Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Stato unitario'

Nel corso dell'Ottocento, Torino fu uno dei principali centri di elaborazione e diffusione delle teorie evoluzionistiche in Italia. Le ricerche furono indirizzate dapprima dal modello trasformistico di Lamarck e, a partire dagli anni '60, dalla teoria darwiniana. Il lavoro ricostruisce lo sviluppo delle indagini in zoologia e in alcune discipline ad essa collegate, come la paleontologia e l'antropologia, approfondendo anche il dibattito nato sui periodici scientifici, le opere divulgative e i giornali. Tale ricostruzione si accompagna ad uno studio delle interferenze tra gli orientamenti teorici adottati dagli scienziati e le fasi del cambiamento politico-sociale che si succedettero nel corso del secolo.

Nel corso dell'Ottocento, Torino fu uno dei principali centri di elaborazione e diffusione delle teorie evoluzionistiche in Italia. Le ricerche furono indirizzate dapprima dal modello trasformistico di Lamarck e, a partire dagli anni '60, dalla teoria darwiniana. Il lavoro ricostruisce lo sviluppo delle indagini in zoologia e in alcune discipline ad essa collegate, come la paleontologia e l'antropologia, approfondendo anche il dibattito nato sui periodici scientifici, le opere divulgative e i giornali. Tale ricostruzione si accompagna ad uno studio delle interferenze tra gli orientamenti teorici adottati dagli scienziati e le fasi del cambiamento politico-sociale che si succedettero nel corso del secolo.

The properties of cold Bose gases at unitarity have been extensively investigated in the last few years both theoretically and experimentally. In this Letter we use a family of interactions tuned to two-body unitarity and very weak three-body binding to demonstrate the universal properties of both clusters and matter. We determine the universal properties of finite clusters up to 60 particles and, for the first time, explicitly demonstrate the saturation of energy and density with particle number and compare with bulk properties. At saturation in the bulk we determine the energy, density, two-and three-body contacts, and the condensate fraction. We find that uniform matter is more bound than three-body clusters by nearly 2 orders of magnitude, the two-body contact is very large in absolute terms, and yet the condensate fraction is also very large, greater than 90%. Equilibrium properties of these systems may be experimentally accessible through rapid quenching of weakly interacting boson superfluids.

This thesis models negotiations over U.S. subfederal economic policies that conflict with international norms. It analyses a recent case of a U.S. state government bargaining with foreign entities over a subfederal economic regulation which violated international norms: California's system of worldwide combined unitary taxation. The thesis applies Stopford and Strange's framework of state-firm bargaining to the subfederal level by: 1) determining which actors were involved in lobbying to change a U.S. state economic policy which violated international norms, California's unitary tax method; 2) determining the actors' policy agendas; 3) determining the different types of political and economic assets each actor possessed, and how effectively the actors used these assets to achieve their policy agendas; 4) determining how effectively the actors used various channels of negotiation to influence California's policy, and; 5) determining the most effective uses of assets and negotiating channels, key initiatives which influenced the outcome of the policy debate. What happens when U.S. state economic regulations conflict with international norms. What capabilities do states possess to defend their regulations when bargaining in the international arena. This thesis will argue that in the case of California's unitary tax, the following hypotheses are valid: 1) Powerful U.S. states such as California can maintain regulatory standards at odds with federal and international norms. Growing global economic interdepence is not eliminating California's regulatory options, since the U.S. federal government often refuses to effectively constrain powerful states which violate federal and international norms. 2) U.S. state governments can bargain directly with foreign governments and multinational enterprises as actors in the international arena. As the international arena increasingly intrudes on the affairs of subfederal governments, the U.S. federal government will not always be the preeminent negotiating channel for international actors seeking to influence U.S. economic policies.

