Journal articles on the topic 'Sub-synaptic localization'

Abstract Background Evidence from clinical and preclinical studies has led to the hypothesis that impaired glutamatergic transmission and NMDA receptor hypofunction play an important role in cognitive impairment associated with schizophrenia (CIAS). Second messenger pathways depending on cAMP and/or cGMP are key regulators of glutamatergic transmission and NMDA receptor related pathways. Therefore, the specific cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) PDE2 and PDE9, expressed in cognition relevant brain regions such as cortex and hippocampus, are putative targets for cognition enhancement in neuropsychiatric disorders (Dorner-Ciossek et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2017). In fact, it has previously been shown that either PDE2 or PDE9 inhibition increases synaptic plasticity, as determined by hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP), and improves memory performance in animal cognition tasks. However, the exact sub-cellular localization of PDE2 and PDE9 enzymes in neurons is not fully established. Thus, in the present study, co-localization studies of PDE2 and PDE9 with pre- and post-synaptic markers were performed by double immunofluorescence staining. Moreover, the PDE2 inhibitor PF-05180999 (Helal et al., 2018) was characterized regarding enhancement of hippocampal LTP and further investigated in combination with the PDE9 inhibitor Bay 73–6691 (Wunder et al., 2005) for potential synergistic effects on LTP. Methods Brains of adult rats were fixed with formalin and sliced for double immunofluorescence staining of PDE2 or PDE9 enzymes with pre-/post-synaptic markers. Analysis of staining was performed by confocal microscopy. Effects of the PDE2 inhibitor PF-05180999 alone and in combination with the PDE9 inhibitor Bay 73–6691 on synaptic plasticity were evaluated in rat hippocampal slices by using a protein-synthesis independent early LTP paradigm. Results Double immunofluorescence analysis revealed co-localization of PDE2 predominantly with pre-synaptic, but not post-synaptic, markers and mainly in glutamatergic neurons. In contrast, PDE9 showed co-localization with post-synaptic markers. Inhibition of PDE2 by PF-05180999 led to a concentration-dependent enhancement of early LTP. Combination of PF-05180999 with a subthreshold concentration of the PDE9 inhibitor Bay 73–6691 caused a transformation from early LTP into protein-synthesis dependent late LTP. Discussion Immunofluorescence staining suggests that PDE2 is localized pre-synaptically in glutamatergic neurons. This might indicate an involvement of PDE2 in neurotransmitter release via regulating cGMP/cAMP levels at pre-synaptic terminals, whereas PDE9 is located post-synaptically presumably involved in the NMDA receptor signaling cascade via regulation of cGMP. Corroborating previous findings, PDE2 inhibition improves synaptic plasticity as shown by enhanced LTP. Moreover, for the first time, we could show that the combination of a PDE2 with a PDE9 inhibitor acts synergistically on improvement of synaptic plasticity as demonstrated by the shift from early into late LTP, which is considered to be a crucial mechanism for memory formation. References

Synapsin I is abundant in neural tissues. Its phosphorylation is thought to regulate synaptic vesicle exocytosis in the pre-synaptic terminal by mediating vesicle tethering to the cytoskeleton. Using anti-synapsin antibodies, we detected an 85 kDa protein in liver cells and identified it as synapsin I. Like brain synapsin I, non-neuronal synapsin I is phosphorylated in vitro by protein kinase A and yields identical 32P-peptide maps after limited proteolysis. We also detected synapsin I mRNA in liver by northern blot analysis. These results indicate that the expression of synapsin I is more widespread than previously thought. Immunofluorescence analysis of several non-neuronal cell lines localizes synapsin I to a vesicular compartment adjacent to trans-elements of the Golgi complex, which is also labeled with antibodies against myosin II; no sub-plasma membrane synapsin I is evident. We conclude that synapsin I is present in epithelial cells and is associated with a trans-Golgi network-derived compartment; this localization suggests that it plays a role in modulating post-TGN trafficking pathways.

Synapse structures, including neuronal and immunological synapses, can be seen as the plasma membrane contact sites between two individual cells where information is transmitted from one cell to the other. The distance between the two plasma membranes is only a few tens of nanometers, but these areas are densely populated with functionally different proteins, including adhesion proteins, receptors, and transporters. The narrow space between the two plasma membranes has been a barrier for resolving the synaptic architecture due to the diffraction limit in conventional microscopy (~250 nm). Various advanced super-resolution microscopy techniques, such as stimulated emission depletion (STED), structured illumination microscopy (SIM), and single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM), bypass the diffraction limit and provide a sub-diffraction-limit resolving power, ranging from 10 to 100 nm. The studies using super-resolution microscopy have revealed unprecedented details of the nanoscopic organization and dynamics of synaptic molecules. In general, most synaptic proteins appear to be heterogeneously distributed and form nanodomains at the membranes. These nanodomains are dynamic functional units, playing important roles in mediating signal transmission through synapses. Herein, we discuss our current knowledge on the super-resolution nanoscopic architecture of synapses and their functional implications, with a particular focus on the neuronal synapses and immune synapses.

