Journal articles on the topic 'Structure du caillot'

À environ 150 km au NE de Tadoussac, le cap Colombier apparaît comme le site le plus oriental connu de la dispersion des erratiques de dolomie sur la rive nord de l'estuaire maritime du Saint-Laurent. Une cinquantaine de cailloux de dolomie de diverses catégories ont, en effet, été observés sur le bas estran argileux du havre du Colombier. La taille des cailloux va de 7 à 320 cm (axe-a). Si le plus gros bloc pèse environ 20 tonnes, les autres sont beaucoup plus petits : les dix plus gros pesant entre 33 et 345 kg. Il y a environ 12 % de cailloux de dolomie cristalline de couleur rose et 20 % des cailloux sont striés. Un bloc de dolomie partiellement bréchique contenait des structures stromatolitiques. La source la plus vraisemblable demeure le bassin sédimentaire de Mistassini situé à environ 500 km au NO, ce qui implique, dans un premier temps, un transport glaciaire par un courant de glace à partir d'un dôme localisé au NO du lac Mistassini, puis, dans un deuxième temps, une mise en place par des icebergs dans la Mer de Goldthwait probablement issus de la langue glaciaire canalisée dans le Saguenay.

RÉSUMÉ Plusieurs centaines de cailloux erratiques ont été observés à l'embouchure du Saguenay, soit sur le rivage actuel, au pied d'escarpements d'érosion taillés dans des dépôts quaternaires, soit directement dans ces dépôts. Deux groupes d'indicateurs ont été distingués : ceux d'origine lointaine (400 à 500 km) et ceux d'origine proximale (100 à 200 km). Le premier groupe comprend principalement des cailloux de conglomérat, de dolomie à stromatolites et de dolomie sans structures algaires, d'âge protérozoïque; le second est composé surtout de calcaires de Trenton (Ordovicien) et d'anorthosite. Compte tenu de la direction générale de l'écoulement des glaces dans l'axe du Saguenay (écoulement déterminé à partir des stries et autres micro-formes), les calcaires proviennent du haut Saguenay (région de Saint-Honoré) ou du secteur sud du lac Saint-Jean, alors que les cailloux d'anorthosite proviennent du vaste massif de cette roche au Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean. Les cailloux de tillite et de dolomie, par contre, proviennent de la région des lacs Mistassini, Albanel et Waconichi, dans la partie centrale du Québec. Ceci implique un écoulement glaciaire wisconsinien vers le sud-est de cette région, soit vers l'embouchure du Saguenay (Tadoussac). Par conséquent, l'emplacement d'un dôme et d'une ligne de partage des glaces étaient situés quelque part à l'ouest ou au nord-ouest de la cuvette du lac Mistassini. Ces données confirment la valeur des modèles proposés récemment par quelques chercheurs et souligne l'intérêt d'inventorier les erratiques d'origine lointaine pour distinguer les principaux axes d'écoulement glaciaires.

AbstractA notion of complexity for an arbitrary structure was defined in the book of Poizat Les petits cailloux (1995): we can define P and NP problems over a differential field K. Using the Witness Theorem of Blum et al., we prove the P-stability of the theory of differential fields: a P problem over a differential field K is still P when restricts to a sub-differential field k of K. As a consequence, if P = NP over some differentially closed field K, then P = NP over any differentially closed field and over any algebraically closed field.

This article seeks to explore the digital hunting games genre, in particular the theHunter franchise, using the interpretative framework based on Roger Caillois’ concepts of paidia and ludus. It is argued that both of these notions are represented in the gameplay, narrative structure and graphical user interface of the analysed titles, effectively working towards reconciliation of the possible ecocritical and hunting-focused readings. The article interprets the theHunter games by juxtaposing the divergent stances towards environmental awareness and hunting culture, in the form in which they are communicated both in the games and within the communities of players.

«Перепела в саркофаге» (1979) — одна из ранних театральных работ Сальваторе Шаррино, написанная по заказу Венецианского музыкального биеннале. Предметом статьи является поэтика оперы, а также механизмы деформирования образа реальности, лежащие в основе мифов массовой культуры ХХ века и ставшие одной из композиторских стратегий, позволяющих выявить основную тему «Перепелов» — непрочность и переменчивость восприятия. Мифология, изъеденная потреблением, или, как ее называет Шаррино, «денатурированная мифология» нашла отражение в сложной интертекстуальной структуре либретто, которое включает в себя фрагменты литературных произведений и пьес, мемуаров и документальной хроники, философско-эстетических и научных эссе, поэзии и текстов эстрадных шлягеров 1920–40-х годов. Контаминация несовместимых компонентов («художественное „амбигю“») становится руководящим драматургическим принципом, проникающим на вербальный, визуальный и музыкально-стилевой уровни сценического синтеза оперы. В фокусе внимания автора также оказываются: воплощение трех сквозных образов-архетипов (Сирены, Идеальные Голоса и Платье), определяющих шарриновскую концепцию денатурированной мифологии; рассмотрение музыкально-драматургических и композиционных закономерностей «Перепелов», в основе которых лежат повторяющиеся «мифические схемы»; характеристика принципов структурирования и взаимодействия семантических слоев оперы, пения и разговорного диалога; изучение механизмов включения и стратегий искажения заимствованного материала из классической музыки, американских джазовых стандартов и европейских шлягеров первой половины ХХ века. Cailles en sarcophage (1979) is one of Salvatore Sciarrino’s early theatrical works, commissioned by the Venice Music Biennale. The subject of the article is the poetics of the opera, as well as the mechanisms of deformation of the image of reality, which underlie the myths of mass culture of the 20th century and have become one of the composer’s strategies that make it possible to identify the main theme of Cailles — fragility and variability of perception. Mythology distorted by consumption, or, as Sciarrino calls it, “denatured mythology” reveals itself in the complex intertextual structure of the libretto, which includes fragments of literary works and plays, memoirs and documentary chronicles, philosophical, aesthetic and scientific essays, poetry and texts of pop hits of the 1920–1940s. Contamination of incompatible components (the “artistic ambigu”) becomes a guiding dramaturgical principle that penetrates the verbal, visual and musical-stylistic levels of the stage synthesis of the opera. The author’s attention is also focused on: the embodiment of three end-to-end archetype images (Sirens, Ideal Voices and Dress), defining Sciarrino’s concept of denatured mythology; consideration of the musical, dramatic and compositional features of Cailles, which are based on repetitive “mythical schemes”; characteristics of the principles of structuring and interaction of semantic layers of opera, singing and conversational dialogue; study of the inclusion mechanisms and strategies for distorting citations from classical music, American jazz standards and European hits of the first half of the 20th century.

A maniac computer game genre called "Survival Horror Games‟ is aimed for making gamers feel cathartic feeling when they escaped from the designed horror successfully. The degree of gaming quality, however, is not easy to measure. In this paper, we apply Caillois‟ game playing categories and other standards to measure how a game induces the feeling of fear and other emotional experience to players. Once dominated horror survival game series called Panic Room: Escaping from the Den was chosen to analyze and evaluate with those standards as well as its narratives and subsystems. Especially the 2nd version was most welcomed to users among 4 versions thus we focused on the difference between the version 1 and the version 2 in terms of game playing and fear elements in the game content and story structure. In result, version 2 showed much more Agon and Mimicry and all other fear elements than version 1. The group image playing structure and conference/collection subsystem that were newly provided to version 2 were attributed to its success.

Cet article examine la structure du roman Le Labyrinthe de Maurice Sandoz dans le but de déterminer dans quelle mesure le roman appartient au genre fantastique. En se basant sur les théories classiques du fantastique, l’article démontre que Le Labyrinthe de Sandoz soulève des problèmes terminologiques étant donné qu’il contient des éléments considérés par les théories canoniques comme fantastiques mais aussi merveilleux (Todorov, Caillois). Une analyse détaillée des caractéristiques des avant-propos sandoziens permet de montrer que l’auteur joue sur la notion de limite et d’hésitation. Ces dernières sont cruciales dans les théories majeures du fantastique et sont au coeur de la stratégie de Sandoz, qui consiste à brouiller les frontières entre l’auteur, le narrateur, le récit et la « réalité ». Cette étude constitue une première étape vers une analyse plus détaillée du fantastique de Sandoz et son but est de souligner la nécessité d’un changement de perspective dans l’appréhension de ce dernier.

In recent years, the concept of ‘calculated hedonism’ has dominated sociological understandings of young people’s drinking practices. However, while contributing some important insights, this conceptualisation has not sufficiently considered the affective and embodied aspects of alcohol consumption. Our analysis explores the meanings and understandings of alcohol consumption among male participants in an 18-month study of young adults living in inner-city Melbourne. Data were collected via in-depth, semi-structured interviews and participant observation during drinking events. We draw on Roger Caillois’ notion of ‘play’ to analyse sessional drinking among these men. The four categories of play identified by Callois – competition, chance, simulation and vertigo – were all present in the accounts of these men’s drinking practices. This analysis offers a way of conceptualising men’s alcohol consumption in more nuanced ways that acknowledge the affective and embodied aspects of drinking as part of pleasure-seeking.

Quatre des six protéines principales du lait de vache (caséines αS1, βet κ et β-lactoglobuline) présentent dans les populations au moins deux variants génétiques identifiables par électrophorèse. L’inventaire de ce polymorphisme a été effectué dans 21 races bovines françaises, où les variants les plus fréquents sont αS1 -Cn B et C pour la caséine αS1 , (β-Cn A1 , A2 et B pour la caséine β, κ-Cn A et B pour la caséine κ, et β-Lg A et B pour la β-lactoglobuline. Les particularités biochimiques des principaux variants sont connues. Les gènes de structure des caséines αS1, αS2, β et κ sont très étroitement liés, de sorte que l’unité génétique de transmission est l’haplotype, combinaison comprenant un allèle de chacun des quatre locus. Le locus de la β-lactoglobuline a un effet majeur sur le taux de cette protéine dans le lait (β-Lg A > β-Lg B), qui se répercute sur le taux d’ensemble des protéines du lactosérum. Ces différences étant compensées par des différences en sens inverse du taux de caséine totale, l’allèle β-Lg B a un effet favorable sur ce taux de caséine et sur l’indice de caséine du lait (+ 2,5 à 3 %). Par rapport au variant κ-Cn A, le variant κ-Cn B confère au lait de meilleures aptitudes fromagères : temps de coagulation et temps de raffermissement du caillé plus courts, caillé mieux réticulé et plus ferme, et, pour certains types de fromages, rendement de fabrication supérieur (4 à 8 % entre les laits des deux homozygotes). Les effets du variant β-Cn B vont dans le même sens que ceux du variant κ-Cn B. L’intérêt et les conditions d’une prise en compte de ce polymorphisme dans la sélection laitière restent à évaluer.

Recent theorizing around games and notions of play has drawn from a pool of mid-20th century scholars including such notables as Johann Huizinga, Gregory Bateson, Roger Caillois and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Through his articulation of the concept of language as a type of game, Wittgenstein has been both adopted and critiqued for purposes of circumscribing what are now commonly held as the necessary constituents of games including their systemic nature and the acquiescence of their participants to an agreed-upon rule structure: a set of rules which Wittgenstein likens to the ‘grammar’ of language (Salen and Zimmerman, 2001;Suits, 1978; Juul, 2005; Wittgenstein, 1953; Finch, 2001; Brenner, 1999). Although thus far Wittgenstein has served as a pillar of 20th and 21st century game theory canon, this paper adopts Wittgenstein’s notion of language-games not for purposes of examining games, but for purposes of examining the design of games. The pursuit of this paper is to utilize Wittgenstein’s lens of the language-game to investigate what it is that informs and consequently shapes and reinforces game design epistemologies in an attempt to encourage a reflexivity about the design practices behind the games we create.

Flamenca and the Joy of Play in the World of the Troubadours This article attempts to interpret a thirteenth-century Occitan chivalric romance, Le roman de Flamenca, in the context of game and play. Play is an important element of the troubadours’ sociopoetic culture, both in its social (fin’amor) and literary (trobar) aspects. Since the author considers Flamenca to be a work that summarises the history of Occitan courtly poetry, on this basis he puts forward the hypothesis that the plot of the text in question was also constructed by games. This hypothesis is proven by analysing the romance through the prism of Johan Huizinga’s and Roger Caillois’ concept of play. An additional argument testifying to the importance of games in the troubadour world is the key term for fin’amor, joi (translated as Joy), whose components are two other terms: joia (joy) and joc (game). For this reason, the author treats this phenomenon as the Joy of Play, a feeling of pleasure resulting from engagement in poetic games. Based on Caillois’ classification, the author distinguishes two types of games in the text. The first of these is agon, or the competition between Flamenca and her lover Guillaume, and her jealous husband Archambaut. The analysis of the work provides answers to questions about the model player, the set of rules of the game (referred to as lo gay saber, ‘the gay science’) and its course. Of particular note are the passages in which competition is thematised through ludic vocabulary and references to joi. This leads to the conclusion that agon is a structural principle of Le roman de Flamenca. The next section aims to interpret the plot of the novel in the context of mimicry, games based on imitation. The theatrical motifs of the work are subjected to critical reflection, particularly in connection with the joi. In this sense, illusion and imitation constitute the content of the work. In the last section, the author proposes to raise the question about other forms of games in the troubadour world. In particular, the treatment of joi as illinx, a game based on vertigo, is taken into consideration. The collected material and the research lead to the conclusion that Flamenca is a piece built around different types of games: agon is its structure, mimicry serves to guide the action, while illinx may be its possible goal.

Bakhtin is an ambiguous thinker, who manifests himself as well in the political interpretation of his ideas. The political context of Bakhtin's thought is mostly considered based on the work “Rabelais and His World”. The article aims to identify the meaning structures of Bakhtin's work on Rabelais, which determine the political interpretation of his concept. The highlighted meaning structures are interconnected. They represent a series of Bakhtin's theses on the classificatory character of the division of cultural consciousness, on the decline of the laughter principle, etc. These theses form a coherent narrative that can be interpreted in completely different ways. Bakhtin's concept may be presented by interpreters in liberal or leftist way, as well as deeply conservative. These interpretations are based on different understandings of the status of carnivalization, which is essentially identical to the phenomenon of transgression. Accordingly, the second aim of the article is to show how Bakhtin understood transgression. To contextualize Bakhtin's concept of carnivalization, some of his points, which are similar to the ones made by the theorists of the ambivalent sacred (J. Bataille and R. Caillois) are considered. But a fact remains that requires explanation: Bakhtin's thought does not fit well into the framework of one or another political interpretation. As an explanation, a hypothesis of the biopolitical basis of Bakhtin's concept is put forward. The Agamben's figure of naked life constituted by sovereign power is contrasted with the Bakhtin's figure of material-bodily bottom, as the idea of the collective immortality of the people.

