic) characteristics or socio-economic variables such as the size, productivity or profitability of the canegrowing enterprise. Moreover, while significant relationships have been found between adoption and various 'socio-cultural' variables such as 'group involvement', 'sources of information', 'attitudes to chemical usage' and 'attitudes to the current state of the industry', the relationships are also trivial in accounting for variance in the adoption variables.

Furthermore, while practices are assumed to be applicable across the sugar industry, adoption is found to be influenced by factors peculiar to local canegrowing areas. The research undertaken highlights the fact that activities, which occur at the farm level are imbued with a cultural complexity that goes beyond - the mere production of agricultural commodities for the sake of accumulation of an economic surplus.

It is apparent that a range of factors influence the extent to which environmentally innovative agricultural practices are adopted in the sugar industry. While demographic and farm characteristics go some way towards accounting for the adoption of environmental innovations in the sugar industry, the social and socio-cultural conditions under which growers operate must also be taken into consideration.

South Africa has an annual sugarcane milling capacity of about 22 million tonnes on average producing about 3.3 million tonnes of dry bagasse, of which one third is surplus to factory requirements. Currently surplus bagasse is used for furfural, pulp and paper and cogeneration but significant amounts still remain . This prompted the need to find viable alternative and appropriate technology to utilize the surplus. A laboratory pilot plant was used to investigate the production of activated carbon from bagasse. Experiments were carried out to investigate conditions for making the best activated carbon in a rotary batch kiln, and also to examine potential ene rgy recovery from process gases using Gas Chromatography. Derived results from the laboratory experiments were used to develop a conceptual design for a demonstration plant sited within a sugar mill. The conceptual design was evaluated for economic and environmental impacts using a robust Excel spreadsheet and GABI-3 modelling software respectively. Excellent activated carbon was produced from sugarcane bagasse by a two-stage physical process involving pyrolysis and gasification with steam. The best operating conditions were pyrolysis at 700°C for 1 hr and activation at 850°C for 1hr, a heating rate of 10°C/min and a steam flow of 15g/g of char per hour. The active carbon yield was 7% on dry bagasse basis with a Methylene Blue Number of 257mglg of carbon. The active carbon had a sugar decolourisation capacity of 20% at a carbon dosage rate of 0.7 wt% on Brix using clear juice (l2°Brix) and 70% at 0.5 wt% on Brix using brown liquor (65°Brix) . The Freundlich isotherm showed that the bagasse-based activated carbon was a suitable adsorbent for sugar colour bodies. Gas analysis results revealed that the off gases from the pyrolysis and activation stages had calorific values of about 63MJ and 31MJ per kg of activated carbon respectively . The total combustion energy of 94 MJ/kg of active carbon was enough to satisfy the process energy requirements for drying, pyrolysis and activation. By burning combustibles like tar, methane, carbon monoxide, ethylene and hydrogen for process thermal energy needs, the environmental impact of the manufacturing process was reduced to a Global Warming Potential of llkg CO2 Equiv per kg of carbon produced. The demonstration plant requires a capital investment of US$lOA million to give a competitive bagasse-based activated carbon (BPAC) selling price of US$1.80 per kg and IRR, ROI and Investment payback time of 17.93%, 23.93% and 3.80 years respectively. A sensitivity analysis was also carried out to investigate the effect of possible variation in the main project forecasts which are BPAe selling price , bagasse buying price, capital investment and production costs on IRR, ROI and payback time . The benefits of process integration within a sugar mill would be expected to improve the business feasibility ; If bagasse was free the IRR would increase to 28.59% and even better to 32.12% if extra boiler and electricity capacity was also available at the mill.
Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