La doctrine oppose traditionnellement deux modèles de séparation verticale des pouvoirs : l'État unitaire et l'État fédéral. Il est en outre admis que la structure fédérale de l'État est intrinsèquement favorable à l'autonomie locale. Les récentes et nombreuses réformes de l'organisation territoriale des compétences menées en France et en Allemagne obligent à questionner la pertinence de cette présentation doctrinale désormais classique et à réviser l'état des connaissances sur les droits positifs de ces deux pays. Pour cela, l'étude opte pour un angle de vue original car elle propose de saisir le fédéralisme par le prisme de l'autonomie locale, en comparant la situation constitutionnelle des «collectivités locales», respectivement dans un État unitaire et dans un État fédéral. D'autre part, cette recherche comparative démontre l'intérêt de s'appuyer sur la typologie de la décentralisation élaborée par Hans Kelsen afin de dépasser les classifications doctrinales classiques surdéterminées par le référentiel national. Il est alors possible de constater une convergence entre la France et l'Allemagne au regard des garanties formelles et matérielles du droit à l'autonomie locale, en particulier suite à la constitutionnalisation du droit des collectivités territoriales en France. Ce constat se confirme au regard du « pouvoir de surveillance » de l'État sur les actes des collectivités locales, les possibilités des autorités étatiques d'interférer dans la vie juridique locale étant plus limitées en France qu'en Allemagne. Il en ressort que la structure fédérale de l'État n'est pas nécessairement plus respectueuse des libertés locales que la structure unitaire de l'État
The legal doctrines distinguish traditionally two different models of vertical separation of powers: the unitary state and the federal state, France being supposed to represent the first, Germany the second. Moreover, it is generally acknowledged that federal states are more respectful of local freedoms. However, the decentralization reforms carried out in France and in Germany oblige to question the relevance of this doctrinal assumption and to review the current state of knowledge on the legal systems of both countries. This research is based on an original approach seizing the federalism by the prism of local autonomy and comparing the legal situation of the "local government authorities", respectively in a unitary state and a federal state. ln addition, this comparative research is based on the decentralization theory of Hans Kelsen. This allows avoiding the use of the traditional doctrinal classifications that remain largely determined by the national reference frame. This examination of the legal relationship between central and local authorities allows to note a significant convergence between France and Germany regarding the formal and material protection of the right to local autonomy, in particular due to the constitutionalization of local government law in France. This first research result is confirmed by taking into consideration the "power of surveillance" of the central state on the local authorities, the legal opportunities to interfere in the self-government being even more restricted in France than in Germany. This reveals that federal states are not necessarily providing a greater legal protection of local autonomy than unitary states

Il existe, entre la Serbie et la France, une véritable communauté scientifique en ce qui concerne le droit public. En effet, depuis le XIXe siècle, si l’on se penche sur l’histoire, les publicistes serbes et français s’interrogent sur les mêmes problèmes relatifs à l’État et sa pérennité. Ceci n’a rien d’étonnant car la Serbie, comme la France, a sa place dans le cadre de l’espace européen contemporain et répond à ses modèles. Les concepts de droit public que nous connaissons, par rapport au cas étudié, sont de deux types : nous pouvons distinguer les concepts de processus, qui témoignent d’une dynamique particulière, et les concepts de cas, qui nous amènent à une analyse statique. Concernant les premiers, il est question de transition démocratique, transition constitutionnelle, succession d’États, dislocation, sécession, séparation d’États et internationalisation du droit public. Pour les seconds, il s’agit des concepts d’État, personnalité morale, d’État constitutionnel, souveraineté, État composé (état fédéré, régional, autonomies), État de droit, démocratie et administration internationale. Il ne nous a pas semblé nécessaire de créer d’autres concepts. En effet, la plupart des points problématiques rappellent les grandes théories, plus ou moins directement. Dans le cadre de notre recherche il a bien été question de faire un bilan de ces théories, au regard d’un cas concret : la République de Serbie depuis, 1990, au moment de l’introduction du pluripartisme, dans la Yougoslavie titiste mourante. Le but de cette analyse est de proposer notre contribution car nous n’avons pas la prétention de fonder une nouvelle théorie de l’État. Mais au vu des mécanismes du droit, comme outil nous permettant de penser l’État, le cas de la Serbie, depuis 1990, et ses données spécifiques, nous amènent à engager une piste de réflexion sur l’État tel qu’il peut être pensé et critiqué, en ce début de XXIe siècle
The nineteenth century, if one looks at History, French and Serbian publicists have questioned the same problems with regard to the issue State and its future. This is not surprising as Serbia, like France, has its place in the framework of the European contemporary public Law. The concepts of public Law that we know from the cases studied are of two types: we can distinguish between concepts of process, which has proven to be particularly dynamic, and concepts of case law that leads us to a static analysis. The former relates to a democratic transition, constitutional transition, succession, dislocation, secession, separation of state and internationalization of public law. The latter, pertains to concepts of state, legal status, sovereignty, state compound (federal state, regional autonomies), Rule of law, Democracy and international administration. It did not seem necessary to create other concepts. Indeed, the most problematic issues involve the major theories, more or less directly. Part of our research has included a review of these theories, in terms of a concrete case: the Republic of Serbia since 1990, when the introduction of multipartism in Tito's Yugoslavia came to end. The purpose of this analysis is to offer our contribution ; we do not pretend to find a new theory of the state. Indeed in view of the mechanisms of Law as a tool to consider the question of state, in the case of Serbia, since 1990, with its specific circumstances, leads us to initiate a line of reflexions on the issue of state that may be thought as criticism, in the early twenty-first century