My aim in this essay is to explore certain parallels—concerning anthropomorphism—in the work of Roger Caillois, Hans Jonas, Theodor Adorno and Sigmund Freud. Both Caillois (a thinker closely connected to French Surrealism and an important source for Jacques Lacan) and Jonas (philosopher and one-time student of Heidegger) take issue with the ban on anthropomorphism—an anathema that is the legacy of Western science. Part of the thesis in Jonas’ major work, The Phenomenon of Life, is that freedom is not exclusively a human quality but a potential within the simplest organic forms, even within inorganic matter. Anthropomorphism may be the legacy of a primitive stage in human development in which the whole of creation was endowed with a soul, but this attitude, Jonas argues, is the more natural one. Whereas in the early phases of humanity death was the stranger in a world that was fundamentally alive, modern thinking made life the riddle within a world of neutral matter and mechanistic principles. Freud’s own theory of the death-drive (“an urge inherent in organic life to restore an earlier state of things which the living entity has been obliged to abandon under the pressure of external disturbing forces”) seems quite consistent with the primacy of death over life instituted by modern thought. I have a general interest in comparing Freud’s theory of the death drive, the aim of which is the restoration of an original equilibrium, with music, whose traditional structure (via the cadence) is to relieve tonal tension through a restoration of the keynote (Grundton). This bears upon the problem of anthropomorphism in that “classical” music since the seventeenth century has cast expression in terms of simulated human emotions: we hear music and perceive love, longing or fear, not to mention (in the case of pastorale) the “cheer” of birdsong or the “rage” of a thunderstorm. Adorno’s critique of this tradition, in which true expression is replaced by mere images of expression, theorizes what he calls a “tendency of the material,” extolling the composer whose sheer mastery of technique enables the material to go where it “wants” to go. What Adorno means by “material” is not merely the inventory of sounds available to the musician but the historical experience sedimented within musical convention. Nonetheless, I would like to attempt an argument whose parameters are Adorno’s “tendency of the material” and Jonas’ idea that freedom must be conceived as a “genuine potency” within physical substance.

The financial crisis has not changed the economic structure of capitalism and critics of capitalism have increasingly turned to Marx for solutions. It is argued here that Hegel provides a better theoretical framework than Marx when it comes to understanding current alternatives. Hegel envisioned a society that transcends its capitalistic basis and reactivates communal energies. Thus Hegel can be considered to restore the Platonic ideal of koinonía which refers to the idea of a society organised around the needs of communities rather than individuals. The term has been used in the analysis of early Christianity and has been taken up by the Catholic Church; it is useful now because it has both a deeply metaphysical sense and a political and social reference which gives rise to ideas of right and justice. With this in mind, alternatives to capitalism are discussed which are based on the concept of ‘the collaborative commons’. Three recent examples are considered which underpin current activist movements: the peer-to-peer movement of Michel Bauwens, the convivialist movement of Alain Caillé and the common-good movement of Christian Felber. For Hegel and for the modern collaborative commons a community-based society marks the end of capitalism.O FIM DO CAPITALISMO E O RETORNO DA KOINONIAResumoA crise financeira não mudou a estrutura econômica do capitalismo e críticos do capitalismo têm cada vez mais se voltado para Marx buscando soluções. O argumento em destaque propõe que Hegel oferece enquadramento teórico melhor que o de Marx quando se trata de compreender as atuais alternativas. Hegel pressupunha uma sociedade que transcendesse sua base capitalista e reativasse energias em comum. Desse modo, Hegel pode ser considerado o restaurador do ideal platônico de koinonia, que se refere à ideia de uma sociedade organizada tendo em vista as necessidades das comunidades em vez daquelas individuais. O termo foi usado na análise dos primeiros tempos da Cristandade e foi retomado pela Igreja Católica; é útil agora porque apresenta tanto um sentido profundamente metafísico quanto uma referência social e política que traz à tona ideias de direito e de justiça. Com isto em mente, alternativas para o capitalismo são discutidas com base no conceito de ‘os comuns colaborativos’. Três exemplos recentes são considerados por apoiar os atuais movimentos de ativistas: o movimento “peer-to-peer” de Michel Bawens, o movimento de convivência de Alain Caillé e o movimento do bem-comum de Christian Felber. Para Hegel e para os comuns colaborativos modernos, uma sociedade baseada em comunidades marca o fim do capitalismo.

Résumé Au sud du détroit du Dolphin et de l'Union, dans les Territoires du Nord-Ouest, des crêtes morainiques hautes de 100 m, composées de till à gros blocs marquent l'emplacement d'un front glaciaire à l'est et au nord du lac Bluenose. Les principales crêtes sont soit massives, soit composites avec de petites crêtes secondaires à leur sommet. En amont glaciaire (est) des crêtes, les formes de relief les plus fréquentes sont des collines recouvertes de blocs dont la hauteur atteint 60 m et des monticules entre lesquels se trouvent de nombreux lacs. Un important glissement de terrain au cœur de la moraine expose de la glace riche en sédiments, enfouie sous 3 m de till. Ce diamicton à matrice sabloneuse et riche en blocs exhibe une structure en colonnes et une fissilité prismatique. La glace enfouie qui incorpore des blocs et des cailloux est zonée, ce qui permet de déceler des plis et des déformations plus complexes. Le contact entre la glace enfouie et le diamicton est net, sub-horizontal et discordant. La glace est interprétée comme étant la partie basale d'un glacier enfouie par des sédiments glacigéniques, surtout du till. Dans une zone à écoulement à contre pente de la partie frontale de l'inlandsis du Wisconsinen supérieur des chevauchements ont transporté des sédiments qui ont recouvert la glace morte à la marge du front de glace active. Nous croyons que dans l'éventualité où un réchauffement climatique causerait la fonte de la glace enfouie, laquelle représente un volume important de la Moraine du Lac Bluenose, le relief serait transformé en un paysage bosselé semblable à celui qui existe dans des régions plus méridionales du Canada central.

The Netflix drama <Squid Game> is a very successful K-drama both at home and abroad. The reasons for the success of this drama are diverse, such as universal and interesting scenarios, unique multi-casting and acting, tension-filled conflict structure in each episode, and mission-based game method. <Squid Game> was analyzed by dividing into two types. First, with respect to playfulness, the play theories of Johan Huizinga, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Roger Caillois were applied to figure out how it was subverted in <Squid Game> and changed purposeless play into purposeful play. As a result of the analysis, the subverted playfulness in <Squid Game> is first, play that violates the characteristics of play, second, distorted play space, third, simple play and complex human nature, fourth, play that is alienated and suffered, and fifth, the experience of the viewer. I was able to derive the characteristic of a play that becomes a self. Next, I looked at how the uncanny was expressed through numerous formative images, spaces, devices, colors, and play methods that appeared in <Squid Game>. As a result, first, unfamiliarity due to changes in spatial function, second, an automaton in the Uncanny Valley, third, dangerous drawing in an inverted space, fourth, fear of elinx and dark abyss, fifth, The cruel space of Pernos, the sixth, the hierarchical discomfort of line drawing, and finally, the overturning of color and the animated space were found to be uncanny expressions in <Squid Game>. It is hoped that this analysis of box office factors will help the development of K-drama in the future.

Les théories psychanalytique groupalistes sont apparues avec les travaux de S.H. Foulkes sur la notion de groupe matrice, groupe dans lequel se produit une résonance inconsciente entre ses membres: le groupe est une matrice psychique qui permet une communication inconsciente entre ses membres. Pour H. Ezriel, cette résonance est fantasmatique, et dans un groupe, chaque participant tend à projeter son objet fantasmatique inconscient sur les autres participants en essayant de les faire agir selon son désir. Sur ces bases, W.R. Bion théorisera la notion de “présupposés de base,” ces noeuds imaginaires défensifs contre l’angoisse très primaire réactivée par le groupe. En 1976, R. Kaës émet l’hypothèse d’un appareil psychique groupal, puis A. Ruffiot développe le concept d’appareil psychique familial, fondant avec A. Eiguer, J.P. Caillot et G. Decherf une théorie et une pratique psychanalytiques de la thérapie du groupe familial. La psyché n’est pas individuelle, et advient comme résultante des identifications au penser et au fantasmer du groupe familial. A partir des théories portant sur le fonctionnement et les enjeux psychiques des groupes, ce travail se propose de confronter les protocoles du test Rorschach soumis de façon individuelle à chacun des trois membres père – mère – enfant d’une même famille. Le protocole d’un garçon, âgé de 10 ans 3 mois et présentant des difficultés d’adaptation relationnelle importantes, est analysé puis comparé à celui de ses parents pour en dégager les particularités et les similitudes projectives et interroger la dynamique psychique de la triangulation familiale au regard de ces difficultés. A travers l’analyse des protocoles de Rorschach, nous avons ainsi analysé la relation entre l’organization fantasmatique de ce garçon et celle de ses parents afin d’évaluer le sens et la place du symptôme dans l’univers familial. L’analyse du protocole Rorschach de l’enfant est caractérisée par la difficulté d’adaptation à la réalité objective des planches mettant en cause l’intégrité du Moi, l’inefficacité des défenses et la désadaptation au monde réel, avec une incapacité à s’identifier à une image humaine, sans mouvement identificatoire ni relation objectale possible. Or, ce mode de fonctionnement psychique vient s’inscrire au sein d’une organization fantasmatique familiale insuffisamment névrotique de ses parents. En effet, le protocole Rorschach de la mère s’avère marqué par la défaillance du contrôle formel et la la difficulté d’investissement de l’adaptation, compte tenu de la fragilité identitaire du sujet liée à la prégnance d’un noyau prégénital déstabilisant et d’un Moi insuffisamment structuré. L’appréhension d’un objet total bien différencié ne va pas de soi pour le sujet qui renvoie en écho, de façon répétitive, des préoccupations centrés autour de l’intérieur du corps. Le protocole Rorschach du père est un protocole très restrictif, caractérisé par la répression de toute élaboration, sans pôle conflictuel ni référence à la différence, où les ingérences fantasmatiques sont étouffées par l’abrasion massive des représentations comme des affects. La relation à l’autre est réprimée dans ce vide associatif, sans possibilité notamment d’assumer la position virile. Ainsi se dégage à partir du matériel clinique recueilli, une correspondance et une interaction entre l’élaboration projective de l’enfant et celle de ses deux parents. Il existe un mode de fonctionnement psychique spécifique dans une dynamique familiale dominée par: la faiblesse du Moi de la mère, faiblesse relayée et amplifiée par l’enfant, qui s’avère insuffisamment filtrée et contenue par un fonctionnement psychique paternel caractérisé par le blocage et l’exclusion de toute élaboration. Le problème que nous avons voulu poser dans ce travail peut ainsi mettre en évidence une compréhension inter projective, inter générationnelle et intra familiale qui rend compte de traces, de dépôts de l’élaboration parentale dans l’élaboration fantasmatique individuelle, à travers un processus de filiation psychique se déroulant au-delà de la transmission biologique des corps et de la consanguinité.

Cette conférence traite les projets du temps calendaire chez Velimir Chlebnikov, Daniil Charms et Vladimir Sorokin. Au début, le temps calendaire lui-même est mis au point comme tentative en fin de compte trompeuse d’une orientation précisément temporaire de l’homme dans le monde. Au moyen de la coexistence du calendrier grégorien et julien ainsi que de son estimation par Zelinskij («Les principes de construction du calendrier ancien-russe») à l’époque tardive de l’Union Soviétique, la validité relative des calendriers valables est mise en discussion. 1. Pour le temps calendaire Г identité parfaite de la civilisation et de la nature constitue la base du temps calendaire chez Xlebnikov. Le poème de Xlebnikov «(Petit) temps, (petit) caillou» peut servir d’exemple, toutefois ce modèle de base vaut pour les textes à partir de «Bobeobi se chantaient les lèvres» à «Zangézi». La structure de temps de l’artefact y devient la manifestation du «Temps Saint» du monde et le temps devient la mesure du monde. En même temps une arithmétique du temps est élevée au rang d’une algèbre. Puisque le temps des sentiments humains et le rythme des pulsations cardiaques correspondent au rythme des vers, le poète peut aussi prédire ou même provoquer l’avenir. L’étape /le pas de Zangezi dans la tour du temps est le rythme réel de l’univers. L’essai de Xlebnikov «Octobre sur la Néva» se présente dans cette perspective comme le type d’un projet poétique de l’avenir et en même temps de l’époque actuelle, lequel se présente pourtant comme temps vide, comme néant pur en anticipant ainsi la conception du temps de l’Oberiu. 2. Par contre, le temps du calendrier chez Charms est marqué par la confrontation abrupte de la civilisation avec la nature. Là, où la biographie de Xlebnikov est conforme à l’histoire mondiale, la durée de la vie de Charms sort non seulement du calendrier russe, mais aussi du temps mondial. Le rapport de naissance de Charms l’exemplifie tout en demandant la nécessité ď une naissance triple. Au moyen du texte modèle «Période dans l’incubateur» de 1935, la réalisation étymologique du mot calendrier se laisse repasser (calendae - premier jour du mois). Par le doublement des calendriers (religieux versus profanes), la naissance tombe en quelque sorte dans un trou de temps : L’enfant ne peut (sur)-vivre que dans l’incubateur (troisième naissance). La naissance de l’auteur se produit ainsi dans un temps de carnaval, dans lequel l’incongruité du temps cosmique et historique devient perceptible. Le temps calendaire se trouve hors du temps cosmique qui n’est indiqué par aucune horloge. 3. Le conte de Vladimir Sorokin «Le cheval noir avec l’œil blanc» montre un autre modèle de la relation du temps du calendrier et du temps mondial. Ici déjà le calendrier agricole (temps de récolte dans le kolkhoze) et le temps historique (deuxième Guerre Mondiale) se déroulent côte à côte mais sans être liés. L’effondrement du temps naturel sauvage du cycle biologique (cheval sauvage) dans l’ordre du temps apprivoisé du kolkhoze indique une autre coexistence d’ordres chronologiques. Son temps de conte féerique correspondant est exclu du temps de la raison narrative se mesurant à l’ordre chronologique des jours dans le calendrier. Le «tou-jours » de l’éphéméride familier ne touche pas l’unicité de l’entrée de guerre dans le temps raconté. Mais même au niveau historique nous devons mettre en valeur contre Sorokin la coexistence de la perspective du temps soviétique et historique mondial. Le conte se livre à des spéculations sur le préjugé russe que la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale a commencé le 22 juin 1941 avec l’assaut de l’Allemagne nazie sur l’Union soviétique, tandis que conformément à la perception en dehors de la Russie elle a commencé le 1er septembre 1939 avec l’assaut commun de la Wehrmacht et de l’Armée Rouge contre la Pologne. Ainsi, nous retrouvons la coexistence du temps non seulement dans l’intention du texte, mais aussi dans la spéculation du narrateur sur la conscience du lecteur qui préfère, en accord avec le vingtième siècle tardif et avec le début du vingt et unième siècle, la perspective du temps des victimes à celui des coupables.