Submitted in fulfillment of the academic requirements of the degree of Master of Applied Sciences in Chemistry, Durban University of Technology, Chemistry Department, Durban, South Africa, 2016.
Cellulose is a sustainable, abundant biopolymer derived from a variety of living species such as plants, animals, bacteria and some amoebas. An attractive source of cellulose for industrial uses is agricultural waste, as this use does not jeopardize food supplies and improves the local rural economy. Sugarcane bagasse (SCB) is one of the main biomass wastes from sugar production and represents 30–40 wt % of sugar production waste. In 2008, South Africa produced on average 22 million tons of sugar cane each season from 14 sugar mill supply areas which resulted in 7,9 million tons of “waste” bagasse. In this study cellulose nanocrystals were prepared from soda pulped sugarcane bagasse by acid hydrolysis followed by separation using centrifugation, ultrasonication and dialysis. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) images showed nanocrystals of approximately 300 nm in length and 20 nm in width. Thermogravimetric Analysis and Differential Thermogravimetry (TGA and DTG) profiles of FD CNC, MCC and Pulped bagasse all had characteristic onset and decomposition temperatures indicating a change in the structure after chemical treatments. Particle size distribution measurements corroborated with the TEM and FE - SEM results and showed that the majority of the nanocrystals were in the 100 – 300 nm range. Attenuated Total Reflectance – Fourier Transform Infra Red (ATR - FTIR) analysis showed functional group changes as the amorphous regions of the polymer were removed revealing the ordered crystalline portions. These were further confirmed by an increase in the Lateral Orientation Index (LOI) of the samples as the nanocrystals were isolated. X - Ray Diffraction (XRD) Crystallinity Index (CrI) calculations showed a steady increase in the crystallinity of the materials from pulped bagasse to MCC to FD CNC.
M

碩士
國立成功大學
環境工程學系碩博士班
96
Depletion of resources for energy and materials, and climate change caused by greenhouse gas (GHG) are among the most concerned sustainability issues in world. In Taiwan, natural resources for materials and energy are limited and adverse consequences induced by the climate change as a result of the global warming phenomena. As a local resident as well as a global citizen; Taiwan is seeking for its way towards the two sustainability objectives: development of indigenous resources and lower carbon society. There are three objectives in this study: (1) to evaluate GHG emissions induced from ethanol fuel produced from sugarcane in Taiwan using the concept of life cycle assessment (LCA), (2) to apply sensitivity analysis to understand the information of sensitivity in the model for further applying our model to other conditions, and (3) to apply scenario analysis to understand the potential of ethanol produced from sugarcane and their consequences in GHG emission changes in Taiwan. A 3-year cycle of sugarcane cropping system is applied in this study. The GHG emissions associated with sugarcane production in Taiwan are 248 and 107 kg-CO2-equiv. per ton of raw sugarcane production when the Tier 1 and 3 methods are applied to calculate the land use emissions. With regard to the atmospheric CO2 absorption, 1 ton of raw sugarcane is able to absorb 386 kg-CO2-equiv.; therefore, the net GHG emissions are negative when 1 ton of raw sugarcane is produced. The GHG emissions are 4.42 kg-CO2-equiv. per L of absolute ethanol produced. When the sugarcane and ethanol production processes are integrated, processes of power generating (P20), soil, fertilizer manufacturing (P5), sugarcane growing (P2), and fermenting (P15) are the main sources of GHG emissions, and which are accounted for 50.8, 23.1, 11.1, 3.4, and 3.0 % of total GHG emissions. Among the GHG, N2O and CO2 contribute the most global warming potential in sugarcane and ethanol production processes, respectively. The results of sensitivity analysis for sugarcane production indicates that the result is most sensitive to the changes in parameters related with yields of sugarcane in new planting and ratoon cultivations. To change the fertilizers consumption, especially for nitrogen fertilizer, also leads more sensitive results. According the results of sensitivity analysis for sugarcane and ethanol production, the GHG emissions from 1 L of absolute ethanol are able to be reduced more by increasing the efficiency of centrifugal separating, sugarcane production, ethanol converted from molasses, steam production, boiler, and electricity generated by steam, heat value of bagasse, and sucrose content in clean sugarcane and molasses. The GHG emissions could vary within the range of 54.4-111.4 kg-CO2-equiv. per ton of raw sugarcane and 3.68-5.16 kg-CO2-equiv. per L of absolute ethanol production when one-at-a-time (OAT) method is applied. Emission level lines were developed aiming at supporting decisions about modifying agricultural methods (ex. irrigation, fertilization, and tillage) that should be made considering consequential changes in GHG emission. According to the scenario analysis, we can understand that ethanol from domestic sugarcane can reach the target of ethanol fuel development, and the GHG emissions are negative. Furthermore, ethanol produced from sugarcane in Taiwan has the potential to achieve the goals of development of materials and renewable energy, and low carbon society.

