Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Structures of organization'

Thesis (M.S.)--School of Computing and Engineering. University of Missouri--Kansas City, 2007.
"A thesis in computer science." Typescript. Advisor: Yijie Han. Vita. Title from "catalog record" of the print edition Description based on contents viewed Nov. 13, 2007. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 46-48). Online version of the print edition.

Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 1997.
Includes bibliographical references (p. [110]-115).
by Alexander Philipp Reichert.
M.S.

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between organizational support and Effectiveness, Empowerment, and team characteristics. Support was operationalized by nine systems: Executive Management, Direct Supervision, Group Design, Performance Definition, Performance Review, Training, Rewards, Information, and Integration. Support was rated in two ways: how important is support for performing work (Importance scales), and how does support describe work environments (Presence scales).

Kentucky has a rich cultural and artistic tapestry that is part of the economic future of the state. An important consideration of this future is the artist-member organizations that serve Kentucky creatives and how they work together collaboratively, both internally and externally. The objective of this study was to see how ten different organizations viewed themselves and interacted with their communities in the way in which they are structure, or lack a definite structure as is the case with several different groups. Through web analysis and a series of interviews with organizations that provide benefits to Kentucky artists, we learn that there are no strict definitions to what these organizations are and that to continue, they will have to continue to become flexible and open to changes that may come their way.

Background: Today companies operate in a market that increasingly is becoming global, and where technological development is advancing ever faster. Global competition, shorter product life cycles and constant reorganization of business puts increasing demands on companies and projects that are under their control. As a result of this trend more and more organizations in different industries are working on a project basis.

Objective: To identify and address the strengths and weaknesses of project based organizations.

Boundaries: Three business units within different companies will be analyzed in order to deduct a conclusion to the research question.

Method: A qualitative method has been used. The empirical material was analyzed based on theory.

Results: A project based organization promotes higher flexibility in comparison to a functional organization. The organizational structure of a project based organization provides employees with interesting tasks and the possibility to work in and learn from cross functional teams. Although this has a negative impact on ones work life balance. A key weakness is the organizational integration, which includes: knowledge management, implementation of strategies and focus beyond projects, resource coordination and human resource management.

Proposal for further research: An in-depth study on how project based organizations promote innovation.

Le résumé en français n'a pas été communiqué par l'auteur
Markets and their operation is of vital importance for economic efficiency and growth. In this thesis I analyse market strategies underlying the important factors that guarantee the optimality of firms' investments for three different market environments. The first chapter refers on how we can use state-of-art instruments by the transmission network of the electricity market to induce the generators to adopt optimal investment planning. Coordinating the timing and location of new production facilities is one of the challenges of liberalized power sectors. It is complicated by the presence of transmission bottlenecks, oligopolistic competition, and the unknown prospects of low-carbon technologies. We build a model encompassing a late and early investment stage, two technologies, and a single transmission bottleneck and compare dynamic efficiency of several market designs. Allocating network access on a short-term competitive basis distorts investment decisions as firms will pre-empt competitors by investing early. Compensating early investors for future network congestion, as is the case in the E.U., only exacerbates this problem. Dynamic efficiency is restored with long-term transmission rights that can be resold on a secondary market. As early investment lowers the resale value of the transmission rights, firms will invest optimally. We show that dynamic efficiency does not require firms to trade physical rights for accessing the transmission line, but financial rights on receiving the scarcity revenues generated by the transmission line suffice. The second chapter focuses on investments on innovation and the way they are particularly affected for different types of industries by product market competition and the existence of financial constraints. It illustrates that, besides its well-studied impact on the incentives to innovate, product market competition also affects the financial capacity to innovate. As innovation projects are by definition risky and external financing is subject to moral hazard concerns, lenders may be reluctant to finance the projects of firms that are not considered credible borrowers. I develop a step-by-step innovation model and show how product market competition may restrict the ability of firms to be credible borrowers. This effect can become the main driver of R&D activities when firms are financial constrained and market competition fierce. It is the follower firms in sectors with high technology dispersion that are mostly affected. Moreover, for intermediate levels of competition, financial constraints induce firms in industries with low technology dispersion to invest more in R&D and move toward the technological frontier as they reduce the ability of their competitors that left behind to innovate. The last chapter focuses on competition for prominence in the organic results of a search engine which account for more than 80-90% of online traffic. Firms decide about how to allocate their investments between search engine optimization strategy and improvement of their products and services' quality. Using a monopolistic competition model with consumer search we evaluate the impact of the search engine algorithm on firms' optimal allocation of investments, estimating how quality is affected by the presence of search engine optimization techniques. We find that despite the additional investment cost, search engine optimization helps search engines to rank more efficiently firms and consequently it induces firms to invest more in the quality of their products. Consumer surplus also increases as consumers find easier good matches to their queries at minimum search cost. Under particular conditions total welfare also increases

Using modeling and computer simulation, this research focuses on studying two different views to organizational design and their implications for performance in the context of academic institutions. One view represents the manifest structure that includes resources (students, faculty, administration, facilities, finances, partners, donors, etc.); the other view represents the latent structure that focuses on dissent. The dissertation addresses the following two questions; 1. What are the tangible dynamic interdependencies constituting the manifest structure within academic institutions and their impact on performance? 2. What is the impact of the latent structures composed of intangible organizational processes, especially dissent, on performance? The dissertation proposes generic system dynamics simulation models untangling the complexity of the topic by tackling various slices of the problem in separate papers. The models are based on three different theoretical frameworks addressing resources and their composition, dissent, and stakeholder engagement. It is observed that while both the manifest and the latent parts of the university organization impact its performance, the latent part, being invisible, is often ignored. In the long run, the influence of the latent part of the organization can slowly but seriously compromise intangible performances components like quality, reputation, and attractiveness. When the manifest part of the organization is dysfunctional, its tangible performance rapidly suffers. The damage control policies will often impact the latent organizational performance leading the institution into a vicious cycle. The presence of time delays in this framework may create an oscillatory behavior that might modulate a growth or decline trend. Performance measures addressing intangible performance components must be factored into the organizational design since faculty, students, and other stakeholders are not only driven by financial rewards, but also by the organizational environment. The research, besides addressing the important question of the role of latent elements in organization design and demonstrating this can be done using system dynamics modeling and computer simulation, should also be of value to the design and management of higher education institutions.

The education spectrum includes many different modes of instruction or organizational models. The following are examples of organizational models available to school leaders: self-contained, departmentalized, team-teaching, collaboration, changing classes, and rotating classes. In this spectrum, the self-contained classroom and the departmentalized classroom are the most frequently used organizational models. The self-contained classroom involves one teacher instructing a group of students in all academic subjects. In contrast, the departmentalized classroom is a setting where educators teach in one area of specialization and students move from one classroom to another for instruction. When considering effective organizational models, it is imperative for administrators to pay attention not only to the quality and content of a lesson but also to the organizational structure in which the instruction is presented. This study included 94 schools using either a self-contained or a departmentalized classroom organization model. The purpose of the study was to identify the organizational model, either departmentalized or self-contained, that had a significant difference in measures of students' academic performance on reading and mathematics VSL pass rates for fourth graders in Region II of Virginia. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis and results revealed that there is no evidence of a significant difference between the two classroom organizational models on either reading or math VSL test pass rates for fourth graders. The findings suggest that no significant differences in reading and math VSL pass rates existed among schools with the two different classroom organizational models. Controlling for school size and the presence or absence of school Title I status (40% or more of its students come from families who qualify as low income under U.S. Census definitions) did not have an effect on the comparison related to fourth-grade general education students' pass rates on the 2009–2010 school year reading and math VSL pass rates.
Ed. D.