Abstract Introduction The National Health Service (NHS) is confronted with significant challenges in facilitating clinical research delivery.1 Clinical pharmacists were instrumental in ensuring patient safety while conducting urgent public health studies, such as the RECOVERY trial, during the COVID-19 pandemic.2 Numerous studies have reported the positive impact of pharmacy workforce in supporting clinical research delivery3. However, it remains unclear whether pharmacists are willing to take on this extra responsibility. Aim To explore the opinions of UK clinical pharmacists towards facilitating the delivery of clinical research in secondary care. Objectives include understanding the level of knowledge of clinical research among clinical pharmacists; assessing levels of interest among clinical pharmacists towards supporting clinical research delivery; identifying clinical pharmacists’ perceived barriers and facilitators to supporting clinical research delivery; and developing recommendations to facilitate pharmacists’ engagement in research delivery. Methods This study employed a qualitative research approach and utilised convenience sampling based on the researcher’s professional network. Eight pharmacists from two secondary care NHS Trusts participated. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted using questions adapted from the Research Capacity and Culture (RCC) tool which was validated by two clinical trial pharmacists. Keele University Research Ethics Committee provided a favourable ethical opinion. Interview transcripts were analysed to identify emerging themes by using framework analysis. Results The findings revealed that participants possessed limited knowledge of clinical research in general. The key themes identified were categorised into three domains: individual, professional, and organisational, which corresponded with the RCC tool. In the individual domain, pharmacists demonstrated interest in clinical research delivery but lacked confidence. They acknowledged clinical research as contributing to evidence-based practice and enhancing professional development. However, they expressed concerns about patient harm resulting from trial interventions and poorly designed studies generating misleading data. Within the professional domain, pharmacists' capability to support clinical research delivery was limited by inadequate training in clinical research, their clinical skills, and their disease knowledge. They perceived internal and external barriers to participation. It has been suggested to improve the research culture within the profession and promote the role pharmacists can play in delivering research among other healthcare professionals. In the organisational domain, the workplace environment was perceived to present obstacles due to competing priorities and clinical research not being seen to be a core duty by managers. Additionally, awareness of clinical research opportunities was limited and exposure to clinical research-related activities within the workplace was minimal. Discussion/Conclusion Recommendations to address these barriers include promoting clinical research training, developing mentorship programs, creating platforms to connect clinical pharmacists with research opportunities, and identifying roles that allow pharmacists to incorporate clinical research into their routine practice. This research project has several limitations, including the use of a convenience sampling method, a small sample size and potential interviewer bias due to research participants all being known to the researcher. In summary, the pharmacy workforce possesses the potential to support the challenges in clinical research delivery faced by the NHS. However, addressing the perceived barriers is critical to enhancing pharmacist involvement in this field. References 1. The Future of Clinical Research Delivery: 2022 to 2025 Implementation Plan [Internet]. UK Government; 2022 [cited 26 May 2023]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-future-of-uk-clinical-research-delivery-2022-to-2025-implementation-plan/the-future-of-clinical-research-delivery-2022-to-2025-implementation-plan 2. Kathryn Murray, pharmacist [Internet]. University of Oxford; 2022 [cited 26 May 2023]. Available from: https://www.recoverytrial.net/case_studies/kathryn-murray-pharmacist 3. Martinez J, Laswell E, Cailor S, Ballentine J. Frequency and impact of pharmacist interventions in clinical trial patients with diabetes. Clinical Therapeutics. 2017;39(4):714–22. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2017.02.006

Au moment où nous rédigeons ces pages, à deux décades près de l'an deux mille, Freud a déjà réhabilité le rêve, Breton l'instinct, Durand l'imaginaire, Mabille le merveilleux, Todorov le fantastique ; Otto, Bataille, Caillois, les historiens Éliade et Dumézil ont réévalué depuis longtemps le sacré et le religieux. Jean-Charles Falardeau écoute ces « maîtres » avec un talent critique dont nous voudrions rendre compte ici pour mieux nous interroger avec lui sur d'autres perspectives possibles de l'étude du phénomène religieux dans le milieu canadien-français. Rappeler ce qui, à notre point de vue, constitue l'essentiel du message de notre distingué compatriote dans ces matières pourtant ardues, vérifier dans la mesure du possible les avenues que nous ouvrent déjà plusieurs de ses intuitions sur l'imaginaire et le merveilleux, voilà une entreprise pour le moins audacieuse. Au premier abord, il est difficile d'imaginer que cet homme raffiné et distingué au possible, sociologue en plus et conduit comme tel à scruter des systèmes de valeurs fermes et à inspecter le champ bien concret des structures sociales de la paroisse, du village, de la famille, puisse un jour rêver de merveilleux et d'espaces spirituels inédits. Prêtons-nous à ce frère amical, vénéré et admiré depuis plus de quarante ans, des considérations que seule une amitié excessive pourrait justifier? Quand on s'est longtemps occupé de l'univers religieux de ses ancêtres médiévaux et de sa translatio studii en Amérique française, n'est-ce pas témérité et gratuité pure que toutes ces préoccupations retrouvées dans une problématique moderne? Pourtant, ce n'est pas l'amour obsessif du Moyen Âge qui nous rapproche de Falardeau : ce sont plutôt les effets de l'héritage religieux en milieu nord-américain. Les mêmes quêtes spirituelles et les mêmes hésitations face aux changements culturels de notre temps nous conduisent à relire J.-C. Falardeau. L'académisme universitaire, l'aventure du surréalisme, l'affaire Borduas vingt ans plus tard, l'intervention courageuse de notre ami Robert Élie, des amitiés parallèles, tout ceci, nous l'avons partagé chacun à notre façon et sans même en discuter entre nous. Nous nous étions à divers degrés consacrés au service des étudiants. Il nous est aussi arrivé d'occuper successivement la même chaire de civilisation franco-québécoise à l'Université française de Caen. Dans de telles circonstances, il est presque normal que nos imaginations se soient souvent croisées. Où et quand? Mais quelque part, ne fût-ce que dans cet univers intérieur judéo-chrétien qui a enveloppé nos enfances respectives. Autant de prétextes qui nous amènent aujourd'hui à rejoindre Falardeau sur le terrain qu'il habite et défriche avec un acharnement digne de son sens du bien savoir et du bien faire. Surtout, l'occasion nous est enfin offerte de penser « sacré », « mystère », «imaginaire», «merveilleux» en compagnie d'un pionnier de la sociologie religieuse en Amérique française. Stimulus d'autant plus efficace que nous avons eu, au moins à trois reprises, l'occasion d'entendre les propos de notre collègue, avant qu'il ne les livrât à l'impression. La première fois, en avril 1962, ce fut à l'occasion du colloque de Recherches sociographiques ; la seconde fois, le 17 octobre 1971, à l'Institut supérieur des sciences humaines de l'Université Laval, lors du deuxième colloque sur les religions populaires. En 1973, le même J.-C. Falardeau proposait aux membres de l'Académie québécoise des sciences morales et politiques, à Montréal, une communication intitulée Problématique d'une sociologie du roman et publiée en 1974 dans Imaginaire social et littérature sous le titre déjà plus signifiant : « Le roman et l'imaginaire». Nous le revoyons encore assis à la table de conférence, sérieux et digne, ferme dans ses mots, bien aligné sur son texte ; nous l'entendons dire dans une langue froidement impeccable des paroles qui nous rassurent et nous interrogent tous. Sans qu'il le sache toujours, J.-C. Falardeau aura, par ses travaux autant que par la direction de ses recherches en matières religieuses, profondément influencé le Canada français depuis plus de vingt ans. Ses nombreuses études de sociologie et sa participation à l'évaluation périodique des croyances, rituels et agirs du plus grand nombre, ce que nous appelons provisoirement la religion populaire, restent de première importance. En somme, c'est presque un acte de piété, entendu au sens médiéval, que nous accomplissons en rendant hommage à celui dont nous avons si souvent relu les textes et pillé les bibliographies. Notre propos exact est de considérer tour à tour l'imaginaire, le merveilleux et le sacré pour mieux entrevoir, si possible, et toujours en compagnie de Falardeau, l'accès aux mystères qui définissent le sacré judéo-chrétien dans lequel la majorité de nos compatriotes canadiens-français ont vécu jusqu'à la limite de la pensée magique.