碩士
義守大學
化學工程學系暨生物技術與化學工程研究所
107
The developed countries in the world began to implement mandatory laws to categorize and manage vehicle tires from November 1, 2011. These laws are clearly defined by the fuel economy, energy consumption efficiency, and noise in order to increase tire use allowance standards (industrial products must meet the mandatory requirements of each country), and to promote faster development of green products by corporations. Therefore, green products become gradually the mainstream in the industry, and green tires will become the trend of the tire industry. Precipitated silica is an environmentally friendly and high performance additive used in rubber products, textiles, papermaking, pesticides, and as a food additive. Because the rubber used in shoe making, hoses, tapes, and wire and cable making are products of a mature industry, there is limited space for growth in precipitated silica demand in these areas. The other fields except the rubber industry have less demand for the precipitated silica and the need is more diverse. Therefore, the tire market is the greatest potential for precipitated silica in recent years. We have explored tire surface application formulation in environmentally friendly tires with precipitated silica which included high proportion, as well as the sugarcane wax and sugarcane wax plus polyethylene wax to investigate the process ability. Analysis of physical performance showed that adding sugarcane wax to tire surface application formulae for environmentally friendly tires with precipitated silica which included high proportion, improved process ability as well as additive distribution (the Payne effect). The mechanical characteristics also improved without affecting vulcanization and dynamic characteristics. The results of this study can serve as a reference for the production of environmentally friendly tires in the future.

碩士
大同大學
生物工程學系(所)
106
Sugarcane bagasse was pre-treated by 1% H2SO4 followed by 2% NaOH. Each pre-treatment process was carried out at 120C for 40 min. The pre-treated sugarcane bagasse (SCB) supplemented with wheat bran in a weight ratio of 4:1 was used as the substrate for cellulase production by solid state fermentation using Trichoderma reesei RUT C30 at 30 C. Cellulase activity of 13.70 2.81 FPU / g-DS was achieved after 6 days’ incubation. 5% (w/v) cellulase containing SCB (CSCB) was directed hydrolyzed at 50C for 4 h, then the hydrolyzed CSCB slurry was cooled to 40C, thermotolerant yeast (Kluyveromyces marxianus) was pitched to the slurry for ethanol production in simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) process. The yield of ethanol was 14.10.8% (w/w) from CSCB. Ethanol yield of 30.30.4％（w / w）and 27.50.1% (w/w) was achieved from CSCB supplemented with with 5 FPU/g-DS CTec 2 or 10 FPU/g-DS cellulase produced from the Institute of Nuclear Energy Research. The ethanol yield of 36.80.4% from glucose or 30.10.5% from deactivated CSCB plus 15 FPU/g-DS CTec2 was achieved respectively from our ethanol fermentation system. This study proved that direct employ CSCB to produce ethanol can reduced the cost of commercial cellulase.