This is a dissertation on organization in Swedish ice hockey based on four articles. The purpose of the thesis is to contribute knowledge on the direction, management and practice of sport using Swedish elite ice hockey as an example. Knowledge is created by examining four separate but mutually contingent aspects of organizations. Article I contributes to the overall purpose with knowledge on the professionalization of Swedish ice hockey, the reasons behind and the consequences of it. Focusing on the timeframe 1967-2000 the article highlights how norms, values and ideals changed over time and contributed to a change from ice hockey as an amateur sport based on idealistic motives and volunteer efforts to a professional sport based on entertainment and commercial forces. Article II contributes knowledge on the structural organization of Swedish elite ice hockey clubs and contributing factors. The article compares eleven elite ice hockey clubs and shows how they vary in relation to each other from low to high specialization, standardization and centralization but also how they present many similar characteristics such as organizational form, subsidiary businesses, cooperation with farm clubs and upper secondary schools, types of employments and division of workload. Article III contributes with knowledge on how organizational structures are experienced by individuals working or volunteering in the clubs. Comparing experiences in two structurally different clubs, the article shows how more developed structures are experienced more positively than less developed structures are. However, both groups agree that more developed structures are desirable and they also have similar opinions on issues concerning formal education and training, the elite program vs. the youth program, strategic vs. operative tasks and personal freedom. Article IV contributes knowledge on how experiences of mentioned structures are affected by remuneration, authority and centrality. Exploring four positions differing from each other with regard to hierarchical position, distance to the club’s core activities and payment, the article shows that individual experiences of organizational structure vary depending on where in the club the individual works. This variation is shown to result in tensions between the different positions. The knowledge offered in the thesis is based on three data collections. Data have been gathered from official and unofficial documentation from and on the Swedish sports confederation, the Swedish ice hockey association and 11 clubs represented in the highest division 2000/2001, and from individuals working or volunteering in these clubs as board members, general managers, marketing assistants, coaches, volunteers in the youth programs and arena personnel. The studies are carried out within an institutional theory framework and the analysis of the results taken together shows how the structures in elite ice hockey clubs are affected by surrounding environment and societal environments. Norms and ideals concerning legitimate ways of organizing are mediated by authorities, educational establishments, trade organizations and successful models in neighbouring industries. These norms and ideals have changed as new actors such as television networks, commercial sponsors and employed staff have entered ice hockey and as the roles of the government, the associations, the coaches and the players have changed. These ongoing changes are combining to a new context and new circumstances for the direction, management and practice of Swedish ice hockey.

ERP systems which initially were developed for manufacturing organizations have in recent years spread to public sector organization. It is put forward that public sector organization differ from private organization and this might affect how successfully an ERP system is implemented. ERP systems are rarely studied in public sector organization and few researchers have explored the fit between ERP system and organizational structures. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explore what relationship that exists or do not exist between ERP system and organizational social structures in a military organization, and how this has affected the implementation and use. This is done through a qualitative case study of the Swedish Armed Forces with data from semi-structured interviews with 14 platoon commanders and 3 company commanders. The findings suggest that there is a misfit between the ERP system, PRIO, and the social structures in the organization which have made the implementation and use problematic. The technical shortcomings, such as the user interface, are not the main problem and employees might have been negative about the system anyway. This since platoon commanders and company commanders do not think platoon commanders are the best suited to do the tasks with PRIO.

We propose algorithms for organization of images in wide-area sparse-view datasets. In such datasets, if the images overlap in scene content, they are related by wide-baseline geometric transformations. The challenge is to identify these relations even if the images sparingly overlap in their content. The images in a dataset are then grouped into sets of related images with the relations captured in each set as a basal (minimal and foundational) graph structures. Images form the vertices in the graph structure and the edges define the geometric relations between the images. We use these basal graphs for geometric walkthroughs and detection of noisy location (GPS) and orientation (magnetometer) information that may be stored with each image. We have five algorithmic contributions. First, we propose an algorithm BLOGS (Balanced Local and Global Search) that uses a novel hybrid Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) strategy called 'hop-diffusion' for epipolar geometry estimation between a pair of wide-baseline images that is 10 times faster and more accurate than the state-of-the-art. Hops are global searches and diffusions are local searches. BLOGS is able to handle very wide-baseline views characteristic of wide-area sparse-view datasets. It also produces a geometric match score between an image pair. Second, we propose a photometric match score, the Cumulative Correspondence Score (CCS). The proposed photometric scores are fast approximations of the computationally expensive geometric scores. Third, we use the photometric scores and the geometric scores to find groups of related images and to organize them in the form of basal graph structures using a novel hybrid algorithm we call theCOnnected component DIscovery by Minimally Specifying an Expensive Graph (CODIMSEG). The objective of the algorithm is to minimize the number of geometric estimations and yield results similar to what would be achieved if all-pair geometric matching were done. We compared the performances of the CCS and CODIMSEG algorithms with GIST (means summary of an image) and k-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) based approaches. We found that CCS and CODIMSEG perform significantly better than GIST and k-NN respectively in identifying visually connected images. Our algorithm achieved more than 95% true positive rate at 0% false positive rate. Fourth, we propose a basal tree graph expansion algorithm to make the basal graphs denser for applications like geometric walk-throughs using the minimum Hamiltonian path algorithm and detection of noisy position (GPS) and orientation (magnetometer) tags. We propose two versions of geometric walkthroughs, one using minimum spanning tree based approximation of the minimum Hamiltonian path on the basal tree graphs and other using the Lin-Kernighan heuristic approximation on the expanded basal graph. Conversion of a non-linear tree structure to a linear path structure leads to discontinuities in path. The Lin-Kernighan algorithm on the expanded basal graphs is shown to be a better approach. Fifth, we propose a vision based geometric voting algorithm to detect noisy GPS and magnetometer tags using the basal graphs. This problem has never been addressed before to the best of our knowledge. We performed our experiments on the Nokia dataset (which has 243 images in the 'Lausanne' dataset and 105 images in the 'Demoset'), ArtQuad dataset (6514 images) and Oxford dataset (5063 images). All the three datasets are very different. Nokia dataset is a very wide-baseline sparse-view dataset. ArtQuad dataset is a wide-baseline dataset with denser views compared to the Nokia dataset. Both these datasets have GPS tagged images. Nokia dataset has magnetometer tags too. ArtQuad dataset has 348 images with the commercial GPS information as well as high precision differential GPS data which serves as ground truth for our noisy tag detection algorithm. Oxford dataset is a wide-baseline dataset with plenty of distracters that test the algorithm's capability to group images correctly. The larger datasets test the scalability of our algorithms. Visually inspected feature matches and image matches were used as ground truth in our experiments. All the experiments were done on a single PC.