Бинарные и сложные халькогениды с тетрадимитоподобной слоистой структурой представляют большой практический интерес как топологические изоляторы, термоэлектрические и оптоэлектронные материалы. Их фундаментальные термодинамические функции в совокупности с фазовыми диаграммами важны для разработки и оптимизации методов синтеза и выращивания кристаллов. В работе представлены результаты термодинамического исследования исходных соединений и твердых растворов системы Bi2Se3-Bi2Te3 методом электродвижущих сил (ЭДС). Различные модификации этого метода широко применяются для исследования бинарных и сложных халькогенидов металлов. Исследования проводили измерением ЭДС концентрационных цепей типа:(–) Bi (тв.) | ионная жидкость + Bi3+ | Bi в сплаве (тв.) (+) в интервале температур 300-450 K.В качестве правых электродов были использованы предварительно синтезированные равновесные сплавы Bi2Se3–хTex (х = 0; 0.6; 1.2; 1.8; 2.0; 2.4; 3.0) с 0.5 ат. % избытком теллура. В качестве электролита использовали ионную жидкость (формиат морфолина) с добавлением BiCl3.Полученные экспериментальные данные обработаны с помощью компьютерной программы «Microsoft Office Excel 2003» методом наименьших квадратов и получены линейные уравнения типа E = a + bT. Из полученных уравнений температурных зависимостей ЭДС рассчитаны относительные парциальные молярные функции висмута в сплавах. На основании диаграммы твердофазных равновесий системы Bi–Se–Te были определены уравнения потенциалобразующих реакций, с использованием которых вычислены стандартные термодинамические функцииобразования и стандартные энтропии соединений Bi2Se3, Bi2Te3 и твердых растворов Bi2Se3–xTex вышеуказанных составов. Также вычислены термодинамические функции образования твердых растворов Bi2Se3–xTex из исходных бинарных соединений. 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Abstract The Saint-Gilles breccias, on the western flank of Piton des Neiges volcano, are clearly identified as debris avalanche deposits. A petrographic, textural and structural analysis of the breccias and inter-bedded autochthonous lava flows enables us to distinguish at least four successive flank slides. The oldest deposit sampled the hydrothermally-altered inner parts of the volcano, and has a large volume. Failure was favored by the presence of a deep intensely-weathered layer. The younger deposits are from superficial sources, as their products are rarely hydrothermalized and are more vesicular. The breccia formation, and especially the progressive breaking up occurring during the debris avalanche displacement, indicates the existence of high speed transport. In the Cap La Houssaye coastal area, abrasion and striation of the underlying lava formation, as well as the packing features observed in the breccia, are considered to be deceleration structures. Introduction Huge landslides of volcano flanks, whether or not initiated by magmatic intrusions, have been recognized as catastrophic events since the 1980 Mount St Helens eruption. On oceanic shield volcanoes, the contribution of failure to the edifice-building process was proposed by Moore [1964] and suggested elsewhere for Hawaii [Lipman et al., 1985 ; Moore et al., 1989], Reunion island [Lénat et al., 1989], Etna [McGuire et al., 1991], and Canarias [Carracedo, 1994, 1996 ; Marty et al., 1996]. This contribution is particularly obvious in island volcanoes showing a U-shaped caldera open to the ocean. Several mechanisms inherent to the causes of failure have been proposed, such as dyke intrusion [McGuire et al., 1990 ; Iverson, 1995 ; Voight and Elsworth, 1997], caldera collapse [Marty et al., 1997], or volcanic spreading [Borgia et al., 1992 ; van Wyk de Vries and Francis, 1997]. Invariably, other factors have been proposed as favorable to volcanic destabilization, such as the probable occurrence of deep low-cohesion layers due to the existence of pyroclastic or hyaloclastic layers [Duffield et al., 1982 ; Siebert, 1984] or an old basement. Gravity spreading models are now frequently proposed to explain the destruction of volcanic edifices [Borgia et al., 1992 ; Merle and Borgia, 1996 ; van Wyk de Vries and Borgia, 1996 ; van Wyk de Vries and Francis, 1997], most of them taking into account basal or intra-volcanic weakness zones. We propose that in such a scenario, density heterogeneity should be an important factor governing the slow evolution of the volcanic pile. Clague and Denlinger [1994] proposed a olivine-rich ductile basal layer that influences the stability of volcano flanks. On Reunion island, a large volcanic landslide has been proposed to explain the peculiar morphology of Piton de la Fournaise-Grand Brûlé [Vincent and Kieffer, 1978]. Bathymetric surveys [Bachèlery and Montagionni, 1983 ; Lénat et al., 1989, 1990 ; Cochonnat et al., 1990 ; Lénat and Labazuy, 1990 ; Labazuy, 1991 ; Bachèlery, 1995 ; Ollier et al., 1998] have confirmed the offshore occurrence of debris avalanche deposits. Similar deposits are also known to exist along the western, northern and southwestern submarine flanks of the Piton des Neiges volcano. Unlike other deposits showing inland prolongation, “Saint-Gilles breccias” displays a well-preserved and non-weathered texture and structure. Because of striking analogies between the “Saint-Gilles breccias” and, for example, the Cantal stratovolcano debris avalanche deposits [Cantagrel, 1995], we conclude that these formations are the products of repeated avalanches during the Piton des Neiges basaltic period [Bachèlery et al., 1996]. We propose an interpretation of their origin, emplacement mechanism and their role in the evolutionary process of the western flank of Piton des Neiges. Volcano-structural setting Mechanical instability of oceanic volcanic edifices generates huge flank landslides, with lateral and mainly submarine transport of sub-aerial materials. These landslides participate in the building of the lower submarine slopes of the volcano. Geophysical surveys have detected low cohesion materials in most offshore Reunion island areas [Malengrau et al., 1999 ; de Voogd et al., 1999 ; Lénat et al., 2001] showing that these materials have largely contributed to the construction of offshore Reunion Island. Such deposits are also found in the inner part (“Cirques”) of Piton des Neiges [Maillot, 1999]. On the other hand, electric and electromagnetic soundings have revealed a deep extending conductor within the Piton de la Fournaise volcanic pile [Courteaud et al., 1997 ; Lenat et al., 2000]. Interpretations about the nature and origin of this conductor depend on its location. In the central caldera zone, as revealed by SP positive anomalies [Malengrau et al., 1994 ; Zlotnicki et al., 1994], the hydrothermal and magmatic complex is probably responsible for the observed low resistivities. Along the flanks, such a hypothesis may not be realistic. Courteaud [1996] suggests the occurrence of a deep argilized layer of volcano-detritic origin. In any case, the hydrothermal complex with high fluid pressures and secondary minerals appears as a potential weak zone that may contribute to the volcano’s instability [Lopez and Williams, 1993 ; Frank, 1995]. Chronology and stratigraphy Extent of the debris avalanche deposits The various breccias found at the western end of Reunion island, on the Piton des Neiges volcano flank, cover a 16 km2 area between Cap Marianne and Saint-Gilles (fig. 1). They are overlain upwards (&gt; 250 to 300 m) by trachyandesitic (mugearite) lava flows of Piton des Neiges differentiated series [Billard, 1974]. Some restricted breccia outcrops in deep valleys from Bernica to the north up to l’Hermitage to the south indicate the existence of larger extension of the debris avalanche deposits. Furthermore, breccias with similar “Saint-Gilles” facies appear down the Maïdo cliff to Mafate “Cirque” at an altitude 1300 m, beneath 600 m of mugearite and some olivine basalt flows. Unpublished electromagnetic data (CSAMT soundings) confirm the inland continuity of the “Saint-Gilles breccias” up to the Maïdo along the Piton des Neiges western flank, hidden by mugearitic flows. Available bathymetric surveys offshore Saint Paul – Saint Gilles areas show the obvious underwater prolongation of “Saint-Gilles breccias” : a shallow depth (&lt; 100 m) plateau followed by a slope with hummocky surface down to 2 500 m depth [Bachèlery et al., 1996 and fig. 2]. From this data, the total surface of “Saint-Gilles” debris avalanche deposits is estimated as more than 500 km2. Chronology A coastal cliff, from Ravine Bernica to Boucan Canot, provides the best outcrop of the northern part of “Saint-Gilles breccias”, with a clear inter-bedding of breccia units and lava formations (photo 1and fig. 3). – The lower breccia unit (Br I), of unknown thickness, has a remarkable friable aspect and a grayish color. – The first autochthonous lava formation (L1) consists in thin pahoehoe olivine basalt flows filling large valleys dug into “Br I”. The top of this formation is striated by the overlying “Br II” unit (photo 2). – Breccia unit “Br II” is interbedded between L1 and L2 olivine basalts. More compact and massive, “Br II” is characterized by a reddish matrix and dark blocks, with many curved fracture surfaces. – On “Br II” or directly on L1, picritic basalt flows L2 are found, filling narrow valleys. – Breccia unit “Br III” lies on “Br II” with a striking sheared contact plane visible along the main road (photo 3). It is a typical debris avalanche deposit with large imbricate blocks within a fine-grained beige matrix. – Once again, basaltic flows of lava formation L3 fill a valley dug into “Br III” near Petite Anse river. – Breccia unit “Br IV” rests on L3 at Petite Anse, but its contact with “Br III” elsewhere is not clear. The facies of this unit is very similar to the “Br III”. All the breccia units are covered by basaltic and trachyandesitic flows from the end of the Piton des Neiges basaltic series, and differentiated series. In the Saint-Gilles river, two formations are superposed : picritic basalts (L4) have flowed on the “Br IV” breccia unit, latter aphyric trachy-andesitic (mugearite) flows (L6) overlapped L4 and the breccia landforms, reaching in places the coastal area. To the north, at Plateau Caillou, plagioclase-phyric basalt flows (L5) are found between mugearite and breccias. Elsewhere on Piton des Neiges, such flows are symptomatic of the transition from the basaltic series to the differentiated series [Billard, 1974]. The occurrence of autochthonous basaltic formations L1 to L3, inter-bedded with “Saint-Gilles breccias”, enables us to distinguish at least four superposed breccia units. Although the emplacement age of the lower “Br I” is not known precisely, it is overlain and therefore older than Cap Marianne pahoehoe lavas (L1) dated at 0.452 Ma [Mc Dougall, 1971]. On the other hand, the upper breccia units are younger than the pahoehoe olivine basalt at Cap la Houssaye dated at 0,435 Ma but older than L5 plagioclasic basalts dated at 0.35 Ma. Geological description of the “breccia sequence” In the synthetic lithologic log (fig. 4) of the Saint-Gilles area, autochthonous lava formations are clearly broken into four separate breccia units. Lava formations. – L1 formation consists of numerous thin pahoehoe olivine-rich to aphyric basaltic flows. Both L2 and L3 formations are characterized by a few thicker (decametric) olivine (frequently picritic) basalt flows. Breccia units. – All breccia units display common characteristics such as the universal association of two facies (photo 4) : (i) a matrix – sandy to silty – facies containing a non-sorted mixture of non-stratified heterogeneous materials ranging from granular size to blocky elements, (ii) coherent large blocks and large pieces (‘block’ facies) of various lithology such as lava flow, scorias, pyroclastics or other breccias ; blocks displaying frequent “jigsaw” features. The lower breccia unit “Br 1” (fig. 4) has a more compact but very heterogeneous aspect, with a chaotic distribution of blocks in a less-developed matrix. This unit is characterized by a deep hydrothermal alteration with a lot of zeolites, chlorite, clays, calcite and oxides. The upper breccia units, “Br II” to “Br IV” (fig. 4) are less heterogeneous than “Br I” because their matrix facies are more voluminous and because the matrix clearly separates the bigger blocks. In both facies, a great diversity of fresh lithologic types such as picritic basalt, olivine-phyric basalt, plagioclase-phyric basalt and aphyric more or less vesicular basalts, gabbro, dunite are found, with no or only few slightly zeolitised blocks. Plurimetric to metric blocks are severely fractured, disintegrated into millimetric to decimetric angular pieces. The frequent polygenic aspect is due to block juxtaposition or imbrication. The abundant matrix is composed of crushed rocks and mineral elements, fine-grained (&lt; mm), showing frequent fluidity and bedding marks (photo 5). The very heterogeneous composition of the matrix is confirmed at a microscopic scale. On the contrary, cores of blocks appear as jigsaw-puzzle-like monolithologic pieces of various basaltic rocks. At their edges, disintegration leads to progressive mixing with neighboring blocks that feed the matrix. Discussion Originality of “Saint-Gilles breccias” “Saint-Gilles breccias” constitute one of the few cases [see also Cantagrel et al., 1999] of debris avalanche deposit outcroppings on the sub-aerial part of an oceanic shield volcano. The main part of the deposit is suspected to be offshore. Their hummocky surface in delineating parallel ridges can be compared to the one described offshore the Grand Brûlé area, east of Piton de la Fournaise [Bachèlery et al., 1996]. “Saint-Gilles breccias” were deposited after several Piton des Neiges flank slide events that were separated by basaltic flows. Repeated debris avalanches have also been proposed to explain Piton de la Fournaise offshore deposits [Lenat et al., 1990 ; Labazuy, 1991]. The occurrence of autochthonous interbedded lava formations is essential to interpret the thick piling up of slide material along Reunion volcano flanks as deposits of repeated avalanches at the same place, instead of as being the products of a single huge event. Many structural and textural features noticed in the upper breccia units reveal crucial information on the emplacement mechanism of debris avalanches. For instance, brecciated blocks are typical of progressive break-up during transport processes. Blocks can simply be fractured, or they can be so severely disintegrated that stretching and mixing with other blocks and matrix formation are observed. The observation of such phenomena implies the existence of numerous percussive events between rocks, as well as internal vibrations in the debris avalanche and therefore the existence of high-speed transport. Lava formations L1 underlying upper breccia units are truncated and strongly striated in a seaward direction (photo 2), parallel to the breccia morphological ridges. In the same way, internal contact surfaces between upper breccia units are shear planes underlain by cataclastic layers and lenses (photo 3). Such structures are interpreted as due to drastic deceleration effects of avalanches reaching a topographic leveling out in the coastal area. This concords with the occurrence of sub-vertical contact areas between the blocks and the matrix. These injections of matrix between the blocks are generated bottom-up from the shear plane at the moment of the sudden deceleration of the avalanche. Other fracture planes that are in accordance with the morphology of ridges, are found in “Br III” unit (see fig. 5). They are interpreted as the result of packing effects. Origin of flank failures Although the source area of breccia formations has not yet been clearly identified, it has to be in the central part of Piton des Neiges as seen in the western cliff of “cirque de Mafate”. Furthermore, “Br I” deeply weathered materials evidently come from the hydrothermalized core of the volcano. Though the “Br I” thickness is not known, the volume involved may be considerable and a part of this volume must constitute the main body of Saint-Gilles offshore deposits. The upper breccias units “Br II” to “Br IV” display very similar textures and lithologies, with dominant non-altered basaltic rocks from the “Phase II” building stage of Piton des Neiges [Billard, 1974]. These units are very thin in the coastal area of Cap La Houssaye (see fig. 2) despite a proximal facies (meaning a deposit in the transport zone nearer than the main deposit zone). They obviously originate from shallow flank slides of restricted extent. We suggest that the upper Saint-Gilles deposits are due to repeated events that produced thin high-speed debris avalanches. Emplacement modalities The morphology of “Saint-Gilles breccias”, or submarine deposits offshore Grand Brûlé (east of Piton de la Fournaise volcano), are typical of sliding movements along shallow depth shear planes (several hundred meters up to two kilometers) within the volcanic pile. But several levels of decollement are suggested by seismic refraction and reflection profiles offshore La Reunion, the deepest corresponding to the top of the preexisting oceanic sediments [de Voogt et al., 1999]. Until now, in Reunion Island, only shallow failures affecting the upper parts of volcanic edifices, with deposits on the lower slopes, have been positively identified. Conditions that trigger giant flank landslides affecting oceanic shields remain poorly understood but we can reasonably speculate that weak hydrothermally-altered layers in the inner part of the volcano favor these gravity-driven processes related to repeated dike injections. The “Saint-Gilles breccia” sequence is considered as a multiphase lateral collapse structure whose first event (“Br I”) was apparently the most voluminous. The corresponding deposit displays frequent hydrothermally-altered material symptomatic of originating from the Piton des Neiges core. Within Piton des Neiges, the low cohesive weathered layer is quite extensive [Nativel, 1978 ; Rançon, 1982] possibly reaching down the volcano flanks [Courteaud et al., 1997]. The interpretative scheme that we propose (fig. 6) in our evaluation of the conditions for the emplacement of Saint-Gilles sequence, takes into account the existence of such a mechanical discontinuity within the volcanic pile. We propose that the massive landslide failure of the west flank of Piton des Neiges volcano that produced the “Br I” breccia, provided efficient channels for younger Piton des Neiges lavas to reach the western and southwestern coastline. Morphological features, as well as radiometric data [Mc Dougall, 1971 ; Gillot and Nativel, 1982] and magnetic surveys [Lénat et al., 2001], yield evidence for preferential accumulation of lava during the last 0.5 m.y. (corresponding mainly to the differentiated series) in this part of the volcano. The relative asymmetry of Piton des Neiges was acquired by rift migration in response to the first huge landslide that produced the “Br I” unit of “Saint-Gilles breccia”, in the manner described by Lipman et al. [1990] for Mauna Loa volcano in Hawaii. The later repetition of flank collapses is consistent with similar structures on other oceanic islands. Since the first lateral collapse, the Piton des Neiges edifice was probably characterized by the existence of an asymmetrical steeper western flank where the old zeolite-rich “Br I” deposits possibly act as a detachment surface for later successive landslides which may have occurred recurrently over a short time interval.