Quantum entanglement is employed as a resource throughout quantum information science. However, before entanglement can be put to intelligent use, the issues of its production and detection must be considered. This thesis proposes four schemes for producing the bound entangled Smolin state. Three of these schemes produce the Smolin state by means of general quantum gates acting on different initial states - an all-zero state, a GHZ-state and two combined Bell states. The fourth scheme is based on one-qubit operations acting on two-photon states produced by SPDC. Furthermore, a maximum overlap entanglement witness detecting entanglement in the Smolin state is derived. This witness is measurable in three measurement settings with the maximal noise tolerance p=2/3. Lastly, simplified entanglement witnesses for the 4-, 6- and 8-qubit unitary invariant states are derived. These witnesses are measurable in three measurement settings with noise tolerances p=0.1802..., p=0.1502... and p=0.0751..., respectively.

Le contexte de la notion d’État unitaire est en pleine mutation. La République française en témoigne notamment depuis les réformes de la décentralisation de 1982. En effet, l’on constate une transition de l’État unitaire « typique » ou « classique » à l’État unitaire « atypique » ou « moderne ». Ainsi, une comparaison entre l’État unitaire français et la République turque qui est strictement fidèle à la structure étatique unitaire permet de démontrer cette transition. Par ailleurs, force est de constater que les structures unitaires de certains États se sont transformées en une autre forme distincte, et ce en raison du dépassement des limites de la mutation admissible de l’État unitaire puisque ces États consacrent une décentralisation « politique » ou « législative » en attribuant un pouvoir législatif à des entités infra-étatiques. L’unité du pouvoir législatif apparaît, sur ce point, comme une condition sine qua non et une limite infranchissable dans le cadre de la mutation de cette forme d’État. Néanmoins, la situation est un peu complexe pour l’État unitaire français face à la position exceptionnelle de certaines collectivités auxquelles l’on a attribué des compétences législatives. Cette situation nécessite d’admettre que l’unité de pouvoir législatif est une règle générale et essentielle dans les États unitaires et que l’existence de certaines dérogations ne porte pas atteinte à la structure étatique unitaire. Toutefois, si l’attribution du pouvoir législatif est une règle générale, il sera possible de parler de la transformation de l’État unitaire vers une autre forme d’État
The context of the notion of unitary state is changing. The French Republic testifies it since the reforms of the decentralization of 1982. Indeed, there is a transition from the unitary state "typical" or "classic" to the unitary state "atypical" or "modern". Thus, a comparison between the French unitary state and the Turkish Republic which is strictly faithful to the unitary state structure makes it possible to demonstrate this transition. On the other hand, there are some States whose unitary structures have been transformed into another distinct form because of the exceeding of the limits of the permissible mutation of the unitary State, since these States devote a "political" or "legislative" decentralization within their organizations by assigning a legislative power to their local entities. The unity of the legislative power appears, on this point, as a condition "sine qua non" and an impassable limit in terms of the mutation of this form of State. But, the situation is a bit complex for the French unitary state in view of the exceptional position of certain communities to which legislative powers are attributed. This situation makes it necessary to admit that the unity of the legislative power is a general and essential rule in unitary States and that the existence of certain derogations does not affect the unitary state structure. However, if the attribution of the legislative power is a general rule, it will be possible to speak of the transformation of the unitary state towards another form of state