In this dissertation, I integrate research on role-based coordination with concepts adapted from the team effectiveness literature to theorize how minimal team structures support effective coordination when people do not work together regularly. I argue that role-based coordination among relative strangers can be interpersonally challenging and propose that team scaffolds (minimal team structures that bound groups of roles rather than groups of individuals) may provide occupants with a temporary shared in-group that facilitates interaction. I develop and test these ideas in a multi-method, multi-site field study of a new work structure, called pods, that were implemented in many hospital emergency departments (EDs) and were sometimes designed to function as team scaffolds.

This presentation was made at the 30th Anniversary Celebrations of the Dept. of Management Information Science, Eller College, University of Arizona, held at the Hilton El Conquistador, Tucson, AZ, Nov. 3-5, 2004. Knowledge organization (KO), knowledge representation (KR) and knowledge management (KM) are described and methods used in the models classsification research project from these disciplines are described.

The authors use an exploratory project involving Web resources related to Alzheimer’s Disease to explore ways in RDF metadata can more effectively translate the virtues of the traditional vertical file to a Web environment form using Semantic Web descriptive standards. In so doing, they argue against the separation of “bibliographic control” from the socially-embedded institutional practices of reference work, collection development, and the management of information ephemera. Libraries of the future will use specific Web technologies that lend themselves to sophisticated and rigorous knowledge structures, and link them with librarians’ skills in information harvesting and evaluation.

Thesis: S.M. in Engineering and Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, System Design and Management Program, 2018.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 91-94).
A project planning phase is critical to the success of the Public-Private Partnership (PPP) project. The design of a work breakdown structure (WBS) is an essential and effective task in the planning phase. The purpose of this paper is to introduce a new way of designing a WBS through the Work Breakdown Design Pattern Generator (WBDPG). Compared to conventional ways of creating a WBS, the WBDPG helps to design a WBS based on the ability to compare the alternatives and their potential benefits. The core hypothesis of this research is that a well-designed and thus better performing - WBS should increase alignment between situational project requirements and the project's product breakdown structure (PBS) or organizational breakdown structure (OBS). In order to consider this alignment and tradeoffs, a method is proposed which uses morphological and domain mapping matrices to conduct a tradespace and scenario analyses. With this "generator" method, combinations of different breakdown rules across several layers of hierarchy lead to predicted varying levels of performance of the project. For example, a WBS made of functional breakdown rules shows high alignment with the PBS, thus such projects result in better performance related to the product structure. In contrast, a WBS driven by resource breakdown rules aligns highly with the OBS, resulting in high performance related to the organizational structure. In a case where locational difference has a big impact on the project, a WBS made of geographical breakdown rules is likely to lead to better performance. The research concludes that the Work Breakdown Design Pattern Generator can forecast different performance given WBSs designed through different combinations of breakdown rules, and resulting variation in alignment across breakdown structures. Given that PPP projects are often complex, with large-scale and many stakeholders, the method demonstrates a way that structural alternatives can be generated so that the various partners in dialogue can shape their work approach efficiency in the early phase. The research has several limitations and opportunities for extension. In this paper, the organization structure and the product structure are assumed as given. Also, any refinement or change loops to the WBS during the project were not considered.
by Young-Min, Kwon.
S.M. in Engineering and Management

Recent Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) reforms promoting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) carried out by the Sierra Leonean government has attracted foreign investors into its extractive industry. Access to natural minerals in the country has been ensured through land leases, and the government of Sierra Leone has obtained the opportunity to accumulate revenues through participation on the global market. However, despite increasing state revenues the country remains underdeveloped and unindustrialized, and faces great challenges in promoting public development within state borders. This study aims at illuminating structures of the global economic system and domestic social fabric which may hinder public development in Sierra Leone. Such structures have be illuminated through the application of a qualitative approach including field work, participating observations and open-ended interviews in Kalansogoia chiefdom during May and June 2013. The findings of this study suggest that the international structure of dependency, and domestic formal; informal; informal institutions; and social networks structures hinder public development within Sierra Leone.

As organizações hospitalares assumem uma relevante posição no mercado devido sua função econômica, social e por promoverem à saúde as pessoas, além de possuírem complexidade ímpar na sua gestão e várias carências, tais como: um serviço com maior valor agregado, conhecimento sobre as especificidades de seus processos, controle de seus custos totais etc. A estrutura organizacional, uma das ferramentas fundamentais de gerenciamento que proporciona visão holística da instituição, e a gestão da logística de forma integrada, que possibilita maior eficiência dos recursos ou vantagem competitiva sustentável, ganharam destaque nas organizações empresariais por auxiliá-las adaptarem e enfrentarem suas carências e os desafios do mercado global. Nesse contexto, o estudo tem como objetivo principal caracterizar a estrutura organizacional de uma organização hospitalar e identificar o estágio organizacional da logística nesse ambiente, analisando as influências de uma em relação à outra. Para tanto, o trabalho utilizou uma abordagem qualitativa exploratória, com estratégia de pesquisa a focar na revisão de literatura seguida por estudo de caso em hospital universitário e de ensino público. A coleta de dados foi realizada por meio de análise de documentos da instituição e entrevistas semi-estruturadas, baseada nas propostas de sistemáticas desenvolvidas, com um membro de cada nível da hierarquia associado às atividades logísticas. Os resultados da pesquisa permitiram: a caracterização da estrutura organizacional do estudo de caso, que se apresentou funcional; a identificação do estágio organizacional da logística, na prática do dia-a-dia, encontrou-se na Fase Zero, no estágio de fragmentação, sendo que nos documentos da instituição, está na Fase I, no estágio de agregação funcional; além de analisar as barreiras e oportunidades do arranjo do hospital em questão, para ampliar sua visão na busca da integração das atividades logísticas, e considerando a possibilidade de ser um caminho para a organização hospitalar trilhar, para agregar valor aos serviços, obter maior eficiência dos recursos e melhor desempenho organizacional.
The hospitals assume a relevant position in the market due its economical, social function and to promote the health the people, besides to possess odd complexity in the management and several lacks, such as: a service with larger adding value, knowledge on the specificities of its processes, control of its total costs etc. The organizational structure, one of the fundamental tools of managing, that it provides holistic vision of the institution, and the administration of the integrated logistics, that it provides larger efficiency of the resources or maintainable competitive advantage, won stand out in the business organizations for aiding them adapt and face their lacks and the challenges of the global market. In that context, the study has as main objective to characterize the organizational structure of an hospitalar organization and to identify the organizational stages of the logistic in that environment, analyzing the influences of one in relation to other. For so much, the work used an exploratory qualitative approach, with research strategy to focus in the revision literature following for case study in academical hospital and of public teaching. The data collection was accomplished through analysis of documents of the institution and semi-structured interview, based on the proposals of systematic developed, with a member of each level of the hierarchy associated to the activities logisticses. The results of the research allowed: the characterization of the organizational structure of the case study, that it came functional, the identification of the organizational stages of the logistics, in practice of the day by day, it was in the Phase Zero, in the fragmentation stage, and in the documents of the institution, it is in the Phase I, in the functional aggregation stage; besides analyzing the barriers and opportunities of the structure of the hospital in subject, to enlarge its vision in the search of the integration of the activities logisticses, and considering the possibility to be road for the hospitalar organization to tread, for adding value to the services, to obtain larger efficiency of the resources and better organizational performance.