by Pui-nin Lee.
Thesis submitted in: August 1997.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1998.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 141-148).
Abstract also in Chinese.
List of Abbreviations --- p.I
List of Tables --- p.II
List of Figures --- p.III
Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- Sugar cane --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- Mushroom: Pleurotus pulmonarius --- p.5
Chapter 1.2.1 --- Fruiting bodies --- p.5
Chapter 1.2.2 --- Life cycle of the mushroom --- p.6
Chapter 1.2.3 --- Cultivation --- p.7
Chapter 1.2.4 --- Nutrition --- p.8
Chapter 1.2.5 --- Cardiovascular and Renal effects --- p.9
Chapter 1.2.6 --- Dietary fiber --- p.10
Chapter 1.2.6.1 --- Physical properties of dietary fiber --- p.10
Chapter 1.2.6.2 --- Physiological actions --- p.11
Chapter 1.3 --- Food colorants --- p.13
Chapter 1.4 --- Quality of food products --- p.14
Chapter 1.4.1 --- Toxicity studies --- p.15
Chapter 1.4.2 --- Stability --- p.16
Chapter 1.4.3 --- Sensory evaluation --- p.18
Chapter 1.5 --- Secondary metabolism --- p.20
Chapter 1.6 --- Monascus --- p.24
Chapter 1.6.1 --- Monascus products --- p.25
Chapter 1.6.2 --- Monascus products as a functional food --- p.27
Chapter 1.6.3 --- Monascus pigments --- p.27
Chapter 1.6.4 --- Factors affect Monascus pigment production --- p.31
Chapter 1.7 --- Purposes of study --- p.37
Chapter Chapter 2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.38
Chapter 2.1 --- Micro-organisms --- p.38
Chapter 2.2 --- Maintenance of culture --- p.38
Chapter 2.3 --- Waste Culture medium for production of pigments --- p.38
Chapter 2.4 --- Chemical analysis of sugar cane residue broth (SCRB) --- p.39
Chapter 2.5 --- Preparation of inoculum --- p.40
Chapter 2.6 --- Batch culture for pigment production --- p.41
Chapter 2.7 --- Fermentor culture for pigment production --- p.44
Chapter 2.8 --- Cultivation of oyster mushroom --- p.46
Chapter 2.9 --- Purification and characterization of Monascus pigments --- p.49
Chapter 2.9.1 --- Extracellular pigments --- p.49
Chapter 2.9.2 --- Intracellular pigments --- p.50
Chapter 2.10 --- Toxicity test --- p.56
Chapter 2.11 --- Sensory evaluation --- p.61
Chapter 2.12 --- Statistical analysis --- p.62
Chapter Chapter 3 --- Results --- p.62
Chapter 3.1 --- Extracellular pigment of screening test --- p.63
Chapter 3.2 --- Batch culture for pigment production by Monascus purpureus --- p.69
Chapter 3.2.1 --- Consumption of glucose --- p.69
Chapter 3.2.2 --- Consumption of sucrose --- p.59
Chapter 3.2.3 --- Biomass production --- p.69
Chapter 3.2.4 --- Residual protein content --- p.73
Chapter 3.2.5 --- pH value of the fermented medium --- p.73
Chapter 3.2.6 --- Production of crude extracellular pigments --- p.73
Chapter 3.2.7 --- Production of crude intracellualr pigments --- p.75
Chapter 3.2.8 --- Total crude pigment yield --- p.75