A la question «Qui de l’oeuf ou de la poule est né le premier ?» Silésius répondait «l’oeuf est dans la poule et la poule dans l’oeuf» soulignant sa dualité, le passage du deux en un. Dans l’imagerie populaire, l’oeuf reflète le tout et son contraire, fragilité, protection, épargne, abondance (être «plein comme un oeuf»), richesse («avoir pondu ses oeufs»), éternité (le Phénix est né de l’oeuf) mais aussi mort et destruction («casser ses oeufs» se dit d’une fausse couche). Dans la mythologie de nombreuses civilisations, l’oeuf est le symbole de la naissance du monde (Apollon, le dieu grec de la lumière est né de l’oeuf). L’oeuf décoré apparu 3000 ans avant J.-C. en Ukraine fête, au printemps, le retour de la fécondité de la nature ; l’oeuf de Pâques la résurrection du Christ. L’oeuf est un tout à condition d’en sortir ! Fragile cependant car selon La Fontaine briser l’oeuf de la poule aux oeufs d’or (par curiosité) rompt l’effet magique (Auer et Streff 1999). Pour l’Homme, l’oeuf séduit pour sa valeur nutritionnelle, sa diversité d’utilisation en cuisine et son prix modique. Il en existe une grande diversité, de l’oeuf de Colibri (0,5 g) à l’oeuf de l’Aepyornis (8 litres soit l’équivalent de 150 oeufs), un oiseau de Madagascar (500 kg) disparu au 18ème siècle. Mais l’Homme ne consomme que l’oeuf de caille, de poule ou de cane. L’ère moderne a considérablement intensifié la production de ces deux dernières espèces car les poules saisonnées, qui étaient élevées avec soin par la fermière, ont plus que doublé leur production en 60 ans (de 120 oeufs par an dans les années 50 à plus de 300 aujourd’hui). Cette révolution technique résulte des efforts conjugués de la sélection génétique, d’une alimentation raisonnée répondant aux besoins nutritionnels, d’une évolution du système de production (apparition des cages) et d’une meilleure connaissance de la pathologie aviaire. Qu’en est-il du contrôle de la qualité nutritionnelle, organoleptique, technologique et hygiénique de l’oeuf ? L’oeuf est la plus large cellule reproductrice en biologie animale. Il assure dans un milieu externe le développement et la protection d’un embryon dans une enceinte fermée matérialisée par la coquille. Aussi, une de ses particularités est la diversité de ses constituants, de leur parfait équilibre nutritionnel et leur forte digestibilité, qui assure la croissance d’un être vivant. Ces caractéristiques sont à l’origine de la qualité nutritionnelle exceptionnelle de l’oeuf pour l’Homme. Une autre particularité est la présence d’une protection physique, la coquille mais, aussi d’un système complexe de défenses chimiques. Aussi, ce produit est-il remarquable de par son aptitude à engendrer la vie et pour l’oeuf de table à se conserver. Outre les éléments nutritifs, on y trouve de multiples molécules participant au développement et à la protection de l’embryon (molécules antibactériennes, antivirales, antioxydantes). Certaines d’entre elles, comme par exemple le lysozyme de blanc d’oeuf, sont partiellement valorisées par différents secteurs industriels (agroalimentaire, cosmétique, santé animale/humaine). La révélation récente d’un grand nombre de nouveaux constituants de l’oeuf, suite au séquençage génomique de la poule et au développement de la biologie intégrative, a conforté l’existence d‘activités antimicrobiennes, anti-adhésives, immuno-modulatrices, hypertensives, anticancéreuses, antiinflammatoires ou cryoprotectrices, prometteuses en médecine humaine et devrait à terme enrichir le potentiel d’utilisation de ce produit en agroalimentaire et en santé. L’objet de ce numéro spécial d’INRA Productions Animales est de rassembler les principales informations qui ont contribué au développement économique récent de ce produit, de rappeler les efforts en génétique, élevage et nutrition qui ont assuré des progrès quantitatifs et qualitatifs remarquables de la production et de la qualité des oeufs au cours des trente dernières années. Les poules élevées à l’origine par la femme pour un usage domestique se comptent aujourd’hui par milliers dans les élevages. Quelle sera la durabilité de ce système d’élevage dans un contexte socio-économique européen remettant en cause en 2012 le système éprouvé de production conventionnel d’oeufs en cage pour des cages aménagées ou des systèmes alternatifs avec ou sans parcours ? Notre objectif est d’analyser les facteurs qui contribueront à son maintien, notamment le contrôle de la qualité de l’oeuf. Il est aussi de décrire l’évolution spectaculaire des connaissances sur ce produit liée au développement des techniques à haut débit et des outils d’analyse des séquences moléculaires. Il permettra enfin d’actualiser les atouts de ce produit. Ce numéro est complémentaire d’un ouvrage plus exhaustif sur la production et la qualité de l’oeuf (Nau et al 2010). Le premier article de P. Magdelaine souligne la croissance considérable en 20 ans de la production d’oeufs dans les pays d’Asie et d’Amérique du Sud (× 4 pour la Chine, × 2 en Inde et au Mexique). En revanche, les pays très développés notamment européens à forte consommation (> 150 oeufs/hab) ont stabilisé leur production malgré une évolution importante de la part des ovoproduits mais aussi de leurs systèmes de production. La consommation des protéines animales entre pays est tout aussi hétérogène puisque le ratio protéines de l’oeuf / protéines du lait varie de 0,4 au USA, à 0,9 en France et 2,7 en Chine ! Le doublement de la production mondiale d’oeufs en 20 ans n’a été possible que grâce à des progrès techniques considérables. La sélection génétique a renforcé les gains de productivité (+ 40 oeufs pour une année de production et réduction de l’indice de consommation de 15% en 20 ans !). L’article de C. Beaumont et al décrit cette évolution, la prise en compte croissante de nouveaux critères de qualité technologique, nutritionnelle ou sanitaire. Ces auteurs soulignent les apports des nouvelles technologies, marqueurs moléculaires et cartes génétiques sur les méthodes de sélection. Ils dressent un bilan actualisé des apports et du potentiel de cette évolution récente en sélection. Le séquençage génomique et le développement de la génomique fonctionnelle est aussi à l’origine d’une vraie révolution des connaissances sur les constituants de l’oeuf comme le démontre l’article de J. Gautron et al. Le nombre de protéines identifiées dans l’oeuf a été multiplié par plus de dix fois et devrait dans un avenir proche permettre la caractérisation fonctionnelle de nombreuses molécules. Il donne aussi de nouveaux moyens pour prospecter les mécanismes d’élaboration de ce produit. Un exemple de l’apport de ces nouvelles technologies est illustré par l’article de Y. Nys et al sur les propriétés et la formation de la coquille. Des progrès considérables sur la compréhension de l’élaboration de cette structure minérale sophistiquée ont été réalisés suite à l’identification des constituants organiques de la coquille puis de l’analyse de leur fonction potentielle élucidée grâce à la disponibilité des séquences des gènes et protéines associés. La mise en place de collaborations internationales associant de nombreuses disciplines, (microscopie électronique, biochimie, cristallographie, mécanique des matériaux) a démontré le rôle de ces protéines dans le processus de minéralisation et du contrôle de la texture de la coquille et de ses propriétés mécaniques. Cette progression des connaissances a permis de mieux comprendre l’origine de la dégradation de la solidité de la coquille observée chez les poules en fin d’année de production. La physiologie de la poule est responsable d’évolution importante de la qualité de l’oeuf. Aussi, l’article de A. Travel et al rappelle l’importance d’effets négatifs de l’âge de la poule contre lequel nous disposons de peu de moyens. Cet article résume également les principales données, souvent anciennes, concernant l’influence importante des programmes lumineux ou de la mue pour améliorer la qualité de l’oeuf. Enfin, il souligne l’importance de l’exposition des poules à de hautes températures ambiantes sur leur physiologie et la qualité de l’oeuf. Le troisième facteur indispensable à l’expression du potentiel génétique des poules, et déterminant de la qualité technologique et nutritionnelle de l’oeuf, est la nutrition de la poule. Elle représente plus de 60% du coût de production. L’article de I. Bouvarel et al fait le point sur l’influence de la concentration énergétique de l’aliment, de l’apport en protéines et acides aminés, acides gras et minéraux sur le poids de l’oeuf, la proportion de blanc et de jaune ou sa composition notamment pour obtenir des oeufs enrichis en nutriments d’intérêt en nutrition humaine. Cependant, la préoccupation principale des éleveurs depuis une dizaine d’année est la mise en place en 2012 de nouveaux systèmes de production d’oeufs pour assurer une meilleure prise en compte du bien-être animal. L’article de S. Mallet et al traite de l’impact des systèmes alternatifs sur la qualité hygiénique de l’oeuf. Ces auteurs concluent positivement sur l’introduction de ces nouveaux systèmes pour la qualité hygiénique de l’oeuf une fois que les difficultés associées aux méconnaissances d’un nouveau système de production seront résolues. La qualité sanitaire de l’oeuf est la préoccupation majeure des consommateurs et un accident sanitaire a des conséquences considérables sur la consommation d’oeufs. L’article de F. Baron et S. Jan résume d’une manière exhaustive l’ensemble des éléments déterminants de la qualité microbiologique de l’oeuf et des ovoproduits : mode de contamination, développement des bactéries dans les compartiments de l’oeuf, défenses chimiques du blanc et moyens pour contrôler la contamination des oeufs et des ovoproduits. Le consommateur ne souhaite pas, à juste titre, ingérer d’éventuels contaminants chimiques présents dans ses aliments. L’article de C. Jondreville et al analyse ce risque associé à la consommation des oeufs. Il est exceptionnel de détecter la présence de polluants organiques au seuil toléré par la législation. Les auteurs insistent notamment sur l’importance de contrôler la consommation par les animaux élevés en plein air de sols qui peuvent être une source de contaminants. Une caractéristique de l’évolution de la production d’oeufs est le développement des ovoproduits qui répondent parfaitement à l’usage et à la sécurité sanitaire exigée en restauration collective. L’article de M. Anton et al décrit le processus d’obtention et l’intérêt des fractions d’oeufs du fait de leurs propriétés technologiques (pouvoirs moussant, foisonnant, gélifiant ou émulsifiant). Les différents processus de séparation, de décontamination et de stabilisation sont analysés pour leur effet sur la qualité du produit final. Enfin le dernier article de ce numéro spécial de F. Nau et al se devait d’aborder la principale qualité de l’oeuf qui conditionne son usage : la qualité nutritionnelle de ce produit pour l’Homme. Cet article actualise l’information dans ce domaine et fait le point sur les atouts nutritionnels en tentant de corriger de fausses idées. L’oeuf présente un intérêt nutritionnel du fait de la diversité et l’équilibre de ces constituants pour l’Homme mais mériterait plus d’études pour mieux évaluer son potentiel réel. En conclusion, l’oeuf est la source de protéines animales ayant la meilleure valeur nutritionnelle, la moins chère, facile d’emploi et possédant de nombreuses propriétés techno-fonctionnelles valorisées en cuisine. Dans les pays développés, l’oeuf a souffert jusqu’à aujourd’hui d’une image entachée par plusieurs éléments négatifs aux yeux des consommateurs : sa richesse en cholestérol, le risque sanitaire associé à sa consommation sous forme crue ou son système de production en cage. L’évolution des connaissances sur le risque cardio-vasculaire, les progrès réalisés sur le contrôle sanitaire des Salmonelloses en Europe et la modification radicale des systèmes de production d’oeufs devraient modifier positivement son image. La consommation de protéines de l’oeuf a augmenté de plus de 25% en 20 ans (2,53 g/personne/j vs 4,3 g pour le lait en 2005) et poursuivra sa croissance rapide notamment dans les pays en développementoù sa consommation par habitant reste faible. Cette évolution considérable de la production de ce produit devrait être mieux intégrée dans les formations des écoles spécialisées en productions animales. L’oeuf restera dans l’avenir une des sources de protéines animales dominantes et l’acquisition de connaissances sur la fonction des nombreux constituants récemment mis à jour devait renforcer son intérêt pour la santé de l’Homme. Je ne voudrais pas terminer cette préface sans remercier au nom des auteurs, Jean-Marc Perez, le responsable de la revue INRA Productions Animales, d’avoir pris l'initiative de la publication de ce numéro spécial dédié à l'oeuf et d’avoir amélioré par plusieurs lectures attentives la qualité finale des textes. Je voudrais aussi adresser mes remerciements à sa collaboratrice Danièle Caste pour le soin apporté dans la finition de ce document. Enfin, je n'oublie pas le travail d'évaluation critique des projets d'article par les différents lecteursarbitres que je tiens à remercier ici collectivement. Auer M., Streff J., 1999. Histoires d’oeufs. Idées et Calendes, Neuchatel, Suisse, 261p.Nau F., Guérin-Dubiard C., Baron F., Thapon J.L., 2010. Science et technologie de l’oeuf et des ovoproduits, Editions Tec et Doc Lavoisier, Paris, France, vol 1, 361p., vol 2, 552p.

AbstractLait caillé is a traditional fermented milk product in Burkina Faso. The objective of this study was to contribute to consumer acceptance of lait caillé. For this purpose, the production practices in rural and urban areas were identified through semi-structured interviews, while the perceived quality of lait caillé in urban area was investigated through a survey. Then, microbiological and physico-chemical parameters were analysed on samples from rural and urban sites. Finally, an attempt to improve the hygiene of the traditional processing was proposed by use of Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc mesenteroides stains as starter. These were previously isolated from traditional lait caillé. The results on the manufacturing processes revealed from the raw milk practices of spontaneous fermentation, backslopping and contact with bacterial biofilms attached to container. The survey on perceived quality indicated that traditional lait caillé possessed a niche market which could be enlarged by implementation of good manufacturing practices in the production sites. The microbiota of the end product was characterised by high loads of Enterococcus spp., Enterobacteria and Pichia spp. Fermented milks by starter cultures showed improved hygienic quality and a positive sensory appreciation. However, the use of selected strains might be followed by loss of some features of traditional lait caillé, which scientists should work to resolve.

At the end of 1980, a group of social scientists founded a journal called Bulletin du Mauss. The social scientists gathered around this journal tried to criticise the utilitarian mind with anti-utilitarian publications and to show that this mindset was not universal. Alain Caille stated that at the beginning, this movement set out with criticisms only on economism. Later on, he further developed the intellectual platform and aimed to show that some of the patterns of modern and post-modern society are structures established over time: "Reversing them, learning to look at them differently”. The minimum condition for these is to realise that societies, groups and individuals constitute a self-generating process. Although Caille seemed to be approaching the anarchist tradition, he could not escape the sterility of liberalism because he could not see that the fundamental phenomenon that could weaken the totalitarian state and erode the central government dictatorship was through labour.