This is a preliminary scan of S.R. Ranganathan's Philosophy of Library Classification (1989 Indian reprint edition). Contents include: Conspectus, 8 chapters, and Index: 1. Evolution of classification. 2. Library classification: an artificial language. 3. Library Classification and social forces. 4. Library classification as a transformation and its limitations. 5. Library classification and its symbiosis with library catalogue. 6. Capacity of library classification. 7. Increasing of dimensions and optional facets. 8. Organisation for research in library classification. © Sarada Ranganathan Endowment for Library Science (SRELS). This is a title in the dLIST Classics project; permission for non-profit use granted by SRELS. To purchase print reprints of this work, please visit Ess Ess Publications at http://www.essessreference.com/.

The self-organized nest construction behaviors of European paper wasps (Polistes dominula) show potential for adoption in artificial intelligence and robotic systems where centralized control proves challenging. However, P. dominula nest construction mechanisms are not fully understood. The goal of this research was to investigate how P. dominula nest structures stimulate worker actions. Simulation utilities were constructed in C++, C#, and Python. Two models from previous work, a three-dimensional model with weighted actions and a two-dimensional model with simple rule-based actions, were combined in a three-dimensional model with simple rules. Nest construction was simulated with a random selection rule, an age-based rule, a height requirement rule, and a height difference rule. Real and idealized nest data were used to evaluate simulated nests. Structures generated with age- and height-based rules showed more correlation with real and idealized nest structures than randomly-generated structures.

The purpose of this thesis was to explore how microstate human interactions produce macro level self-organization and emergence in a supply disruption scenario, as well as discover factors and typical human behaviour that bring about disruptions. This study argues that the complex adaptive system’s view of complexity is most suited scholarly foundation for this research enquiry. Drawing on the dissipative structure based explanation of emergence and self-organization in a complex adaptive system, this thesis further argues that an energy gradient between the ongoing and designed system conditions, known as adaptive tension, causes supply chains to self-organize and emerge. This study adopts a critical realist ontology operationalized by a qualitative case research and grounded theory based analysis. The data was collected using repertory grid interviews of 22 supply chain executives from 21 firms. In all 167 cases of supply disruptions were investigated. Findings illustrate that agent behaviours like loss of trust, over ambitious pursuit, use of power and privilege, conspiring against best practices and heedless performance were contributing to disruption. Impacted by these behaviours, supply chains demonstrated impaired disruption management capabilities and increased disruption probability. It was also discovered that some of these system patterns and microstate agent behaviours pushed the supply chains to a zone of emergent complexity where these networks self-organized and emerged into new structures or embraced changes in prevailing processes or goals. A conceptual model was developed to explain the transition from micro agent behaviour to system level self-organization and emergence. The model described alternate pathways of a supply chain under adaptive tension. The research makes three primary research contributions. Firstly, based upon the theoretical model, this research presents a conceptualization of supply chain emergence and self-organization from dissipative structures and adaptive tension based view of complexity. Secondly, it formally introduces and validates the role of behavioural and cognitive element of human actions in a supply chain scenario. Lastly, it affirms the complex adaptive system based conceptualization of supply chain networks. These contributions succeed in providing organizations with an explanation for observed deviations in their operations performance using a behavioural aspect of human agents.

Many models have been developed to explain the process of self organization-the emergence of seemingly purposeful behaviors from groups of entities with limited individual intelligence. However, the underlying behavior that facilitates the emergence of this global pattern is not generally well understood. Our study focuses on different low complexity building algorithms and characterizes how nests are built using these algorithms. Three rules postulated to be functions of wasps' building behavior were developed. First is the random rule, in which there is no constraint per the choice of site to be initiated. The second is the 2-cell rule where only sites with at least two ready walls are initiated. Third, the maxWall rule ensures only sites with the maximum number of ready walls are initiated. This work provides better insight and visualization through simulation into wasps building behavior. This acquired knowledge can be applied to robotics and distributed optimization processes.

Thesis (Ed. D.)--Illinois State University, 1993.
Title from title page screen, viewed February 28, 2006. Dissertation Committee: Paul J. Baker (chair), Sally B. Pancrazio, Clayton F. Thomas, Calvin C. Jackson. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 126-132) and abstract. Also available in print.

The self-organized nest construction behaviors of European paper wasps (Polistes dominula) show potential for adoption in artificial intelligence and robotic systems where centralized control proves challenging. However, P. dominula nest construction mechanisms are not fully understood. This research investigated how nest structures stimulate P. dominula worker action at different stages of nest construction. A novel stochastic site selection model, weighted by simple rules for cell age, height, and wall count, was implemented in a three-dimensional, step-by-step nest construction simulation. The simulation was built on top of a hexagonal coordinate system to improve precision and performance. Real and idealized nest data were used to evaluate simulated nests via two parameters: outer wall counts and compactness numbers. Structures generated with age-based rules were not significantly different from real nest structures along both parameters.

This research study examines the effects of varied text structures and response formats on Turkish university students&rsquo
reading comprehension test performance. More precisely, it deals with investigating the effects of awareness of rhetorical organization on reading comprehension and on testing of comprehension through different procedures. First, a short review of the relevant research on the text structure and response formats and their effects on reading comprehension is presented. Then, the results of a reading experiment are given. In this experiment, four groups of upper-intermediate level EFL students (100 students) read two English passages written in &ldquo
description&rdquo
and &ldquo
cause-effect&rdquo
rhetorical organization formats. Then, their comprehension of the texts was tested through a cloze procedure and a multiple choice test. The tests were carried out on first year university students from different departments at the English Language Department of BaSkent University during the 2006-2007 Academic Year Fall Semester. After the research period finished, the data collected throughout the research period were transferred into MS Excel and SPSS spreadsheets and analyzed using the statistical procedure of the paired samples t-test. Relying on the analysis of the data, the hypotheses formulated for the study were weighed against the results in order to see if they were confirmed or rejected. The study showed significant difference between the varied text structures and subjects&rsquo
reading comprehension test performance. However, there was not any significant difference between the different response formats and the subjects&rsquo
reading comprehension test performance. Finally, the thesis ends with an interpretation and discussion of the results of the study.