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures due to spontaneous changes of chemical synaptic coupling within the central nervous system. Numerous studies have been done in order to increase the level of cognition in epilepsy. Electroencephalography (EEG) as a non-invasive technique with the ability of presenting potentials on the head surface due to neural activity is widely used in epilepsy studies. The signals have been analyzed by brain signal processing techniques which mainly are categorized in feature extraction, feature dimensionally reduction and classification. The limitations such as inapproachability to intracranial in vivo and few seizure occurrences during sampling led to investigate on a model of signals and neural activity. This paper reviews the fundamentals of epilepsy toward using brain signal processing and neuronal modeling in three major branches; detection, prediction and source localization. It resulted a rare number of investigations on seizure epilepsy prediction due to the lack of long-term epilepsy EEG recording ending to the seizure. Subsequently, this review paper suggests to consider brain signal processing techniques in sub-branches of epilepsy detection; status, type, markers and surface localization, whilst it plays a remarkable role targeting to the source localization by neuronal modeling.

We examined the suitability of freeze-substitution and Lowicryl HM20 embedding of aldehyde-fixed rat brain to localize several neural antigens at the ultrastructural level. The following rabbit polyclonal and mouse monoclonal antibodies were used: affinity-purified polyclonal immunoglobulins G raised to B-50/GAP43 (a membrane-anchored, growth-associated protein); affinity-purified polyclonal immunoglobulins G to human glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP; a subunit of glial filaments); a polyclonal antiserum raised to adrenocorticotropic hormone[25-39] (a neuropeptide present in dense-core granules); a polyclonal antiserum raised to myelin basic protein (a protein present in compact myelin of the central nervous system); and mouse monoclonal antibodies to synaptophysin (an integral membrane protein of small synaptic vesicles). Rat mesencephalon was fixed by perfusion with buffered 2% glutaraldehyde and 4% paraformaldehyde, cryoprotected, and frozen in liquid nitrogen. Freeze-substitution of tissue was performed with anhydrous methanol and 0.5% uranyl acetate at -90 degrees C. Semi-thin Lowicryl sections were used for light microscopic visualization of B-50 in the ventromedial mesencephalic central gray substance. The procedure preserves well the ultrastructure of this region and the immunoreactivity of the selected antigens. This study shows that dehydration by freeze-substitution, combined with Lowicryl HM20 embedding at sub-zero temperature, provides a successful method of preparation of fixed brain tissue for ultrastructural studies, allowing immunogold localization of several neural antigens by double labeling in the same section and in serial sections.

AbstractThe physiological actions of biogenic amine and amino-acid neurotransmitters are terminated by their removal from the synaptic cleft by specific high-affinity transport proteins. The members of the Na+- and Cl−-dependent neurotransmitter transporter family expressed in bovine retina and responsible for the uptake of biogenic amine and amino-acid neurotransmitters were identified using a reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction-based approach. cDNA clones encoding bovine homologues of glycine (GLYT-1), γ-aminobutyric acid (GAT-1) creatine (CreaT), and orphan (NTT4) transporters were identified using this strategy. The expression pattern of mRNAs encoding these proteins in the retina was determined by in situ hybridization histochemistry GLYT-1 CreaT NTT4 and GAT-1 mRNAs were expressed in the retina by cells in the inner nuclear inner plex, iform and ganglion cell layers They were not expressed at detectable levels in the photoreceptor cells whose cell bodies are in the outer nuclear layer and are the most abundant cell type in the retina GLYT-1 mRNA was present exclusively in the proximal inner nuclear layer GAT-1 mRNA was localized to both the inner nuclear and ganglion cell layers CreaT mRNA was expressed in all cell types in the retina except photoreceptors and NTT4 mRNA was expressed by a sub subpoulation of cells in the ganglion cell laver. Elucidation of the expression pattern of these neurotransmitter transporter mRNAs in the retina provides a basis for studies of the role of glycine γ-aminobutyric acid and creatine transporters in retinal function.