Chapter 3.3 --- Fermentor --- p.77
Chapter 3.3.1 --- "Pigmentation of control group, treatment A and B" --- p.77
Chapter 3.3.2 --- Nutrition of the biomass from control group and treatment B of fermentor products --- p.80
Chapter 3.4 --- Production of oyster mushroom --- p.80
Chapter 3.4.1 --- Biological efficiency of mushroom --- p.80
Chapter 3.4.2 --- Amino acid profile and total amino acid content of the fruitbidies --- p.87
Chapter 3.4.3 --- Total dietary fiber content --- p.87
Chapter 3.4.4 --- "The contents of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen" --- p.91
Chapter 3.4.5 --- Sensory evaluation of the mushroom --- p.91
Chapter 3.5 --- Toxicity --- p.91
Chapter 3.5.1 --- Acute toxicity --- p.91
Chapter 3.5.1.1 --- Body weight --- p.95
Chapter 3.5.1.2 --- Food consumption --- p.95
Chapter 3.5.2 --- Subacute toxicity --- p.99
Chapter 3.5.2.1 --- Food consumption --- p.99
Chapter 3.5.2.2 --- Body weight --- p.99
Chapter 3.5.2.3 --- The organ weight to body weight ratios --- p.99
Chapter 3.5.2.4 --- The glutamate-pyruvate transaminase (GPT) and glutamate- oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) level in blood serum --- p.103
Chapter 3.6 --- Analysis of Monascus pigments from fermentor system by HPLC and spectrophotometry --- p.108
Chapter 3.6.1 --- Extracellular pigment from control group --- p.108
Chapter 3.6.2 --- Extracellular pigment from the group supplemented with 1 % MSG --- p.108
Chapter 3.6.3 --- Intracellular pigment --- p.111
Chapter 3.6.3.1 --- Standard of intracellular pigments (conventional pigments) --- p.111
Chapter 3.6.4 --- Intracellular pigments extracted from SCRB group --- p.111
Chapter 3.6.5 --- Intracellular pigment extracted from SCRB with 1 % MSG --- p.115
Chapter 3.7 --- Qualitative and quantitative of the extracellular and intracellular pigments --- p.118
Chapter 3.8 --- Detection of citrinin by HPLC --- p.123
Chapter Chapter 4 --- Discussion --- p.128
Chapter 4.1 --- Screening test --- p.128
Chapter 4.1.1 --- Batch culture system --- p.128
Chapter 4.2 --- Toxicity test of crude extracellular pigment --- p.129
Chapter 4.2.1 --- Acute toxicity --- p.129
Chapter 4.2.2 --- Subacute toxicity test --- p.130
Chapter 4.2.3 --- Organ to body weight ratios and cytotoxicity --- p.131
Chapter 4.3 --- The two new water soluble pigment --- p.132
Chapter 4.4 --- Extraction and purification of Monascus pigments from fermentor system --- p.133
Chapter 4.4.1 --- Qualitative and quantitative of the intracellular and extracellular pigments --- p.133
Chapter 4.5 --- Nephrotoxic-citrinin --- p.134
Chapter 4.6 --- Oyster mushroom cultivation --- p.135
Chapter 4.6.1 --- Fruiting yield (biological efficiency) --- p.136
Chapter 4.6.2 --- Amino acid content --- p.136
Chapter 4.6.3 --- Total dietary fiber content --- p.137
Conclusion --- p.139
References --- p.141
Appendix