The use of intramural space is examined in and between structures from the Hohokam site of Snaketown, Arizona. The approach advocated in this volume results from a disenchantment with the efficacy of pre-established functional categories for characterizing structure use and accounting for the variability present. In an effort to transcend the vague concept of house function categories of use-areas are defined which represent widespread regularities in the way intramural space is used and arranged. The latter are identified on the basis of spatial patterns of use that are visible cross-culturally in ethnographies and ethnoarchaeological reports and through the examination of artifact and feature arrangments in the archaeological sample from Snaketown. House types, defined on the basis of differing combinations of use-areas, are examined in the context of spatial aggregates of houses, courtyard groups. Their distributions serve as a basis for deriving inferences regarding the nature, localization, and size of cooperating economic groups at the site. Replication of use-area categories and house types within and between courtyard groups, indicates that cooperating economic groups existed at various levels at Snaketown, both above and below the level of the courtyard group.

The question of the role of students in the governance of educational institutions has been an issue for decades in South Africa. It arose out of the desire and struggle by black students for a better sociopolitical environment in general and in education in particular. This demand gained momentum in the years 1976,1980 and 1985. The result was the establishment of Student Representative Councils, Parent-teacher-Student's Associations at schools, Broad Transformation Forums and Governing Councils at tertiary institutions. After 1994 the government of South Africa started the major task of reconstructing the country particularly education and its governance. Democratic governance was accepted as one of the fundamentals of education by the new department of education. The Schools' Act and the Higher Education Act were passed to give effect to this new spirit in 1996 and 1997 respectively. Students had a statutory right to be involved in all matters of governance in educational institutions. However, in the past two years i.e. 1997 and 1998 the issue of student participation has become controversial with tensions erupting amongst stakeholders particularly management and students. The bone of contention this time has not been whether students have to participate or not but how far should they be involved. The National Education Policy Investigation task team had recommended as early as 1992 for the systematic analysis of the roles of the various stakeholders within the governing structures to avoid the present situation to no avail. The aim of this study therefore was to investigate students' perceptions of their role within the governing structures and to assess the implications of such a role for the management of educational institutions. Central to this largely fact finding mission was an attempt to make a contribution engaging students in this debate and get to know them afresh, thereby understand their position, what their perception is about their role in the governance of their institutions. For this purpose the study used phenomenology as the method of research. The reason for that I wanted a methodology which will enable me to produce a report which would not be contaminated with my preconceived ideas about the phenomenon. The tool used for data-gathering was the interview. In-depth interviews were conducted with four student leaders. They were selected purposely due to the fact that they were involved in the governance of their various institutions. The study revealed the complexity of this phenomenon. It indicates that student involvement is crucial for harmonious relations to prevail and the creation of a climate of learning and teaching at educational institutions. Students saw their role as that of legitimising the process of decision-making. This is coupled with enforcing the management to be transparent, bringing back the rule of law, making sure that educational institutions are transformed, that students are empowered and capacitated and looking at the welfare of students. A recommendation that emerge from the study is that much investigation is needed on student participation. Areas which needed much attention are specified in the study.

In recent years, with only small fractions of modern processors now accessible in a single cycle, computer architects constantly fight against propagation issues across the die. Unfortunately this trend continues to shift inward, and now the even most internal features of the pipeline are designed around communication, not computation. To address the inward creep of this constraint, this work focuses on the characterization of communication within the pipeline itself, architectural techniques to avoid it when possible, and layout co-design for early detection of problems. I present work in creating a novel detection tool for common case operand movement which can rapidly characterize an applications dataflow patterns. The results produced are suitable for exploitation as a small number of patterns can describe a significant portion of modern applications. Work on dynamic dependence collapsing takes the observations from the pattern results and shows how certain groups of operations can be dynamically grouped, avoiding unnecessary communication between individual instructions. This technique also amplifies the efficiency of pipeline data structures such as the reorder buffer, increasing both IPC and frequency. I also identify the same sets of collapsible instructions at compile time, producing the same benefits with minimal hardware complexity. This technique is also done in a backward compatible manner as the groups are exposed by simple reordering of the binarys instructions. I present aggressive pipelining approaches for these resources which avoids the critical timing often presumed necessary in aggressive superscalar processors. As these structures are designed for the worst case, pipelining them can produce greater frequency benefit than IPC loss. I also use the observation that the dynamic issue order for instructions in aggressive superscalar processors is predictable. Thus, a hardware mechanism is introduced for caching the wakeup order for groups of instructions efficiently. These wakeup vectors are then used to speculatively schedule instructions, avoiding the dynamic scheduling when it is not necessary. Finally, I present a novel approach to fast and high-quality chip layout. By allowing architects to quickly evaluate what if scenarios during early high-level design, chip designs are less likely to encounter implementation problems later in the process.

This paper deconstructs the "MARC format" and similar newer tools like DC, XML, and RDF, separating structural issues from content-driven issues. Against that it examines the pressures from new types of digital resources, the responses to these pressures in format and content terms, and the transformations that may take place. The conflicting desires coming from users and librarians, the plethora of solutions to problems that constantly appear (some of which just might work), and the traditional access expectations are considered. Footnotes There are a large number of terms being used in the broader information community that often mean approximately the same thing, but relate concepts to the different backgrounds of the players. For example librarians are sometimes confused that metadata is something new and a replacement for either cataloging or MARC. Metadata is cataloging and not MARC. In this article terms based on library specialist terminology are used, with occasional use of alternative terms indicated below, depending on context. No difference in meaning is intended by the use of alternative terminology . The descriptions of the terms are indicative, not strict. cataloging data or cataloging content = metadata - used broadly, in this context, for all data (descriptive, administrative, and structural) that relates to the resources being described. content rules - rules for formulation of the data including controlled lists and codes. data elements - the individual identifiable pieces of cataloging data (e.g., name, title, subtitle) and including elements that are often called attributes or qualifiers (since generally this paper does not need to isolate data elements in to subtypes). relationships - the semantics that relate data elements, e.g., name is author of title, title has subtitle. content rules - the rules for formulating data element content structure = syntax - the physical arrangement of parts of an entity record - the bundle of information that describes a resource format = DTD - a defined specification of structure and markup markup = tag set = content designation - a system of symbols used to identify in some way the following data. ANSI/NISO Z39.2, Record Interchange Format, and ISO 2709, Format for Data Interchange. The two standards are essentially identical in specification. ANSI/NISO has a few provisions where the ISO standard is not specific, but there is no conflict between the two standards. Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records. IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements for the Bibliographic Record. Munich, Saur, 1998. ISO 8879, Standardized General Markup Language (SGML).