Abstract Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) exert their cytotoxic activity through the polarized secretion of cytotoxic granules at the immunological synapse (IS). Because soluble NSF attachment receptor (SNARE) proteins mediate numerous intra- and intercellular fusion events and are essential effectors of exocytosis of synaptic granules in neurons, we examined the contribution of specific SNARE proteins to the formation of the IS. To determine the functional significance of specific SNAREs, our lab has examined the expression profile of more than 40 SNARE proteins by RT-PCR and quantitated various protein levels of these SNAREs in resting and activated CTLs. We have found that the expression profile of some SNARE proteins is up or down-regulated upon CTL maturation. In conjunction with these studies, we have also analyzed the sub-cellular localization and mobilization following IS formation of all SNAREs that are expressed in CD8+ T-cells for which specific antibodies are available. Some but not all SNARE proteins are translocated towards the immunological synapse and some co-localized with cytotoxic lytic granules at the immunological synapse. We found that syntaxin 4, syntaxin 6, VAMP 3, and VAMP 8, among other proteins, seem to polarize and colocalize with cytotoxic granule markers at the immune synapse suggesting they play important roles in cytotoxic granule secretion. Grant/ other support: DFG RE 1092/6-1

The pandemic of COVID-19 has afflicted every individual and has initiated a cascade of directly or indirectly involved events in precipitating mental health issues. The human species is a wanderer and hunter-gatherer by nature, and physical social distancing and nationwide lockdown have confined an individual to physical isolation. The present review article was conceived to address psychosocial and other issues and their aetiology related to the current pandemic of COVID-19. The elderly age group has most suffered the wrath of SARS-CoV-2, and social isolation as a preventive measure may further induce mental health issues. Animal model studies have demonstrated an inappropriate interacting endogenous neurotransmitter milieu of dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and opioids, induced by social isolation that could probably lead to observable phenomena of deviant psychosocial behavior. Conflicting and manipulated information related to COVID-19 on social media has also been recognized as a global threat. Psychological stress during the current pandemic in frontline health care workers, migrant workers, children, and adolescents is also a serious concern. Mental health issues in the current situation could also be induced by being quarantined, uncertainty in business, jobs, economy, hampered academic activities, increased screen time on social media, and domestic violence incidences. The gravity of mental health issues associated with the pandemic of COVID-19 should be identified at the earliest. Mental health organization dedicated to current and future pandemics should be established along with Government policies addressing psychological issues to prevent and treat mental health issues need to be developed. References World Health Organization (WHO) Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard. 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The distribution of proteins within sub-synaptic compartments is an essential aspect of their neurological function. Current methodologies, such as electron microscopy (EM) and super-resolution imaging techniques, can provide the precise localization of proteins, but are often limited to a small number of one-time observations with narrow spatial and molecular coverage. The diversity of synaptic proteins and synapse types demands synapse analysis on a scale that is prohibitive with current methods. Here, we demonstrate SubSynMAP, a fast, multiplexed sub-synaptic protein analysis method using wide-field data from deconvolution array tomography (ATD). SubSynMAP generates probability distributions for that reveal the functional range of proteins within the averaged synapse of a particular class. This enables the differentiation of closely juxtaposed proteins. Using this method, we analyzed 15 synaptic proteins in normal and Fragile X mental retardation syndrome (FXS) model mouse cortex, and revealed disease-specific modifications of sub-synaptic protein distributions across synapse classes and cortical layers.

Abstract Synapses contain hundreds of distinct proteins whose heterogeneous expression levels are determinants of synaptic plasticity and signal transmission relevant to a range of diseases. Here, we use diffusible nucleic acid imaging probes to profile neuronal synapses using multiplexed confocal and super-resolution microscopy. Confocal imaging is performed using high-affinity locked nucleic acid imaging probes that stably yet reversibly bind to oligonucleotides conjugated to antibodies and peptides. Super-resolution PAINT imaging of the same targets is performed using low-affinity DNA imaging probes to resolve nanometer-scale synaptic protein organization across nine distinct protein targets. Our approach enables the quantitative analysis of thousands of synapses in neuronal culture to identify putative synaptic sub-types and co-localization patterns from one dozen proteins. Application to characterize synaptic reorganization following neuronal activity blockade reveals coordinated upregulation of the post-synaptic proteins PSD-95, SHANK3 and Homer-1b/c, as well as increased correlation between synaptic markers in the active and synaptic vesicle zones.

Neurons and glia are highly polarized cells, whose distal cytoplasmic functional subdomains require specific proteins. Neurons have axonal and dendritic cytoplasmic extensions containing synapses requiring mRNA transport and localized translation to regulate synaptic plasticity efficiently. The principles behind these mechanisms are equally attractive for explaining rapid local regulation of distal glial cytoplasmic projections, independent of their cell nucleus. However, in contrast to neurons, this topic has received little experimental attention in glia. Nevertheless, there are many functionally diverse glial sub-types, containing extensive networks of long cytoplasmic projections with likely localized regulation that influence neurons and their synapses. Moreover, glia have many other neuron-like properties, including electrical activity, secretion of gliotransmitters and calcium signaling, influencing for example synaptic transmission, plasticity and axon pruning. Here, we review previous studies concerning glial transcripts with important roles in influencing synaptic plasticity, focusing on a few cases involving localized translation. We discuss a variety of important questions about mRNA transport and localized translation in glia that remain to be addressed using cutting-edge tools already available for neurons.