Dans cette thèse, nous présentons des nouvelles techniques et leur application dans l’étude des gaz d’atomes de lithium ultrafroids. Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous présentons le développement d’une nouvelle source laser de faible largeur spectrale, capable d’émettre 840 mW de puissance dans la gamme des longeurs d’ondes des raies D du lithium atomique à 671 nm. La source est basée sur un laser en anneau pompé par diode, fonctionnant sur la transition à 1342 nm dans le Nd:YVO, capable de produire 1. 3 W de lumière monomode dans un faisceau limité par la diffraction. Le faisceau de sortie est ensuite doublé en fréquence dans un cristal de phosphate de potassium titanyl (ppKTP) périodiquement polarisé dans une cavité externe. Nous obtenons un rendement du doublage de 86%. Une accordabilité de la fréquence de sortie sur plus de 400 GHz et le verrouillage de l’ensemble des cavités par rapport aux raies D du lithium sont accomplis. Nous avons mesuré la largeur de raie d’émission à 200+400-200kHz. Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous employons la source sur un dispositif expérimental pour refroidir et piéger des atomes de lithium. Nous réalisons des echantillons du gaz de Bose unitaire à température finie au voisinage d’une résonance de Fano-Feshbach, où les interactions entre les atomes sont maximales. Nous présentons des mesures du taux de pertes à trois corps en fonction de la température. Les pertes mésurées atteignent la valeur limite imposée par la mécanique quantique sans aucun paramètre ajustable. Cette mesure permet l’introduction d’un critère de quasi-équilibre. Dans ce régime, en utilisant une technique basée sur l’imagerie in-situ développée dans notre groupe, nous fournissons une première mesure de l’équation d’état du gaz de Bose unitaire à basse fugacité
In this thesis we present novel techniques for the study of ultracold gases of lithium atoms. In the first part of this thesis, we present the development of a narrow-linewidth laser source emitting 840mW of output power in the vicinity of the lithium D-line resonances at 671 nm. The source is based on a diode-end-pumped unidirectional ring laser operating on the 1342-nm transition in Nd:YVO4, capable of producing 1. 3W of single-mode light delivered in a diffraction-limited beam. The output beam is subsequently frequency-doubled using periodically-poled potassium titanyl phosphate (ppKTP) in an external buildup cavity. We obtain doubling efficiencies of up to 86%. Tunability of the output frequency over more than 400GHz and frequency-locking of the cavity ensemble with respect to the lithium D-line transitions are accomplished. We measure the linewidth to be 200+400-200kHz. In the second part of this thesis, we employ the source in an experimental setup to produce to cool and trap lithium atoms. We realize samples of finite-temperature unitary Bose gases around the center of a Fano-Feshbach resonance, where interactions between the atoms are maximized. We present temperature-dependent measurements of the unitarity-limited three-body loss rate. The measured losses attain the limiting value imposed by quantum mechanics without adjustable parameters. This measurement allows for the introduction of a criterion for quasi-equilibrium. In this regime, by using technique based on in-situ imaging developed in our group, we provide a first measurement of the equation of state of the unitary Bose gas at low fugacities