Since its big breakthrough in 1980 starting in America (Bredin, 2008), we see yet another shift from traditional to Strategic Human Resources which were basically about two normative model “best fit” vs. “best practice” and their implication in business organizations (Boxall & Purcell, 2000). Scholars like Ulrich (1997), suggested ways about how Human Resource (HR) could contribute in the search for competitive advantage by advocating new organizational structures and roles such as HRSSC (Human Resource Shared Service Center) or the new role of HRBP (Human Resource Business Partner). These new roles and structures can be seen as an extension of “best fit” vs. “best practice” thinking and provide with a tool to cope with challenges faced by today’s organizations. The first and foremost objective of this paper is to come up with a reasonable understanding about these different changes in roles and structures of HR. To do this, it puts the whole change process under “organizational evolution theory” lens and analyzes the whole phenomena to figure out “where do these changes come from” and “what is the implication of these changes for practitioner managers”. To be more precise, this paper applies ecological perspective at organizational and population level suggested by Lovas & Ghoshal (2000) and provides a starting point for future research to apply what Lovas & Ghoshal (2000) called “Guided Evolution” perspective. The next objective of this paper is to check if it is possible to come up with a Key Success Factors (KSF) which would work across different business environments and come up with implications for today’s organizations accordingly. In addition to an extensive literature review, the thesis conducted four semi-structured interviews with three large companies in Sweden applying “qualitative research interview” technique and then analyzed the data with adding more data from other secondary sources. The findings of this work suggest that, the whole change process corresponds to a “variation” cycle of the evolutionary process which should eventually move to a “selection” cycle. The choice and success of these new structures and roles are dependent on factors such as corporate strategies, adequate knowledge of HR or presence/absence of competition and finally suggest that success factors vary from environment to environment and thus it is not possible to come up with a set of Key Success Factors (KSF) which would work across cultures and business environments.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008.
Rogers, Juan D., Committee Chair ; Klein, Hans K., Committee Member ; Bolter, Jay David, Committee Member ; Nelson-Palmer, Mike, Committee Member ; Kingsley, Gordon, Committee Member.

In this paper we explore a method of decomposition of compound tags found in social tagging systems and outline several results, including improvement of search indexes, extraction of semantic information, and benefits to usability. Analysis of tagging habits demonstrates that social tagging systems such as del.icio.us and flickr include both formal metadata, such as geotags, and informally created metadata, such as annotations and descriptions. The majority of tags represent informal metadata; that is, they are not structured according to a formal model, nor do they correspond to a formal ontology. Statistical exploration of the main tag corpus demonstrates that such searches use only a subset of the available tags; for example, many tags are composed as ad hoc compounds of terms. In order to improve accuracy of searching across the data contained within these tags, a method must be employed to decompose compounds in such a way that there is a high degree of confidence in the result. An approach to decomposition of English-language compounds, designed for use within a small initial sample tagset, is described. Possible decompositions are identified from a generous wordlist, subject to selective lexicon snipping. In order to identify the most likely, a Bayesian classifier is used across term elements. To compensate for the limited sample set, a word classifier is employed and the results classified using a similar method, resulting in a successful classification rate of 88%, and a false negative rate of only 1%.

The translocation of organisms to new bio-geographical regions has significant and negative impacts upon native biodiversity and socio-economic development. Biological invasions are dynamic multi-step processes. In order to alleviate the impacts attributed to the introduction of non-native species, it is essential to understand the processes that determine the outcomes of each step of the invasion process. Recent studies argue that environmental heterogeneity is fundamental to the outcome of each stage of the invasion process. Indeed, environmental heterogeneity has been shown to increase the invasive potential of non-native species. Heterogeneity is defined as the condition of diversity and non-uniformity of structure and is found throughout complex and dynamical biological systems. It can be categorized into two discrete forms; endogenous and exogenous heterogeneity. Interactions between endogenous processes and exogenous factors generate ecological patterns and structures that demonstrate distinct spatial and temporal signatures at multiple and contrasting scales. This study examined the functional role of heterogeneity in the formation of complex scale-dependent ecological structures within an invasive non-native species system, namely of Canada geese Branta canadensis (Linnaeus 1758). A graph theoretic approach was used to quantify the degree of connectivity within the study system. Findings indicated that the underlying complexity in the distribution of ecological patterns and structures was best explained by two theoretical models previously described in the literature: the small-world effects models and the scale-free graph.

It was recommended that future researchers should continue to study the benefit of benchmarking metrics of organizational performance to ensure mayors are held accountable for the reforms they espouse during election cycles. Ultimately, mayors' success in managing their school systems will be based on where they prioritize. This research offered a cross section of metrics by which mayors can benchmark their effectiveness as they change operational, financial, and organizational structures to bring about better, overall organizational performance from their school system.; The focus of this research was to examine the effects of mayoral control on operational and financial structures within school systems. Furthermore, this study focused on the public perception and political implications of the mayor's position on local education. The four systems chosen for this study were: Boston, Chicago, District of Columbia, and New York City. All four systems were total control districts, which allowed for each mayor to appoint a majority to the school board and appoint a superintendent or chancellor to oversee the day to day operations of the school district. This study focused on operational and financial structures, which make up a sizable portion of the larger organizational structure. These indicators often drive how services and expenditures eventually affect the core business of these school systems. From an operational perspective, this study was focused on expenditures, both in aggregate form and for instructional related services, pre and post takeover. From a financial perspective, this study focused on changes to revenue sources, return on investment, interest on school debt, and capital outlay. From a political perspective, this study examined the data from the various State of the City addresses over the last four years in each of the four cities, along with polling data available for New York City and the District of Columbia. This study was concluded with a summary of findings, and implications for future research, policy, and practitioners. The research showed that New York City and Boston generally outperformed the District of Columbia and Chicago in the operational and financial metrics used in the study. Furthermore, the number of years a city had been under mayoral control and operational and financial indicators had no significant relationship.
ID: 029050105; System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader.; Mode of access: World Wide Web.; Thesis (Ed.D.)--University of Central Florida, 2010.; Includes bibliographical references (p. 89-94).
Ed.D.
Doctorate
School of Teaching, Learning, and Leadership
Education

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Illinois State University, 1999.
Title from title page screen, viewed July 24, 2006. Dissertation Committee: Paul J. Baker (chair), Dianne E. Ashby, Donald S. Kachur, Patricia H. Klass. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 276-280) and abstract. Also available in print.

This study analyzes the process of the diffusion of structures and practices in an organizational setting using the theory of new institutionalism as the theoretical basis. The explanation of the diffusion process has been subject to major variations due to epistemological and ontological reasons. Former theories of organizational reality looked at organizations as their sole units of analyses and accounted for the diffusion process accordingly
however, today, it is widely observed and accepted that organizational behavior is shaped by historical and environmental factors. This investigation aims to provide evidence for how certain structures and practices diffuse through organizational settings while others do not. Consequently, a qualitative design was conducted to explore the diffusion process in the case of the Council of Higher Education, a high-level bureaucratic organization in Turkey. Fifteen key informants, present or former university rectors and members of the Council, were interviewed and the accumulated data were analyzed qualitatively. Also, the findings were matched and supported with relevant documents analyzed additionally. The findings drawn from the investigation indicate that the emergence of the Council implicates a pattern visible throughout the history of Turkish higher education. The Council is spotted as an important agent in redefining Turkish higher education and thus creating a new organizational field for it. Yet, highly dynamic and interactive face of today&rsquo
s higher education calls for reconsideration of the Council and its functions. A major conclusion that can be reached in this context is that the issue of legitimacy depends on the satisfaction of several demands and expectations at various levels. Therefore, even a formal and regulative organization, such as the Council of Higher Education is prone to the pressures of the organizational field it operates within and is called upon to redefine its structures and implementations accordingly in order to secure its legitimacy.