Screens, as technological but also narrative and social devices, alter reading and writing practices. Users consume vids, read stories on the Web, and produce creative contents on blogs or Web archives, etc. Uses of seriality and transmediality are here discussed, that is watching, reading, and writing as interpreting, as well as respective and reciprocal uses of iteration and interaction (with technologies and with others). A specific figure of users or readers will be defined as a skilful and literate audience: fans on archives (FanFiction.net-FFNet, and Archive of Our Own-AO3). Fans produce serial and transmedia narratives based upon their favourite TV Shows, publish on-line, and often produce discourses or meta-discourse on this writing practice or on writing in general.The broader perspective of reception studies allows us to develop a three-step methodology that develops into a process. The first step is an ethnographic approach based on practices and competencies of users. The second step develops and clarifies the ethnographic dimension into an ethno-narrative approach, which aims at analysing mutual links between signs, texts, and uses of reading and writing. The main question is that of significance and meaning. The third step elaborates upon interactions in a technological and mediated environment. Social, participative, or collaborative and multimodal dimensions of interacting are yet regarded as key elements in reshaping a reading-writing cultural practice. The model proposed is a socio-narrative device, which hangs upon three dimensions: techno-narrative, narratological, and socio-narrative. These three dimensions of a shared narrative universe illustrate the three steps process. Each step also offers specific uses of interacting: an ethnographic approach of fictional expectation, a narrative ethnography of iteration and transformation, and a socio-narrative perspective on dialogism and recognition. A specific but significant example of fans' uses of reading and interacting will illustrate each step of the methodology. This qualitative approach of individual uses aims to be representative of fans' cultural practice (See Appendix 1). We will discuss cultural uses of appropriation. How do reading, interpreting, writing, and rewriting, that is to say interacting, produce meaning, create identities, and build up our relation to others and to the (story)world? Given our interest in embodied and appropriated meanings, appropriation will be revealed as an open cultural process, which can question the conflict and/or the convergence of the old and the new in cultural practices, and the way former and formal dichotomies have to be re-evaluated. We will take an interest in the composition of meaning that unfolds a cultural and critical process, from acknowledgement to recognition, a process where iteration and transformation are no longer opposites but part of a continuum.From Users' Competencies to the Composition of Narrative and Social Skills: A Fictional ExpectationThe pragmatic question of real uses steers our approach toward reading and writing in a mediated environment. Michel de Certeau's work first encourages us to apply his concepts of strategies and tactics to institutional strategies of engaging the audience and to real audience tactics of appropriation or diversion. Real uses are traceable on forums, discussions groups, weblogs, and archives. A model can be built upon digital tracks of use left on fan fiction archives: types of audience, interactions, and types of usage are here considered.Media Types Interaction Types Usage Types Media audienceConsumerSkilfulViewingReadingInformation searchContent production (informative, critical, and creative)Multimedia audienceConsumerSkilful+Online readingE-shoppingSharingRecommendationDiscussionInformative content productionCross-media audienceConsumerSkilful+SerendipityPutting objects in perspectiveNetworkingCritical content productionTransmedia audienceConsumerSkilfulInvolvedPrecursor+Understanding enhanced narrativesValue judgments, evaluationUnderstanding economic dimensions of the media systemCreative content productionTable 1 (Cailler and Masoni Lacroix)Users gear their reading and writing practices toward one medium, or toward multiple media in multi-, cross-, and trans- dimensions. These dimensions engage different and specific kinds of content production, and also the way users think about their relation to the media system. We focus on cumulative uses needed in an evolving media system. Depending on their desire for cultural products issued from creative and entertainment industries, audiences can be consumer-oriented or skilful, but also what we term "involved" or "precursor." Their interactive capacity within these industries allows audiences to produce informative, narrative, discursive, creative (or re-creative), and critical content. An ethnographic approach, based upon uses, understands that accumulating, crossing, and mastering different uses requires available and potential competencies and literacies, which may be immediately usable, or which have to be gained.Figure 1 (Masoni Lacroix and Cailler)The English language enables us to use different words to specify competencies, from ability to skill (when multiple abilities tend towards appropriation), to capability and competency (when multiple skills tend towards cultural practice). This introduces an enhancement process, which describes the way users accumulate and cross competencies to enhance their capability of understanding a multimedia or transmedia system, shaped by multiple semiotic systems and literacies.Abilities and skills represent different literacies that can be distributed in four groups-literacy, graphic literacy, digital literacy and interactive literacy, converging to a core of competencies including cognitive capability, communicative capability, cultural capability and critical capability. Note that critical skills appear below in bold italics. Digital LiteracyTechnical ability / Computational ability / Digital ability or skill Informational skill Visual LiteracyGraphic abilityVisual abilitySemiotic skillSymbolic skill Core of CompetenciesCognitive capabilityCommunicative capabilityCultural capabilityCritical capability Interactive LiteracyInteractional abilitySpectatorial abilityCollective abilityAffective skill LiteracyNarrative ability or skill / Linguistic ability / Reading and interpreting ability / Mimetic and fictional ability Discursive skillTable 2 (Masoni Lacroix and Cailler)Our first illustration exhibits the diversity, even the profuse and confused multiplicity, of cultural influences and preferences of a fan, which he or she comprehends as a whole.Gabihime, born on 6 October in Lafayette, Louisiana, in the United States, joined FFNet in 2001, and last updated her profile in September of 2010. She has written 44 stories for a variety of fandoms, and she belongs to two fandom communities. She has written one story about Twin Peaks (1990-) for an annual fandom gift exchange in 2008. Within Twin Peaks, her favourite and only romantic pair is Audrey Horne and Dale Cooper. Pairing represents a formal and cultural use of fan fiction writing, and also a favourite variation of the original text. Gabihime proposes notes to follow the story:I love Twin Peaks, and I love Audrey Horne particularly, and the rich stilted imagery of the show certainly […] I started watching my favourite season one episodes and reading the script notes for them. When I got to the 4-5 episode break (when Cooper comes back from visiting Jacques's cabin to the delightful sounds of the Icelandic junket roaring at their big shindig and finds Audrey in his bed) I discovered that this scene was originally intended to be left extremely ambiguous.Two main elements can be highlighted. Love founds fans' relation to the characters and the text. Interaction is based on this affect or emotion. Ambiguity, real or presumed, leads to what can be called a fictional expectation. This strong motive to interact within a text means that readers have to fill in the blanks of the text (Jenkins, "Transmedia"). They fill it with their desire for a character, a pairing, and a story. Another illustration of a fan's affective investment, Lynzee005 (see below) specifies that her fiction, "shows what I hope happened in between the scenes to which we were treated in the series."Gabihime does not write fan fiction stories anymore. She has a web site where she posts her stories and links to other fan art, vids, or fiction, as well as a blog where she writes her original fiction, and various meta-narrative and/or meta-discursive productions, including a wiki, Tumblr account, LiveJournal page, and Twitter account.A Narrative Ethnography of Fans' Production Content: Acculturation as Iteration and TransformationWe can briefly focus on another partial but significant example of narratives and discourses of a fan, in the perspective of a qualitative and iterative approach. We will then emphasise that narratives and discourses circulate, in other words that they are written and reformulated in and on different periods and platforms, but also that narratives use iteration and variation (Eco 1985).Lynzee005 was born in 1985 in Canada. She joined FFNet in 2008 and last updated her profile in September 2015. She has a beta profile, which means that she reads and reviews other fans' work-in-progress. We can also clarify that publishing chapter-by-chapter and being re-read on FFNet appears to be a principle of writing and of writing circulation. So, writing reveals an iterative and participative practice.Prior to this updating she wrote:When I read, I look for an emotional connection with the characters and I hope to be genuinely invested in where the story is going. […] I tackle everything in chunks, concentrating on the big issues (consistent characterization, believable plot lines, etc.) before moving down to the smaller ones (spelling, punctuation). Once I finish reading a "chunk," I put it together in the whole and see if it works against the other "chunks," and if not, then I go back and start over.She has written 17 stories for 7 different fandoms. She wrote five stories for Twin Peaks including a crossover with another fandom. She joined AO3 in December 2014 and completed her Twin Peaks trilogy. Her profile no longer underlines this serial process of chunking and dispersal, stressed by Jenkins ("Transmedia"), but only evokes how scenes can be stitched together. She now insists on the outcome of unity or continuity rather than on the process of serialization and fragmentation.Stories about fans, their affective and interpretive relations to a story universe and their uses of reading and writing in and out a fandom, can illustrate a diversity of attachments and interests. We can briefly describe a range of attachments. Attachment to the character, described above, can move towards self-narration, to the exhibit of self both as a person and a character, to a self-distancing, an identity affect. Attachment also has interpretative and critical dimensions. Attached to a narrative universe, attached to storytelling, fans promote a writing normalisation and a narrative format (genre, pairing, tagging, memes, etc.). Every fan seems to iterate and alter this conduct. This appropriation renews self-imposed narrative codes. The use of writing by fans, based on attachments, is both iterative and transformative. The Organization for Transformative Works (OTW), AO3's parent apparatus, asserts that derivative fans' work is transformative.According to Umberto Eco's vision of a postmodern aesthetics of seriality, "Something is offered as original and different […] this something is repeating something else that we already know; and […] just because of it we like it" (167). There is an "enjoyment of variations" (174). "Seriality and repetition are not opposed to innovation" (175). Eco claims a dialectic between repetition and innovation, that is to say a: "dialectic between order and novelty -in other words, between scheme and innovation," where "the variation is no longer more appreciable than the scheme" (173). We acknowledge the "inseparable knot of scheme-variation" he is stressing (Eco 180), and we intend to put narrative fragmentation and narration dispersal forward to their reconstruction in a narrative universe as a whole, within the socio-narrative device. The knot illustrates the dialogical principle of exceeding dichotomies that will be discussed hereunder.The plurality of uses and media calls for an accumulation of competencies, which engage users in the process of media acculturation. A "literate" or skilful user should be able to comprehend "the flow of content across multiple media platforms," the media industries' cooperation, "the migratory behavior of media audiences," and the "technological, industrial, cultural, and social changes" that the word convergence manages to describe (Jenkins, Convergence, 3).Acculturation conveys an appropriation process, borrowed from "French" sociology of uses. Audiences become gradually intimate with the context of the evolving media environment. Scholars progressively understand how audiences are familiarizing themselves with competencies until they master literacies, where competencies are gathered. Users become sensitive, as well as mindful of time and space in literacy (Literacy), and of how writing can be spatialised (Graphic Literacy), of how the media space is technologized (Digital Literacy), and of what kind of structural interactions are emerging (Interactive Literacy).Thus, the research question takes shape: "What kind of interactions can users establish with objects that are both technical and cultural?" Which also means: "In a study of effective uses, can the researcher find appropriation logics or tactics in the way users, specifically here readers and writers, improve their cultural practices?" As Davallon and Le Marec furthered it, uses have to be included in a process of cultural growth. Users can cross technical and cultural dimensions of an object in two main ways: They can compare the object with other cultural products they are used to, or they can grasp its novelty when engaging a cognitive and cultural capability of adaptation. Acknowledgment and adaption are part of the social process of cultural growth. In this sense, use can be an integrated activity or a novel one.The model of cultural growth means that different and dispersed uses are progressively entering a meaning-making process. The question of meaning holds together, even unifies, multiple uses of reading and writing in a cultural practice of reading-writing. With this in mind, the core of competencies described above accurately displays the importance of critical skills (semiotic, informational, affective, symbolic, narrative, and discursive) nourishing a critical capability. Critically literate, users are able to question the place to which they have been attributed and the place they can gain, in an evolving (and even uncertain) media system. They can elaborate a critical reflection on their own practices of reading and writing.Two Principles of a Socio-Narrative Device: Dialogism and RecognitionUses of reading and writing online invite us to visualize and think through the convergence of a narrative object (technical, visual, and cultural), its medium and format(s), and the audiences involved. Here, multimodality has to be (re)considered. This is not only a question of different modes but a question of multiplicity in reading and writing uses, that leads us to the way a fan attachment creates his or her participation in the meaning of the text, and more generally leads us to the polyphonic form of writing questions. Dispersed uses converging into a cultural and social practice bring to light dialogical dimensions of writing, in the sense pointed out by Bakhtin in the early 1930s. Dialogism expands the notion of intertextuality to a social practice; enunciation appears polyphonic, and speakers are interacting. Every discourse is oriented to other discourses, interacting and responding to pre-existing discourses addressing the same object. Discourse is always others' discourse and shows a multiple and inter-relational subject.A fan producing meta-narratives or meta-discourses on media and fan fiction is an inter-relational subject. By way of illustration, Slaymesoftly, displays her stories on AO3, on her own Web site, and on specialized archives. She does not justify fan fiction writing through warnings or disclaimers but defines broadly what fiction is and how she uses fiction in her stories. She analyses publishing, describes her universe and the alternative universes that she explores, and depicts how stories become a series. Slaymesoftly can be considered a literate fan, approaching writing with emotion or attachment and critical rationality, or more precisely, leading her attachment to writing with the distance that critical thought allows. She writes "Essays -about writing, vampires, and whatever else I decide to blather on about" on her Web site or on her LiveJournal, where she also joined a community. In the main, Slaymesoftly experiences multiple variations, in the sense of Eco, variations that oppose and tie a character to a canon, or a loving writing object to what could be newly told. Slaymesoftly also exposes the desire for recognition engaged by fans' uses of interaction. This process of mutual recognition, stated in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit highlights and questions fans' attachment, individual identity, and normative foundation. Mutual recognition could strengthen communitarianism or conformism in writing, but it can also offer a way for attachments to be shared, a way to initiate a narrative, and a social practice of dialog.Dialogical dimensions of cultural practices of reading-writing (both in production and reception) design a fragmented narrative universe, unfinished but one, that can be comprehend in a socio-narrative device.Figure 2 (Masoni Lacroix & Cailler)Texts, authors, writers, and readers are not opposed but are part of a socio-narrative continuity. This device crosses three complementary and evolving dimensions of the narrative universe: techno-narrative, socio-narrative (playful, creative, and critical, in their interactivity), and narratological. Uses of literacy generating multimedia, cross-media, and transmedia productions also question the multimodal form of writing and invite us to an iterative, open, dialogical, and interrogative practice of multimodality. A (post)narratological activity opens up to an interrogative practice. This practice dialogs with others' discourse and narrative. The questioning complexity remains open. In a proximate meaning, a transmedia narrative is fragmented, open to incompletion, but enrolled in a continuum (Jenkins, "Transmedia").Looking back, through the overtaken dichotomy between production and reception, a social and narrative process has been described that leads to the reshaping of multiple uses of literacies into cultural practices, and further on, to a cultural and social practice of reading-writing blended into interactivity. Competencies, dictated uses of reading and writing and alterna(rra)tive upsurges (as fans' production content) can be questioned. What can be questioned is either the fragmentation, the incompletion, and the continuity of narratives, that Jenkins no longer brings into conflict ("Transmedia"). This is also what the social and narrative form of dialogism teaches us: dichotomies, as a tool or a structure of thought, appear suspect or no longer significant. There is continuity in the acculturation process, from acknowledgement to recognition, continuity in the multiple uses of interacting, continuity from narrative to discourse, continuity from emotion to writing critically, a transformative continuity in iteration and variation, a polyphonic continuity.ReferencesBakhtin, Michaïl, and V.N. Volosinov. Marxism and the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1973.Cailler, Bruno, and Céline Masoni Lacroix. "El 'French Touch' Transmediatico: Un Inventario." Transmediación: Espacios, Reflexiones y Experiencias. Eds. Denis Porto Renó et al. Bogotá, Colombia: Editorial Universidad del Rosario, 2012. 181-98.Davallon, Jean, and Joëlle Le Marec. "L'Usage en son Contexte. Sur les Usages des Interactifs des Céderons des Musées." Réseaux 101 (2000): 173-95.De Certeau, Michel. L'Invention du Quotidien. Paris: Folio Essais, 1990.Eco, Umberto. "Innovation and Repetition: Between Modern and Postmodern Aesthetics." Daedalus 114 (1985): 161-84.Hegel, G.W.F. Phénoménologie de l'Esprit. Trans. Bernard Bourgeois. Paris: Vrin, 2006.Jenkins, Henry. Convergence Culture. Where Old and New Media Collide. New York UP, 2006.———. "Transmedia 202: Further Reflections." 2011. <http://henryjenkins.org/2011/08/defining_transmedia_further_re.html>.Masoni Lacroix, Céline. "Mise en Récit des Fictions de Fans de Séries Télévisées: Variations, Granularité et Réflexivité." Tension narrative et Storytelling. Eds. Nicolas Pélissier and Marc Marti. Paris: L'harmattan, 2014. 83-100.———. "Narrativités 2.0: Fragmentation-Organisation d'un Métadiscours." Cahiers de Narratologie 32 (2017). <http://journals.openedition.org/narratologie/7781>.———, and Bruno Cailler. "Fans versus Universitaires, l'Hypothèse Dialogique de la Transmédialité au sein d'un Dispositif Socio-narratif." Revue française des sciences de l'information et de la communication 7 (2015). <http://journals.openedition.org/rfsic/1662>.———, and Bruno Cailler. "Principes Co-extensifs de la Fiction Sérielle, de la Distribution Diffusée à une Pratique Interprétative Dialogique: une Nouvelle Donne Socio-narrative?" Cahiers de Narratologie 31 (2016). <http://narratologie.revues.org/7576>. TV Show Fandoms ExploredBuffy The Vampire Slayer (Joss Whedon).Sherlock (Mark Gatiss & Steven Moffat).Twin Peaks (Mark Frost & David Lynch).Wallander (from Henning Mankell to Philip Martin).