This work reports the results of a systematic study of the factors that affect the bridging behaviour of bagasse. It shows that traditional bulk solids theory is inappropriate for predicting bagasse flow mainly because of the impossibility of obtaining a reliable measure of internal friction. It demonstrates the significant influence of fibre length and moisture content on its handling charateristics. Correlations of pertinent bulk properties such as compactibility, tensile strength, surface friction and translation of vertical into horizontal pressure have been developed. These were derived as a result of measurements in equipment that was designed for the purpose. Finally, an empirical model utilising these correlations is proposed by which the likelihood of bridge formation in any piece of bagasse handling equipment can be determined. The validity of the model is assessed by comparison with bridging tests that were performed under controlled conditions.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, 1996

The rapid development of the bioethanol industry globally demonstrates the importance of bioethanol as an alternate energy source to the depleting fossil fuels. To decrease costs and avoid undue pressure on the global food supply, the renewable lignocelluloses appear to be a better substrate for bioethanol production compared to others being investigated. This study investigated the conversion of lignocellulosic material, sugarcane bagasse, to ethanol by the use of Zymomonas mobilis and Pichia stipitis. The investigation of fermentation characteristics of the two strains revealed that their performance on the ethanol production was closely related to the viable cell concentration in the medium. The increase of inoculum size to five fold resulted in an increase in the system co-efficiency to 2.2 fold and 5.2 fold respectively for Z. mobilis and P. stipitis. A theoretical value de (the cell instantaneous ethanol production rate) was introduced to describe the ethanol productivity based on biomass. System co-efficiency proved to be only affected by the viable cell concentration (xC) and de, regardless of ethanol re-assimilation. Immobilized culture of Z. mobilis and P. stipitis showed distinct differences in their characteristics. The bacterium acclimatized to the interior of gel beads; the biomass concentration within the beads increased greater than 10 fold during the reuse of the beads, resulting in an improved fermentation performance. The immobilized P. stipitis gave a similar system co-efficiency level of approximately 0.5 g/l/h under different culture conditions; cell growth in the medium was considerably more vigorous compared to that within the beads. P. stipitis sole-culture on the glucose/xylose medium with a high inoculum size showed a comparable fermentation efficiency with the best result of the co-culture processes. Fermentation of 50.0 g/l of sugar mixture (30.0 g/l glucose and 20.0 g/l xylose) was completed in 20 h with an ethanol yield of 0.44 g/g. No catabolite repression due to glucose was observed for the xylose assimilation. Co-culture of immobilized Z. mobilis and free cells of P. stipitis proved to be the best fermentation scheme on the glucose/xylose sugar mixture co-fermentation. The removal of Z. mobilis after the utilization of glucose improved the stability of the performance. The best result showed that 50.0 g/l sugars were fully converted to ethanol within 19 h, giving an ethanol yield of 0.49 g/g, which is 96% of the theoretical rate. When co-cultured, viable cells of Z. mobilis inhibited the cell activity of P. stipitis, and were capable of growing to high concentration levels without an appropriate carbon source. Acid and enzymatic hydrolysates of sugarcane bagasse showed similar fermentability, but the hydrolysate without overliming significantly inhibited both cell growth and ethanol production of P. stipitis. The co-culture process on the hydrolysate medium successfully utilized 53.56 g/l sugars (32.14 g/l glucose and 21.42 g/l xylose) in 26 h with a yield of 0.43 g/g; this value further increased to 0.49 g/g when ethanol peaked at 40 h. A high cell density proved to be an effective method to improve the system co-efficiency for ethanol production. For the fermentation processes on the sugar medium, results achieved in this study, 10.54 g/l/h for Z. mobilis free cell culture on glucose, 0.755 g/l/h for P. stipitis free cell culture on xylose, 1.092 g/l/h for P. stipites free cell culture on the glucose/xylose mixture and 1.277 g/l/h for glucose/xylose co-fermentation using co-culture, are higher than the best values reported in the literature in batch culture. In the fermentation of the hydrolysate, the system co-efficiency of 0.879 g/l/h achieved with co-culture is comparable to the best values reported for the fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates.
Master of Science (Hons)

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements Of the degree of Masters in applied science: Biotechnology, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016.
Anaerobic dark fermentation is an efficient biological process to produce hydrogen from waste material. In South Africa, this technology has not been explored adequately to extract energy from biological wastes. Within the KwaZulu Natal region of South Africa, the sugar industry is a prominent venture that produces mass quantities of sugarcane bagasse amongst other waste products. This by-product can be an ideal source of substrate for biohydrogen generation. In this study, sugarcane bagasse was used as the main substrate for biohydrogen production by anaerobic fermentation using sewage sludge as the inoculum. Different pre-treatment methods were employed to maximize the release of fermentable sugars from the lignocellulosic biomass. Among the different pre-treatment methods employed, the maximum sugar yield (294.4 mg/g) was achieved with 0.25% H2SO4 for 60 minutes at 121°C. Prior to inoculation, the sewage sludge was also subjected to thermal pre-treatment to eliminate methanogens. Thermal pre-treatment of inoculum sludge for 30 min was effective in eliminating methanogens. Fluorescence in situ hybridization was used to positively identify the hydrogen producing bacteria present before and after treatment. The pre-treated substrate and inoculum was integrated into a dark fermentation process to further optimize the effect of pH, substrate to biomass, iron and magnetite nanoparticles on hydrogen production. The maximum hydrogen production (1.2 mol/mol glucose) was achieved at a pH range of 5-6, a substrate to biomass ratio of 3.5, and iron and magnetite nanoparticle concentration of 200 mg/L. Microbial analysis using quantitative polymerase chain reaction has confirmed the dominance of Clostridium spp. in the reactor. The highest hydrogenase gene activity (number of copies of hydrogenase gene expression/ng DNA) was recorded in the reactor supplemented with magnetite nanoparticles with lowest being in the raw sludge. There was a direct positive correlation between the hydrogenase gene copy number and the hydrogen yield obtained at different reactor conditions. Scanning electron microscopy was a useful to visually analyse the interaction of microorganisms with activated sludge. This study highlights the significance of anaerobic microorganisms from waste sludge being able to utilize agricultural waste material to produce biohydrogen which could be further scaled up for continuous hydrogen production. In addition, statistical tools used to predict the possible sugar (Design of experiments) and hydrogen yields (Gompertz model) produced would be helpful in saving time during full-scale operation of biohydrogen producing reactors.
M