Synaptic plasticity is a cellular mechanism of learning and memory. The synaptic strength can be persistently upregulated or downregulated to update the information sent to the neuronal network and form a memory engram. For its molecular mechanism, the stability of α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate-type glutamate receptor (AMPAR), a glutamatergic ionotropic receptor, on the postsynaptic membrane has been studied for these two decades. Since AMPAR is not saturated on the postsynaptic membrane during a single event of neurotransmitter release, the number and nanoscale localization of AMPAR is critical for regulating the efficacy of synaptic transmission. The observation of AMPAR on the postsynaptic membrane by super-resolution microscopy revealed that AMPAR forms a nanodomain that is defined as a stable segregated cluster on the postsynaptic membrane to increase the efficacy of synaptic transmission. Postsynaptic density (PSD), an intracellular protein condensate underneath the postsynaptic membrane, regulates AMPAR dynamics via the intracellular domain of Stargazin, an auxiliary subunit of AMPAR. Recently, it was reported that PSD is organized by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) to form liquid-like protein condensates. Furthermore, the calcium signal induced by the learning event triggers the persistent formation of sub-compartments of different protein groups inside protein condensates. This explains the formation of nanodomains via synaptic activation. The liquid-like properties of LLPS protein condensates are ideal for the molecular mechanism of synaptic plasticity. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in the properties and regulation of synaptic plasticity, postsynaptic receptors, PSD, and LLPS.

Neuronally co-expressed ELAV/Hu proteins comprise a family of highly related RNA binding proteins, which bind to very similar cognate sequences. How this redundancy is linked to in vivo function and how gene specific regulation is achieved, has not been clear. Analysis of mutants inDrosophilaELAV/Hu family proteins ELAV, FNE and RBP9, and genetic interactions among them, indicates mostly independent roles in neuronal development and function, but convergence in the regulation of synaptic plasticity. Conversely, ELAV, FNE, RBP9 and human HuR bind ELAV target RNA in vitro with similar affinity. Likewise, all can regulate alternative splicing of ELAV target genes in non-neuronal wing-disc cells and substitute ELAV in eye development with artificially increased expression, but can also substantially restore ELAV's biological functions, when expressed under the control of theelavgene. Furthermore, ELAV related Sex-lethal can regulate ELAV targets and ELAV/Hu proteins can interfere with sexual differentiation. An ancient relationship to Sex-lethal is revealed by gonadal expression of RBP9 providing a maternal failsafe for dosage compensation. Our results indicate that highly related ELAV/Hu RNA binding proteins select targets for mRNA processing based on expression levels and sub-cellular localization, but only minimally by altered RNA binding specificity.

Acetylcholine (ACh) can act on pre- and post-synaptic muscarinic receptors (mAChR) in the cortex to influence a myriad of cognitive processes. Two functionally-distinct regions of the prefrontal cortex—the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)—are differentially innervated by ascending cholinergic pathways yet, the nature and organization of prefrontal-cholinergic circuitry in primates are not well understood. Using multi-channel immunohistochemical labeling and high-resolution microscopy, we found regional and laminar differences in the subcellular localization and the densities of excitatory and inhibitory subpopulations expressing m1 and m2 muscarinic receptors, the two predominant cortical mAChR subtypes, in the supragranular layers of LPFC and ACC in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). The subset of m1+/m2+ expressing SMI-32+ pyramidal neurons labeled in layer 3 (L3) was denser in LPFC than in ACC, while m1+/m2+ SMI-32+ neurons co-expressing the calcium-binding protein, calbindin (CB) was greater in ACC. Further, we found between-area differences in laminar m1+ dendritic expression, and m2+ presynaptic localization on cortico-cortical (VGLUT1+) and sub-cortical inputs (VGLUT2+), suggesting differential cholinergic modulation of top-down vs. bottom-up inputs in the two areas. While almost all inhibitory interneurons—identified by their expression of parvalbumin (PV+), CB+, and calretinin (CR+)—expressed m1+, the localization of m2+ differed by subtype and area. The ACC exhibited a greater proportion of m2+ inhibitory neurons compared to the LPFC and had a greater density of presynaptic m2+ localized on inhibitory (VGAT+) inputs targeting proximal somatodendritic compartments and axon initial segments of L3 pyramidal neurons. These data suggest a greater capacity for m2+-mediated cholinergic suppression of inhibition in the ACC compared to the LPFC. The anatomical localization of muscarinic receptors on ACC and LPFC micro-circuits shown here contributes to our understanding of diverse cholinergic neuromodulation of functionally-distinct prefrontal areas involved in goal-directed behavior, and how these interactions maybe disrupted in neuropsychiatric and neurological conditions.