« T'es noire, pauvre, moche, et en plus t'es une femme ». La protagoniste du roman d'Alice Walker (1999) à qui ces mots sont adressés, saura bien s'affranchir de la domination à laquelle ces marquages sociaux semblent la destiner. Une anthropologie non hégémonique questionne la manière dont des entités individuelles ou collectives, assignées à une position de subordination, et épinglées à une altérité légitimée par des inégalités sociales, économiques ou par une prétendue différence physique, identitaire ou culturelle, se saisissent de ces catégories pour les remettre en question, s'affirmer, se construire et retourner des positions de vulnérabilité en force. Ces retournements ne sont pas uniquement de l'ordre de la ruse ou des contre-pouvoirs de ceux qui campent dans la liminalité : elles impliquent des négociations, des actions, des jeux de rôles, des résistances qui font du pouvoir, un champ multiforme et mobile de relations stratégiques entre des individus et des groupes (Foucault 1984). Il s'agit alors d'analyser des rapports complexes et instables entre agentivité et gouvernementalité et les liens multiples qui se nouent entre puissance d'action individuelle, interactions sociales, institutions, savoirs et socio-histoires. Cette posture interroge la tension entre la vulnérabilité existentielle et l'organisation politique et sociale des vulnérabilités en tant qu’art du gouvernement de soi et d'autrui. Son ambition est de relever le défi lancé par Fassin, d'étudier les effets d'influence réciproque entre la « condition comme 'opération d'objectivation' par laquelle les structures et les normes sociales se traduisent dans la vie quotidienne […] dans la manière d'être vis-à-vis de soi, des autres et du monde, et l'expérience, comme 'opération de subjectivation' par laquelle les gens donnent forme et sens à ce qu'ils vivent » (Fassin 2005 : 332). La vision du pouvoir comme dispositif permettant à la fois l'émergence des subjectivités et leur contrôle, voire leur négation par réification, se trouve également au cœur du débat contemporain sur la reconnaissance et la visibilité sociale. Les luttes pour la reconnaissance semblent avoir, dans le monde contemporain, une étendue et une légitimité inédite. La reconnaissance semble devenir le langage à travers lequel s’expriment les luttes sociales aujourd’hui. Ce concept, venant de la philosophie politique et sociale, pour essaimer ensuite dans la sociologie et, plus tardivement, l’anthropologie, a été même envisagé comme une notion clé et un objet non reconnus, mais fondateurs des sciences sociales contemporaines (Caillé 2007 ; pour une analyse de la mobilisation et des usages du concept de « reconnaissance » dans les sciences sociales de 1993 à 2013, voir Bigi 2014). Une anthropologie qui se veut décentrée et engagée n’est pas étrangère aux postulats qui fondent le concept de reconnaissance : la prise en compte du statut relationnel et non plus substantiel du sujet, sa vulnérabilité constitutive, l'importance de la confirmation intersubjective de capacités et de qualités morales, la réciprocité comme manière d'arracher l'individu à une symétrie déniée, sa dimension performative (Honneth 2002, 2006; Ferrarese 2007). Cette anthropologie dialogique ambitionne à analyser autant les formes de relégation au silence, au mépris et à la disqualification, que les manières qu'ont les sujets -individuels et collectifs- de s'arracher à l'invisibilité et à l'humiliation (Battegay et Payet 2008). Cette anthropologie interroge également les contextes institutionnels et socio-juridiques, et ces espaces publics où prennent forme, s'expriment et se donnent à voir des besoins, des langages, des mediums, des collectifs nouveaux. Ces luttes questionnent enfin la co-construction de soi et de l'autre dans des processus de visibilité mutuelle : il en est ainsi, par exemple, de la minorité qui demande et de l'État qui reconnaît. Toutefois, une anthropologie non hégémonique est également appelée à débusquer les embûches d'une demande de reconnaissance qui risque de produire ou de reproduire des catégories sociales que fondent la réification, l'altérité ou l'asymétrie. « Je ne veux pas être la victime de la Ruse d'un monde noir », écrivait Frantz Fanon (1952: 186). Il en est ainsi de ces demandes de revendication et de défense identitaire qui, loin de défaire des identités, en montrant le caractère construit d'éléments tels que le genre, l'ethnie, la « race » ou l'orientation sexuelle, risquent de figer et de contraindre « les sujets mêmes [qu’elles] espèrent représenter ou libérer » (Butler 2005: 148). Ce modèle identitaire, dont le caractère illusoire et réifiant a été soulevé à plusieurs reprises (Clifford 1988; Bayart 1996; Fraser 2005), échoue dans sa demande de reconnaissance: il dissimule les asymétries et les compétitions sein du groupe, il occulte les formes de déplacement du pouvoir, il engendre des concurrences victimaires et renforce d'autres formes, moins visibles, d'assujettissement.

Metaphors of 'game' and 'play' are increasingly popular in academic writing, partly because games themselves are becoming increasingly important to media experience, and partly because something in the 'game' idea seems to describe the post-modern experience. However, the metaphor sometimes forgets what games can be like in practice. What I want to do, then, is go a round or two with the term, to question what the metaphor invokes. Round I: 'Game'? Games are played on a dedicated field -- a board, a screen, a playing-ground -- which is marked off so that in some sense it becomes a separate 'space', Huizinga's "magic circle". Play begins, and then, Huizinga argues, it is over, its effects lost (13). Players choose to play, agreeing to arbitrary rules controlling the game 'world'; goals and penalties are agreed in advance. Thus the gameworld provides an oasis of order in a chaotic, unruly world (Huizinga again); despite (sometimes) volumes of rules, games themselves are less complex and more clearly defined than "the casual and confused reign of everyday existence" (Berger, qtd. in Holquist 122). The sanctity of the game-space offers something more than mere order. The construction of order through arbitrary rules temporarily dissolves the significance of the outside world. Players concentrate wholly on the game -- on the dice or the puck or the pawn; good gameplay (to use Banks's expression) makes you forget yourself and the passage of time, not operating consciously but going with the flow. Play, writes Csikszentmihalyi, "is going. It is what happens after all the decisions are made -- when 'let's go' is the last thing one remembers" (45). It is a difficult state to attain but it seems valuable, from academia's overly rationalistic perspective, to get out of our heads and let some other sense drive for a while. Games engage different senses. Players use skills not ordinarily valued, striving for self-fulfilling perfection. Mundane time is linear, but games are full of diversionary, goal-deferring loops -- "the movement which is play has no goal which brings it to an end; rather it renews itself in constant repetition" (Gadamer 93). Gameplay is unpredictable; it shuttles back and forth, unsettled, dynamic, open to chance. You cannot surely predict the outcome. And then you play again. We like, too, the superficiality of games. They are useless, wilfully inefficient, pursued solely for the pleasures they provide. Games can be seen as representative -- of power struggles, of unspeakable impulses -- but the action is distanced from the self. Imbued in an (in)animate piece or a disguised self, games license performance, freedom from the mundane self. Most importantly, game goals aren't 'really' important; we don't 'really' care; "no chains of causes and effects, means and ends, are supposed to connect the isolated area of play with the real world or ordinary life (Riezler 511). Thus, reasons the theorist, the gameworld is a privileged space. Having freely chosen to play and consented to pre-determined constraints, players slip the controlling lead of the superego in pursuit of mastery. Difficult impulses are exorcised -- cathartically, if you like -- in the safety of the gamespace, the temporary "otherwhere" of experience where nothing really matters; no lives are actually sacrificed; no deaths are permanent; no loss is irreversible. Games are interactive, simultaneously controlled and risky. If one excels, one is celebrated; if one loses -- ah well, it was only a game. Afterwards it ceases to matter: handshakes all round and down to the pub. Or so the theorists tell us. Round II: The Magic Circle My brother and his friends liked to play Skirmish. But afterwards, they were stiff and sore, with bruises lasting for months or longer. Players are regularly injured, permanently maimed, or even killed while playing those games we call 'sport'. True, you might forget yourself while playing, but what about afterwards? The embodiedness of players -- the constancy of muscle memory, bruises and scars -- imprints lasting effects on minds and flesh, inextricably binding the game world to the mundane. Besides physical injuries, however, are the continuity of memory and the excess of feelings (affect). Games, after all, are played by people, "who only indirectly and ambiguously share in the perfect order of their games" (Holquist 115), stuck as we are with irrational feelings. Losers feel sore, disgruntled; someone else has proven cleverer or faster or trickier; they never quite got in the flow; it wasn't fun. So when Stephenson writes, "play is enjoyed, no matter who wins" (46) -- well, no. People sulk, they cry, they become vengeful: people don't like losing -- witness the origins of football hooliganism. Perhaps the cost of being rationally detached from the outcome of a game, of leaving the mundane, ratiocinatic world behind, is an irrational, affective investment that sometimes matters when it shouldn't. To describe games as discrete, then, assumes that people are disembodied, completely rational and extremely forgetful: these are the only terms under which gameplay can be "detached". Huizinga and Caillois posit such players when they describe games as 'separate', 'unproductive', 'unreal'. They let the metaphor take over, mistaking form for practice. Somewhat extremely, Gadamer argues, "the real subject of the game ... is not the player, but instead the game itself" (95). No game, however, exists prior to or without players, and no players are free from the 'irrational' of their bodies and senses. Round III: Representation John Banks's "Controlling Gameplay" reminds us of the 'other senses' invoked in play. Games, he argued, are never simply representational. Gameplay is a forward momentum, engrossing and unselfconscious. He was right, but I want to recall, momentarily, the representativeness of games. It is, after all, partly their commitment to symbols that makes people willing to (be) hurt in a game, even to risk their lives. Besides the irrational commitment to the symbol engendered by the affective gameworld, is the representational content. The violence debate hinges around the detachment of the gameworld: theorists argue that in gamespace, it's 'not real; we're 'just playing'; "things within this area mean what we order them to mean. They are cut off from their meanings in the so-called real world or ordinary life" (Riezler 511). The game frame theoretically negates commitment to content and underlying meanings (see Bologh). Fink reminds us, though, that content always draws on the world of experience: it "is always partly, but never wholly, the creation of fantasy. It always has to do with real objects [or ideas], which fantasy transforms into play objects" (qtd. in Anchor 92). Hodge and Tripp argue that, although play modality undermines or inverts meanings, symbols retain their mundane meaning: "the surface content of the image coexists as part of the content. An image of violence is still an image of violence, and viewers who enjoy it are still endorsing those impulses in themselves" (117). Games invoke the imaginary, the symbolic and the sensual in ways beyond ordinary 'consciousness', but that never makes it insignificant. Memory and affect again. Structural anthropology provides ample evidence that games represent society (see, for example, Cheska). Clifford Geertz showed how games structurally reflect (often backwards) the values of a society. The game, he argued, reminds players of the overlap between their own and their society's values (27). Thus games function as social ritual (see Bakhtin, Caillois or Huizinga). But ritual, Handelman shows, is "how society should be" (189) -- in which case he is arguing that society should be ordered, rigidly rule-bound, oriented towards arbitrary goals and values, competitive, and simplistically representational. People -- and indeed, existence -- are complex, messy, defiant and irrational. "Not recognising the bounds between stylised game and causal reality is to do violence to the complexity of existence" (Holquist 121). Round IV: Structure Another remove from content, is structure. In Western society games are agonistic. Huizinga explicitly argued that their value lay in striving for glory over one's fellows, in proving oneself superior: that is what winning is. Although theorists now value the process more than the goals, gameplay nevertheless consists in trying to beat your opponent. Games are about conquest. Even those games featuring teamwork only require cooperation to vanquish opponents -- to inflict on them the humiliation, disappointment and (however infinitesimally) diminished social status that inevitably accompany losing. Moreover, there are hierarchies within teams. A good point guard is never as well paid as a good forward; the Dungeon Master or GM determines the 'fate' of the other players. Just as players and teams are hierarchised, so are leagues, reflecting Western society's valorisation of hierarchy. Many must be conquered for the individual to triumph. While players may freely accede to rules, they don't decide them -- they are governed conservatively. Rules may evolve organically but become reified, regulated top-down, detailed knowledge itself becoming a source of hierarchical authority. Game rules are not folk-knowledge; they are dictated, published, refereed: another source of contest. Time The game metaphor has its uses. Certainly what happens when one disappears or is lost in gameplay is worth serious attention. But to pretend that games are microcosmic, free, without affect, effect or meaning, and that they end with the final bell, is to forget the player, who lives on in the society reflected by the game. References Anchor, Robert. "History and Play: Johan Huizinga and his Critics." History and Theory 17 (1966): 63-93. Banks, John. "Controlling Gameplay." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 1.5 (1998). 15 Oct. 2000 <http://www.api-network.com/mc/9812/game.php>. Bologh, Roslyn Wallach. "On Fooling Around: A Phenomenological Analysis of Playfulness." The Annals of Phenomenological Sociology 1 (1976): 1113-25. Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, and Stith Bennett. "An Exploratory Model of Play." American Anthropologist. 44 (1974): 45-58. Gadamer, Hans-Georg. "The Ontology of the Work of Art and Its Hermeneutical Significance. Play as the Clue to Ontological Explanation." Truth and Method. (1960). Trans. and ed. Garrett Barden and John Cumming. London: Sheed and Ward, 1975. 91-119. Geertz, Clifford. "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cockfight." Daedalus 101.1 (1972): 1-37. Handelman, Don. "Play and Ritual: Complementary Frames of Meta-Communication." It's a Funny Thing, Humor. Ed. Anthony J Chapman and Hugh Foot. Oxford: Pergamon, 1976. 185-92. Holquist, Michael. "How to Play Utopia: Some Brief Notes on the Distinctiveness of Utopian Fiction." Game, Play, Literature. Ed. Jacques Ehrmann. Boston: Beacon, 1968. 106-23. Hodge, Robert, and David Tripp. Children and Television: A Semiotic Approach. Cambridge: Polity, 1986. Huizinga, Johan. Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture. Trans. anonymous. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1949 [1944]. Riezler, Kurt. "Play and Seriousness." The Journal of Philosophy. 38 (1941): 507-17. Citation reference for this article MLA style: Rebecca Farley. "Game." M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.5 (2000). [your date of access] <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/game.php>. Chicago style: Rebecca Farley, "Game," M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3, no. 5 (2000), <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/game.php> ([your date of access]). APA style: Rebecca Farley. (2000) Game. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3(5). <http://www.api-network.com/mc/0010/game.php> ([your date of access]).