The fungus Fusarium sacchari (Butler) Gams causes stem rot in sugarcane especially in association with the stem borer Eldana saccharina Walker. Sugarcane plants tolerant to F. sacchari PNG40 were obtained by chemical mutagenesis and in vitro selection during somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration on media containing F. sacchari culture filtrates (CF), followed by selection in the greenhouse. Somaclonal variants tolerant to F. sacchari PNG40 CF were established by treatment of calli with ethyl methanesulphonate (EMS) and various selection treatments. Investigations were conducted to test the effect of varying CF concentrations and the culture developmental stages (embryo maturation, embryo germination and plantlets) that were most effective in screening calli and plants. Incorporation of CF (0-100 ppm) in the media, at either embryo maturation or germination stages, resulted in significant callus necrosis, and consequent decreased plantlet yield. The highest callus necrosis of 95.55 ± 0.9 % and the lowest plant yield of 1.4 ± 0.45 plants/0.2 g were obtained after inclusion of 100 ppm CF in the germination medium compared with 61.5 ± 3.8 % and 43.8 ± 5.6 plants/0.2 g in the maturation medium, respectively. Exposure of whole plants with trimmed roots to 0-1500 ppm CF resulted in inhibition of root re-growth, with the 1500 ppm CF treatment having the greatest negative effect. Subsequent treatments involved immersing in vitro plantlets in varying concentrations of F. sacchari conidial suspensions. This resulted in 33.3 % and 100 % mortality with 103 and 105 conidia/ml treatments, respectively. Control and EMS-treated calli and potentially tolerant regenerated plants were selected using the established CF and inoculation treatments. Plants from EMS treatments displayed more varying root length. More plants with increased root growth, in the presence of CF, were produced from these treatments than from non-EMS treatments, indicating the ability of EMS to induce somaclonal variation. These putative tolerant plants were inoculated with PNG40 and those selected using CF in vitro were symptomless whilst the positive controls (plants unexposed to CF) were symptomatic. Re-isolation of Fusarium from the inoculated plants and identifying isolates as PNG40 using ISSR analysis confirmed tolerance of the asymptomatic plants and the fungus as the causal agent of the observed symptoms. This confirmed that tolerance to CF correlates to tolerance to F. sacchari PNG40. Future work includes testing stability of tolerance in the field and after sexual reproduction, and use of this protocol to produce plants that permit endophytic PNG40 colonisation towards biological control of E. saccharina.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2012.

Submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the Master's Diploma of Technology: Chemistry, M. L. Sultan Technikon, 1992.
2- Vinylfuran has been synthesised from furan, obtained from furfural a degradation product of bagasse, and has the potential to be used as a monomer in the Polymer Industry. Furan was successfully reacted with ethylene under catalytic conditions of palladium (II) acetate and copper (II) acetate to produce 2-vinylfuran, via a direct substitution reaction, at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 9Y C for two hours in dimethylformamide.
M