La territorialisation de la norme constitue un phénomène de particularisation du droit fréquemment observé dans le paysage juridique et dont les conséquences sont nombreuses pour l’État. La norme peut être territorialisée au stade de sa création selon plusieurs degrés : la norme indifférente au territoire, la norme commune adaptée et la norme inédite adaptée. La prise en compte du territoire peut également avoir lieu lors de la mise en œuvre de la norme à travers l’adoption des actes d’exécution et d’application. Que la territorialisation soit réalisée à l’un ou l’autre stade, la norme territorialisée reste contrainte par l’organisation hiérarchique de l’ordre juridique et le juge en sanctionne toute méconnaissance. Son régime ne se distingue donc pas de celui applicable aux autres règles de droit sauf à travers sa relation avec le principe d’égalité. Toute norme territorialisée doit en effet être justifiée par des critères objectifs et rationnels. Cette soumission de la norme territorialisée à l’ordre juridique permet en principe de garantir l’unité de l’État. Ce dernier, par l’intermédiaire des juges administratif et constitutionnel, reste maître du système normatif malgré sa particularisation. L’amplification du phénomène de territorialisation de la norme remet toutefois en cause ce raisonnement. Le principe de subsidiarité commande une décentralisation équilibrée du pouvoir normatif à des entités locales plus représentatives des collectivités humaines qu’elles abritent. Les statuts particuliers constituent une solution idoine. Tout en préservant l’unité de l’État, ces statuts organisent une décentralisation adaptée du pouvoir normatif à des collectivités territoriales régionales et à de nouvelles collectivités territoriales construites sur des bassin de vie, un échelon local issu de la fusion des communes et de la disparition du département. Avec cette solution, la territorialisation du droit est finalement assumée
Territorialisation of norms is a phenomenon aiming at particularize rules. It is frequently observed within the legal system. It also has multiple implications at the State level. Norms can be territorialised at different levels, at the moment of their creation, such as: the ‘‘indifferenced norm’’, implemented without adaptation according to the territory; the adapted common norm; and the new adapted norm. The implementation of territorial characteristics can also be made at the time of the execution of the norm through application and execution acts. Whether that territorialisation occurs at one stage or another, the norm remains in any case subject to the hierarchical organization of the legal order whereby the judge can sanction any infringements of the rule. The regime of the territorialised norm is therefore not differentiate from any other rule of law, subject to the respect of the principle of equality before the law. All territorialised norms must indeed be justified by objective and rational criteria.The accordance of the territorialised norm to the legal order aims at ensuring the unity of rules of law throughout the State. Despite its particularities and deviations, the normative system is controlled by Administrative and Constitutional Judges. However the amplification of the territorialisation phenomenon questions this affects. The principle of subsidiarity implies an increased decentralization effect of normative power on local entities that are more representative of local communities. As such, particular status forms a suitable solution. While preserving the unity of State, the status enables an adapted decentralization of normative power to regional authorities and to local authorities built on catchments areas, a new local level resulting from the merger of ‘‘communes’’ and the disappearance of the ‘‘departments’’

La France est composé de deux systèmes - le premier le système national et le second le système local - qui reposent tous deux sur un fondement représentatif. Le citoyen électeur participe aux seules élections. Il ne prend pas part aux décisions publiques. La décentralisation devait permettre de gérer au plus près des citoyens les affaires locales. Or, les habitants locaux n'accordent qu'un faible intérêt à la gestion locale alors que le niveau d'instruction s'élève et que l'accès à l'information croit sensiblement. Afin de permettre une véritable décentralisation démocratisée, il convient de refondre en profondeur les institutions françaises. En effet, il est nécessaire de prohiber tout cumul de mandats et de rendre le système local plus distant du système national. Cela permettra aux entités du système local de s'administrer librement dans les conditions prévues par la loi. Il est ici proposé une méthodologie pour tendre vers la démocratie continue dans un Etat unitaire décentralisé. Le citoyen local doit devenir un véritable acteur du système local
France is composed of two distinct systems - the first is the national system and the second is the local system, - which both are settled on a representative foundation. The elector citizen takes part only in elections. He/she does not get involved in the public decisions. The decentralization of power should have allowed the citizen to be closer to local decisions and affairs. But, local citizens give little interest to the local management even though the level of education is growing and the access to information is slightly increasing. In order to allow a real democratized decentralization, it is suitable to rebuild deeply the French Institutions. Effectively, it is necessary to ban any mandate plurality and to make the local system at a distance of the national system. Thus will allow a local corporate body to operate freely in a self administrative party respecting the conditions set by law. Here, a methodology to aim toward an uninterrupted democracy in a decentralized joint State will be suggested. A local citizen has to become a bona fide representative of the local system