In Mardi and a Voyage Thither, novelist Herman Melville writes of the peculiar and startling confluence of memory, objects, valuation, and disfigurement that mark the collector of obsoletia. The story’s antiquary is the picture of perverse depletion, with a body “crooked, and dwarfed, and surmounted by a hump, that sat on his back like a burden” (328), his hut in shambles, and “the precious antiques, and curios, and obsoletes”—the objects of his collection—“strewn about, all dusty and disordered” (329). This unkempt display cum impromptu museum turns out to present a mere fraction of the curator’s collection, the rest of which is host to countless subtle molds and ravenous worms in a vast catacomb below ground. Traversing this darkened vault, one visitor says, is “like going down to posterity” (332). As inveterate accumulators ourselves, we can certainly relate to Mardi’s "extraordinary antiquarian": pursuing obsolete things has transformed us too (though hopefully not quite so hideously), as well as the work we do and the spaces we do it in. Since 1999, we have been collecting—and subsequently lending out to scholars the world over—computer games, systems, and game-related paraphernalia. By recent estimates, our Learning Games Initiative Archive contains more than 20,000 artifacts, from Venezuelan Pong clones to Mario-themed lollipops. Archival work at this scale and with this diversity is not easy, and it constantly butts up against a host of intractable questions. For example, what does it mean to isolate a thing that no longer has its original value but has taken on a new one? When researchers hold such transmuted artifacts up for inspection, what are they looking for and how might archivists help them to find it? Is the primary work of computer game archivists (and indeed archivists of all types) to protect artifacts from the elements, to enjoin them upon their kin, and to guard over the collection for the sake of some abstract posterity, or is it something more collaborative and communal? Finally, is it possible for research-oriented collectors to engage the process of collection without suffering the deformations of skin and soul (not to mention pocketbook) that often plague the more solipsistic acquirer? We offer this article as an entrée to these questions, as a way to begin to attend to some of the theoretical and practical complexities of obsolescence and its negotiation. We do so primarily by focusing on where those complexities intersect with computer games, the new media we collect and study. Circuitous Obsolescence Melville finished Mardi in 1849, almost fifty years after Joseph Marie Jacquard invented the programmable loom and twelve years after Charles Babbage theorised the possibility of a programmable mechanical computer. The subsequent history of the development of the modern computer and its applications (including computer games) typically gets told as a narrative of technological novelty followed by ineluctable obsolescence—Herman Hollerith’s tabulator to Konrad Zuse’s Z3 to the US Army’s Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) and so on. This kind of monumentalised and narrativised history exemplifies an onward march much fetishised by the marketplace: once introduced, a given technology will be developed then updated, upgraded, and improved, inevitably producing a staggering wake of tired-and-true archaeological assemblages. These cast-offs, however, are only useless to those who prefer to consume at the cutting edge, and even that is an illusory experience. Like a well-designed knife whose business end is supported by the stout spine behind it, the edgiest of today’s computer games and peripherals—from the most non-directive sandbox titles to the most obscene add-ons—are merely vanguards to a half-century of industrial history. In etymological terms, “obsolete” captures the conundrum well. A combination of ob (away) and solere (to be used to, accustomed), the word “obsolete” has at least four distinct meanings: “no longer used or practiced”; “worn away, dilapidated, atrophied”; “indistinct, hardly perceptible, vestigial”; and as a noun, “A thing which is out of date or has fallen into disuse.” In each usage, present and past are both integral and palpable. As archivists, we appreciate this temporal distillation because it illustrates how seamless yet discernable is the paradoxical binding between old and new. “Obsolescence” thus functions like a rhetorical ouroboros, ensuring that reflection on the antique reveals the avant-garde and vice-versa. Consider, for example, the Atari 2600 paddle. Compared to a PlayStation 3 controller, with its variety of buttons, sticks, and pads—and the re-mapability of all these input elements—the single potentiometer and button of the paddle seem downright antiquated. Moreover, because Atari hardware in general has largely faded from mainstream use (though it has a remarkable half-life in collectible markets), the paddle is mostly neglected by contemporary players and pundits alike, in the process revealing another obsolescence: the static state that accompanies disuse—the waiting nonlife of discarded technology. The paddle's first obsolescence—the supplantation of the state of the art—signifies a moment of loss. An obsolete computer game controller is one that no longer holds or is capable of provoking the novelty necessary to stake a claim on wonder, or at least that part of wonder engendered in the playing of the newest game on the newest console—the farthest distance from technological obsolescence. The paddle's second obsolescence—disuse—signifies potential: when a newer system (e.g., PlayStation 3) supersedes an older one (e.g., Atari 2600), the older one will often sit like a fact in benighted spaces such as attics, thrift stores, garages, and closets—all prime hunting grounds for computer game collectors. The ephemera that for most people drift toward oblivion get picked up by archivists and cleaned off, catalogued, stored, studied, used, and reused. Trash becomes treasure, obsolescence newness and utility. And yet, obsolescence is not solely in the eye of the beholder, as it were; it is also in the hand, which further complicates the concept. Because obsolescence calls on the familiar in a pejorative sense—the obsolete thing has become too familiar (it now lacks novelty and surprise)—it is easy to overlook the necessity of familiarity (and thus obsolescence) to computer game development and play. After all, play demands familiarity as well as novelty; deeply complex and satisfying tasks—the kind the best play sets out and rewards generously—can only be accomplished with a level of mastery, of skill born of familiarity born of practice. Just as metaphors, in order to be successful, must merge the known with the unknown in an instantaneous insight that reveals fresh understanding, so too must computer games blend the tried and true with a twist to provoke profound and prolonged play. Computer games must always be the same, only different, familiar enough to be recognisable as forms, but new enough to create wonder as ludica. In the elegant prose of game scholar Roger Caillois, [games] must be like the leaves on the trees which survive from one season to the next and remain identical. Games must be ever similar to animal skins, the design on butterfly wings, and the spiral curves of shell fish which are transmitted unchanged from generation to generation. However, games do not have this hereditary sameness. They are innumerable and changeable. They are clad in thousands of unequally distributed shapes, just as vegetable species are, but infinitely more adaptable, spreading and acclimating themselves with disconcerting ease. (81) All this is what makes computer games so difficult to collect and study, to preserve and produce. They are always already both obsolete and pioneering. Memory as the Arbiter of Obsolescence Despite its plasticity, the concept of obsolescence offers a kind of security to its invoker: in theory, functionality and use follow a clean, linear progression. Accordingly, obsolescence can be seen not only as a thin pretext to justify a rabid consumerist desire for newness, but also as a brief memorial, a marker of passing, one that reaffirms an orderly universe and transfers a degree of security to those who witness its passing. As Aristotle explains, “the criterion of ‘security’ is the ownership of property in such places and under such conditions that the use of it is in our power; and it is ‘our own’ if it is in our power to dispose of it or keep it” (1341). Security is thus the power of alienation, and calling on the concept of obsolescence encourages the exercise of that power. Indeed, as theorist and collector Walter Benjamin argues, “The most profound enchantment for the collector is the locking of individual items within a magic circle in which they are fixed as the final thrill, the thrill of acquisition, passes over them” (62). This magic circle is really no different from the one play sociologist Johann Huizinga uses to describe the “temporary worlds” that can be carved out of the workaday one, worlds created and encapsulated by the rules and possibilities of play. There is, in fact, a powerful parallel between play and collecting, with each territorialising and deterritorialising the practice of materiality and its pleasures. For the collector, the magic circle not only encompasses the library or archive, but potentially the world, harboring as it does the possibility of a "complete collection," however obscured or damaged such a collection might be. This magic circle can also be constructed anywhere, and out of anything because the collector is a playful, nearly absurd, hunter of things whose best work occurs on the road: “I have made my most memorable purchases on trips, as a transient. Property and possession belong to the tactical sphere” (Benjamin 64). For computer game collectors especially, the circumference of the magic circle grows not with the size of a collection but with the imaginative ability to learn how to unsee what she or he has been taught to see as obsolete by industry and popular culture both: industrial, ludic, aesthetic, narratological, and ideological design. It is thus memory—in its alembic ability to make and unmake, to be made and unmade—that is the ultimate arbiter of obsolescence. From this perspective, all that is obsolete fashions a kind of infinite immemorial compendium of “what has been” that makes “what is” possible. Benjamin calls this a “magic encyclopedia,” an expansive tome for the archivist that contains “The period, the region, the craftsmanship, the former ownership—for a true collector the whole background of an item” that constitutes its being both in and beyond its present time and place (62). Vivacious Obsolescence Memory notwithstanding, the crux of computer game collection—the problematic that makes both body and mind “crooked and dwarfed”—is the timelessness of play itself. What is "old" play, for example? The kind found in Missile Command (Atari, 1980) or other golden age arcade game? Perhaps, but is this play still old when it is brought to a new platform and new audiences (e.g., http://macmost.com/iphonegames/MissileCommand.html)? What of the computer game consoles that facilitate play? Surely they grow obsolete, replaced every several years by newer, more advanced incarnations. And yet in the homebrew, retro, and collectible markets, it is the new things, the new playables that are strangely obsolete and undesirable. They are merely extant, whereas reconfigurations of old machines require imaginative new remediations in order to work and to satisfy. Older technologies and the play they enable are what are very much alive and on the cusp; these things, not their newer cousins, are the source of interest, value, experimentation, discourse, and play, that is, they are the cutting edge. So what, then, does it mean to collect and study obsoletia when the play intrinsic to them thwarts obsolescence at every turn? For computer game collectors, the answer is that ultimately there can be no difference between fad and fashion, prototype and stereotype. Obsolescence is a dynamic and incomplete designation because computer games do not age in quite the same way as do other things. The power and potential of a game archive is therefore overwhelming as well as invigorating, offering the rare but challenging chance not only to tame something wild (temporarily at least), but also to perform resurrections, bringing the old dead into new life. Computer game archivists thus trade daily in vivacious obsolescence, reveling in the defiance of moribundity in which their artifacts partake. Still, this liveliness creates other problems. How, for instance, does one organise the contents of an archive that can be categorised in so many ways (e.g., age, developer, play styles, content genres, system, audio-visual aesthetic, and so on)? What is the appropriate taxonomic way of seeing technological and ludic history when the artifacts that embody this history are constantly being made and remade, not only by scholars and historians, but also by subcultures, franchise agents, and myriad avenues of pop culture reappropriation? What does it mean for knowledge work when newness and obsolescence persist in equal measure in the same artifact? The answers to such questions are, of course, only ever temporary and never more than rickety. In the words of Benjamin, “[T]his or any other procedure is merely a dam against the springtide of memories which surges toward any collector as he contemplates his possessions” (61). The art of collection itself is one of defiance in the face of insurmountable complexity and multiplying articulations, which in the end is perhaps the real pleasure of collecting. The trial before computer game collectors is to have a sturdy boat at the ready, one capable of enduring that surging springtide to which Benjamin refers, when the well-disciplined dam of categorical judgments and explanatory structures—itself always already obsolete—inevitably breaks apart.References Aristotle. Rhetoric. Trans. W. Rhys Roberts. In The Basic Works of Aristotle. Ed. Richard McKeon. New York: Random House, 2001. 1325-1451. Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations. London: Pimlico: 1999. Caillois, Roger. Man, Play and Games. Urbana: University of Illinois, 2001. Huizinga, Johan. Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture. Boston: Beacon, 1955. Melville, Herbert. Mardi and a Voyage Thither. Ed. Nathalia Wright. Putney: Hendricks House, 1990.