South Africa is one of the countries with the highest prevalence of HIV infection in the world, particularly among the youth between the ages 15 and 24 years. The number of infections among the youth in South Africa is still increasing and this does not exclude the youth under study in the community of Eersterust. The HIV and AIDS epidemic is affecting large numbers of adolescents, throughout South Africa leading to serious psychological, social, economic and educational problems. Because of the devastating effect and rapid increase of HIV-infections among adolescents, it has become evident that not only government departments (Department of Health and Department of Education), but also community-based educational support structures (organisations) should share the responsibility by playing a pro-active role in awareness and the curbing of the spread of HIV-infection among adolescents. Various researchers have been focusing on the knowledge, attitudes and behaviour of adolescents but limited research has been done on the contribution of community-based educational support programmes with regard to creating awareness and the curbing of the further spread of HIV-infection among adolescents. This study which seeked to address the need for ongoing research in this field, attempted to investigate whether and how communitybased educational programmes address the educational needs of adolescents within a particular community, namely Eersterust. In order to determine these needs, quantitative and qualitative descriptive research approaches were utilized comprising of a questionnaire survey and focus group interviews. The questionnaire survey explored the knowledge, skills, attitudes and sexual behaviour of the 916 participants. The results from the questionnaire were utilized to determine the educational needs of adolescents. Focus group interviews were conducted with 11 adolescents who attended the educational support programmes at the Youth Development Outreach Centre and the Circle of Life Centre. The latter are two community-based organisations in the community under study (Eersterust). The focus group interviews were utilized to determine the views of the adolescents with regard to the mode of delivery and effectiveness of the community-based educational support programmes. From the data in the questionnaire the educational needs of adolescents were identified and compared with the content of the community-based educational support programmes of the two community-based support structures. The findings revealed that the community-based educational support programmes are to a large extent addressing the HIV and AIDS educational needs of the adolescents under study. The focus group interviews revealed that the participants are of the opinion that they find the programmes interesting and enriching. They benefit educationally by attending the educational programmes and they would recommend the programmes to other adolescents. The findings indicate that the educational programmes are appropriate to address the HIV and AIDS educational needs of the adolescents. The educational needs identified in the empirical research are however not fulfilled because many of the adolescents do not attend the educational programmes. There are only a few adolescents who attend these educational programmes. The latter might be a contributing factor to the high HIV-infection among adolescents.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013.
gm2013
Early Childhood Education
unrestricted