La vicenda del trasferimento della capitale del regno d’Italia da Torino a Firenze è nota e non mancano importanti studi di riferimento sugli aspetti storico-politici e amministrativi di questo delicato passaggio. Meno indagate risultano alcune questioni più propriamente tecniche, di carattere urbanistico e soprattutto architettonico: in questo ambito la letteratura approfondisce il tema dell’ingrandimento della città scelta provvisoriamente come capitale, ossia Firenze, e dei nuovi significati che Torino, ormai ex-capitale, tenta più o meno consapevolmente di assumere, mentre sfiora soltanto il problema della scelta delle sedi per l’apparato burocratico. La ricerca di dottorato colma, in maniera innovativa, tale vuoto perché, a partire dal trasferimento delle sedi governative da Torino e a Firenze, si pone l’obiettivo di rintracciare il dibattito culturale da esso generato. In questi stessi anni iniziano infatti a delinearsi specifiche politiche per i beni culturali, chiamate a superare i localismi pre-unitari per elaborare un quadro di tutela nazionale: le differenti logiche di intervento, in un’alternanza tra prerogative locali e governative spesso in disaccordo, scatenano vivaci discussioni facilmente ripercorribili attraverso la pubblicistica del tempo e gli sberleffi offerti dalla satira, ricca di vignette sul tema, che raccoglie gli umori dell’opinione pubblica e offre una prospettiva sul senso di un disorientamento diffuso tra i cittadini. Il trasferimento, fortemente intriso di provvisorietà, si presta quindi ad essere un interessante caso studio, una sorta di banco di prova per comprendere quali siano state le difficoltà di trovare un sottile equilibrio tra le strategie di tutela per gli edifici messi a disposizione, tutti di grande valore storico e architettonico, e le necessarie modifiche per le nuove destinazioni d’uso. Un equilibrio reso ancora più precario se messo a confronto con la stretta tempistica delle operazioni di trasloco di mezzi, documenti e uomini. Nell’ottobre del 1864 è stabilito che le operazioni dovranno attuarsi nel più breve tempo possibile e comunque a partire dal maggio dell’anno successivo. In pochi mesi occorre quindi provvedere alla sistemazione di tutte le sedi fiorentine, lasciando uno strascico di ulteriore incertezza circa il destino di quelle torinesi, abbandonate in fretta e furia. Esistono attenzioni e criteri specifici per riconvertire le sedi ministeriali a nuovi impieghi? Certamente le disposizioni sulla soppressione dei conventi e le leggi sull’esproprio giocano un ruolo di primo piano, qui analizzato criticamente e posto a confronto con le moderne teorie sul restauro che proprio in questi stessi anni si dibattono con vivacità. Il tema della provvisorietà accompagna quindi costantemente gli eventi e suggerisce di ricostruire le vicende in una prospettiva storica più ampia, che travalica i primi anni di unità nazionale e giunge al passato recente: nel momento in cui i ministeri trovano una sistemazione nella città di Roma, la celeberrima ‘terza Roma’ destinata ad assumere il ruolo di capitale definitiva del regno d’Italia, vanno identificate nuove destinazioni d’uso negli edifici torinesi e fiorentini. Possono essere individuate logiche comuni tra le due città apparentemente chiuse ad ogni confronto tra loro? L’aspra dialettica tra le esigenze governative e gli obiettivi municipali non determina più ora il prevalere delle istanze del governo centrale, ma si configura in una netta vittoria da parte delle due città. Torino e Firenze sono consapevoli dei vincoli rappresentati dalla normativa statale, soprattutto quella in via di definizione riferita ai beni culturali e, facendo presa sulla sua debolezza e fragilità, individuano con astuzia le pieghe attraverso le quali far emergere le loro specifiche esigenze, anche in chiave di risarcimento per il periodo in cui sono state messe a disposizione della macchina statale. La tesi è organizzata in un primo capitolo dedicato all’inquadramento normativo riferito ai ‘monumenti’, oggi diremmo beni culturali, nel periodo pre e post unitario: il servizio di tutela, assai disomogeneo nelle varie realtà locali, cerca con difficoltà di proporsi in una prospettiva nazionale. Il percorso tracciato, com’è noto, evidenzia importanti criticità che perdurano per molto tempo e non possono essere trascurate nella ricostruzione delle scelte politiche attuate durante il trasferimento della capitale. Per comprendere la complessità di tali operazioni, è stato necessario identificare la ‘consistenza’ di una macchina burocratica così complessa. L’organizzazione amministrativa nei vari uffici ministeriali cambia anche considerevolmente in funzione del peso politico assunto da ciascun ministero, e le differenze in termini di competenze, unità e numero di uffici si traducono in spazi architettonici più o meno ampi, collocati in edifici di proprietà statale dall’alto valore rappresentativo oppure relegati in stabili anonimi e regolati da contratti di affitto. Per organizzare il consistente materiale di studio in modo chiaro ed esaustivo, è stato scelto lo strumento della schedatura delle sedi ministeriali torinesi e fiorentine, che occupa i capitoli centrali del lavoro. L’indagine è stata condotta facendo un costante riferimento alle fonti bibliografiche e documentarie, queste ultime conservate sia presso gli archivi storici della città di Torino e di Firenze, sia presso gli archivi di Stato di Torino, Firenze e Roma, in modo da privilegiare il costante confronto tra la dimensione municipale e quella centrale. Le voci di schedatura delineano in sintesi i caratteri storici e architettonici di ciascun edificio, mentre approfondiscono maggiormente l’ambito cronologico riferito alle esigenze governative e locali sino ai più recenti cambiamenti: l’analisi quindi supera lo studio delle sue peculiarità artistiche, del resto già presenti in molte pubblicazioni indicate in una bibliografia specifica, allo scopo di intrecciare inediti rapporti tra il singolo stabile e le vicende risorgimentali e post risorgimentali, in una chiave di lettura innovativa. Incrociando i dati desunti dalle schede, interpretati anche sulla base del sistema normativo sui beni culturali di inizio Novecento, si è giunti alla stesura del capitolo conclusivo che individua per le sedi ministeriali ormai dismesse cinque famiglie in base alla funzione che le accomuna: didattica, militare, culturale, amministrativa e residenziale. L’indagine cercherà di capire se è possibile cogliere una logica comune di recupero e riutilizzo degli edifici, che diventano chiara espressione della volontà di trasmettere una serie di valori omogenei, nel solco del difficile percorso verso l’acquisizione di una solida identità nazionale. I complessi architettonici sottoposti all’indagine sono stati l’espressione di un continuo cambiamento d’uso, quasi destinato a non avere mai fine. Possibile che le scelte operate siano state dettate soltanto da fortuite contingenze e da singole occasioni d’uso? Poco probabile. L’approfondimento critico dello studio attraverso l’indispensabile confronto con il coevo piano normativo dedicato ai beni culturali, inserito volutamente all’inizio e alla fine della stesura della tesi, ha permesso di cogliere alcuni atteggiamenti comuni alle due città, forse non sempre consapevoli, che testimoniano una chiara espressione di attenzione ad un bisogno di volta in volta collettivo o municipale. E’ stato possibile dimostrare che l’identità nazionale tra la fine dell’Ottocento e l’inizio del Novecento è stata costruita, varrebbe la pena dire strutturata, soprattutto tentando di rispondere a queste esigenze: istruire i cittadini, rafforzare la memoria collettiva e garantire l’unità tanto amministrativa quanto militare, a fondamento di un sentire comune che, almeno nelle intenzioni dei diversi attori politici e amministrativi, presto avrebbe potuto e dovuto accomunare tutto il popolo italiano.