Die meisten Menschen verbringen heutzutage den Großteil ihres Daseins in Organisationen. Sie werden immer häufiger in Organisationen geboren (Krankenhaus), in Organisationen sozialisiert (Kindergärten, Schulen usw.), sind für ihre Existenzsicherung auf Lohnzahlungen von Organisationen angewiesen, und zunehmend fristen sie ihr Lebensende in Organisationen (Krankenhaus, Altenheim etc.). Aus soziologischer Sicht sind Organisationen deshalb besonders interessant und verdienen eine besondere Beachtung in der Gesellschaftsanalyse. In dieser Untersuchung soll nicht der Siegeszug der Organisation in der soziokulturellen Evolution der Gesellschaft im Mittelpunkt stehen, sondern die Frage: Wie kommt das Driften (Maturana, Varela, 1991) der Organisation zustande? Geht man davon aus, dass in der Evolution Aussterben die Regel und Anpassung die Ausnahme ist, scheint der Aspekt des Driftens organisierter Sozialsysteme besonderes Augenmerk zu verdienen. Liest man die für Deutschland veröffentlichten Zahlen der Unternehmensinsolvenzen, gerade in den heutigen Zeiten der Wirtschafts- und Finanzkrise, scheint der Fortbestand einer einmal ins Leben gerufenen Organisation eher ungewiss als gesichert zu sein. Des Weiteren scheint es so zu sein, dass Organisationen gewissen Lebenszyklen (Küpper, Felsch) unterworfen sind. In den älteren Organisationstheorien wurde noch von einem einheitlichen Zweck ausgegangen, der die gesamte Strukturierung der Organisation übergreift. Alle Organisationsmitglieder haben ihr Handeln im Hinblick auf die Verwirklichung dieses spezifischen Zwecks der Intention nach rational zu gestalten. In der Organisationsanalyse stellte man aber fest, dass Zweckverschiebungen innerhalb der formalen Organisationen eher die Regel als die Ausnahme sind. (Mayntz, 1963 u.a.) Dies Problem der rational gestalteten Organisation wurde somit den Organisationsmitgliedern zugeschrieben. Gleichsam als die andere Seite der formalen Organisation agieren die Mitglieder der formalen Organisation in der informellen Organisation als Mikropolitiker (Bosetzky, Heinrich, 1989), die die formalen Strukturen unterminieren, um ihre persönliche Nutzenmaximierung voranzutreiben. Übernimmt man diese Perspektive für die Betrachtung der formalen Organisation, kann man sich schwer der Annahme verweigern, dass die Organisationsmitglieder grundlegend feindlich gegenüber der Organisation gesinnt sind. Mit dieser Perspektive würde man all den freiwilligen Mitgliedern in Hilfsorganisationen, sozialen Vereinen usw. nicht gerecht werden. In der hier durchgeführten Analyse wird die Perspektive der Luhmannschen Systemtheorie eingenommen. Damit sind die Organisationsmitglieder nicht aus der theoretischen Betrachtung eliminiert, sondern im Gegenteil, sie werden in der Umwelt der organisierten Sozialsysteme verortet. Das hat den entscheidenden Vorteil, dass den Organisationsmitgliedern aus der theoretischen Betrachtung heraus mehr Freiheit zugestanden wird als in akteurszentrierten Theorien. Denn Systembildung bedeutet immer die Streichung mindestens eines Freiheitsgrades (Foerster von, 1997). Mit der Luhmannschen Systemtheorie wird des Weiteren davon ausgegangen, dass sich gleichsam unbeobachtet hinter dem Rücken der Anwesenden ein Netzwerk webt, ein soziales System sich bildet. Alle sozialen Systeme beruhen letztlich auf der Unterscheidung von Bewusstsein und Kommunikation. Die Kommunikation selbst kann man nicht beobachten sondern nur erschließen. Solange sie störungsfrei läuft, bleibt sie den Anwesenden unbewusst. Erst bei Störungen des Kommunikationsflusses macht sie sich bemerkbar, obgleich sie fast nie den Anwesenden bewusst wird. Denn die Kommunikation drillt den Menschen auf den Menschen, weil sie sich der Wahrnehmung entzieht (Fuchs, 1998). Die Autopoiesis der Kommunikation ist auf die Anwesenheit zweier psychischer Systeme bzw. Bewusstseinssysteme angewiesen. Sie ermöglichen überhaupt erst den Raum oder den Phänomenbereich, in dem die Autopoiesis sozialer Systeme möglich ist (Luhmann, 1990). Die Autopoiesis der Kommunikation setzt entsprechend immer Interaktion der Anwesenden voraus. In der Interaktion selbst, werden sich die Anwesenden in besonderer Weise wechselseitig bewusst und können sich entsprechend anders zur Geltung bringen, als in den Strukturzwängen einer formalern Organisation. Die Kommunikation selbst gibt den Beteiligten gewisse Changiermöglichkeiten an die Hand, z.B. das An- und Ausschalten verschiedener operativer Displacement (Fuchs, 1993), um ihren störungsfreien Ablauf zu ermöglichen und entsprechende Brüche zu vermeiden. Zum Beispiel den nahtlosen Übergang von einem Thema zu einem anderen. Die Interaktion selbst wird als zeitinstabiles Kontaktsystem (Luhmann, 1997) begriffen, das mit dem Auseinandergehen der Beteiligten erloschen ist. Die hier kurz angerissene Bedeutung der Kommunikation in der Luhmannschen Systemtheorie erklärt, warum ihr in der durchgeführten Analyse ein so breiter Raum eingeräumt wurde. Organisationen sind Sozialsysteme eines anderen Typs und besitzen damit verbunden ganz andere emergente Eigenschaften. Sie können mit der diffusen Kommunikation der Interaktion nichts anfangen. Ihre Operationen basieren auf Entscheidungen. Jede Entscheidung schließt an eine Entscheidungskommunikation an, aber sie selbst ist die Sinnverdichtung dieser Kommunikation. Und eben dieser Sachverhalt stellt ihre Effizienz, ihr Tempovorteil gegenüber allen anderen Typen sozialer Systeme dar. Erst wenn es der Organisation gelingt Entscheidungen an Entscheidungen zu knüpfen, ist sie in der Lage ihr eigenes Netzwerk ihrer eigenen Entscheidungen zu etablieren. Nur in der Form der Entscheidung kann sie ihre für sie selbst nicht weiter hintergehbaren Systemelemente (Entscheidungen) aneinander anschließen, Entscheidungen anhand von Entscheidungen produzieren. Gelingt ihr das, gewinnen die Entscheidungen füreinander Relevanz, können sich wechselseitig stützen, vorbereiten und entlasten. Jede Entscheidung muss jetzt ihre eigene Vorgängerentscheidung und den jeweiligen Kontext anderer Entscheidungen mit berücksichtigen. Es bildet sich ein Zusammenhang der Entscheidungen, der die Grenzen des Systems begründet und bezeichnet. Da jede Organisation sich immer nur jeweils im Moment ihres Entscheidens realisiert, bekommt sie ein Zeitproblem. Man muss nicht nur entscheiden, sondern man muss mit Bezug auf den Entscheidungszusammenhang korrekt und rechtzeitig entscheiden bevor sich das zu entscheidende Problem zu Ungunsten der Organisation von selbst erledigt hat. Alles was jetzt in der Organisation als relevant betrachtet werden soll, muss die Form einer Entscheidung annehmen. Dies bedeutet nicht, dass in der Entscheidungskommunikation nicht Einfluss auf die Entscheidung genommen werden kann, aber zum einen wird man aufgrund des Entscheidungsdrucks versuchen die Entscheidungskommunikation soweit wie möglich zu verkürzen, z.B durch Programmierung. Zum anderen sieht man der Entscheidung ihre Entscheidungskommunikation nicht an. Man kann sie nur noch erahnen. Organisationen kommunizieren am liebsten mit Organisationen in ihrer Umwelt, da diese gezwungen sind, selbst Entscheidungen zu produzieren, mit denen man selbst etwas anfangen kann. Man kann sie entweder in den eigenen Entscheidungszusammenhang übernehmen, oder man kann sie mit einer eigenen Entscheidung ablehnen. Aber jede Entscheidung, die die Organisation trifft bestätigt oder ändert ihre Strukturen. Dieser Gedankengang führte zu der Überlegung, dass informale Strukturen selbst organisierte Interaktionssysteme sein müssen. Sie müssen sich bereits in irgendeiner Form selbst organisieren. Sie stehen unter dem Gesetz des Wiedersehens. Die sozialen Kontakte werden sich in einem absehbaren Zeit- und Interessenhorizont wiederholen, sich verdichten und konfirmieren (Luhmann, 1997) und dies erfordert bereits ein gewisses Maß an Organisation. Man muss die nächsten Treffen planen, ein Thema auswählen usw. Letztlich produzieren sie Entscheidungen mit denen die formale Organisation etwas anfangen kann. Dies ist einer der Gründe, warum sich die formale Organisation zunehmend den Zugriff auf informale Strukturen ermöglicht.
From sociological view organisations are especially interesting and earn a special attention in the society analysis. The starting point of this analysis is the question: How do the drifts (Maturana, Varela come about, in 1991) of the organisations? In the older actor-centred organisation theories was gone out from a uniform purpose which spreads the whole structuralisation of the organisation. The problem of the rational creation of the organisation was ascribed therefore, as an other side of the formal organisation, to the organisation members. In the analysis carried out here the perspective of Luhmann system theory is taken. One assumes from the fact that as it were unnoticeably behind the back of the persons present a network grows up, a social system forms. Organisations are social systems and own quite specific emergente qualities. Their operations are based on decisions. Every decision connects to a decisive communication, but it herself is the sensory compression of this communication. And just these circumstances show her efficiency, her tempo advantage compared with all other types of social systems. Only if to the organisation decisions succeed to attach to decisions, it is to be set up in the situation her own network of her own decisions. Now every decision must consider her own predecessor's decision and the respective context of other decisions with. A connection of the decisions, the borders of the system forms reasonably and called. One must decide not only, but one must decide with reference to the decisive connection correctly and on time before the determining problem has taken care in unfavours of the organisation by itself. Now everything should be looked what in the organisation as relevant, must accept the form of a decision. This does not mean that in the decisive communication influence on the decision cannot be had, but, on the one hand, one will will try to shorten on account of the decisive pressure the decisive communication as far as possible, e.g., by programming. On the other hand one does not look to the decision at her decisive communication. One can only foresee them. Organisations best communicate with organisations in her environment, because these are made produce even decisions with which one himself can start something. One can take over them either in own decisive connection, or one can reject them with own decision. But every decision, they the organisation hits confirmed or changes her structures. This train of thought led to the consideration that informale structures themselves must be organised interaction systems. They must already organise in any form themselves. They stand under the law of the reunion. The social contacts will recur in a foreseeable time and interests horizon, condense and confirm (Luhmann, in 1997) and this already requires a certain measure in organisation. One must plan the next meetings, a subject select etc., In the end they produce decisions with those the formal organisation something can start. This is one of the reasons, why the formal organisation allows itself increasingly the access to informale structures.