À l'intérieur d'un État, la distribution des ressources publiques sur le territoire a une importance fondamentale, parce qu'elle représente un facteur de justice dans les rapports entre collectivités territoriales, de sorte qu’elle conditionne la capacité à assurer les charges liées à l’exercice de leurs compétences, dans le respect de leur autonomie, au profit des habitants qui doivent pouvoir bénéficier d’une qualité minimale des services publics. Cette thèse vise d’abord à étudier et à comparer quelle est l’influence de la forme d’État (unitaire pour la France et fédérative pour le Brésil) sur les mécanismes de la solidarité territoriale. Elle se propose de décrire et d’analyser l’efficacité des mécanismes plus importants (financiers : impôt local, dotations, fonds et transferts facultatifs ; coopératifs : institutions représentatives, politiques publiques nationales, mutualisation et contrats entre collectivités territoriales) mis en place, dès le prélèvement des impôts (nationaux ou locaux), en passant par les incitations fiscales, jusqu’au transfert des ressources aux bénéficiaires. Toute d’abord par une description de l’évolution historique qui explique l’organisation territoriale et la naissance des mécanismes de solidarité actuels, puis en montrant les inégalités importantes qui existent, principalement entre communes pour, enfin, finir avec une analyse prospective de l’efficacité et des défauts (guerre fiscale, corruption et évasion fiscales) de ces mécanismes qui visent à réaliser une péréquation (verticale ou horizontale) des ressources publiques
Within a state, the distribution of public resources inside the territory have a fundamental importance, because it represents a factor of justice in the relationship between local authorities, so that it affects the ability to provide their obligations related to the exercise of their powers in respect of their autonomy, in benefit of citizens who need to have a minimum quality of public services. This thesis aims first to examine and compare what is the influence of the form of state (Unitary for France and Federal for Brazil) on the mechanisms of territorial solidarity. It aims to describe and analyze the effectiveness of the most important mechanisms (financial: local taxes, grants, funds and discretionary transfers; cooperative: representative institutions, national public policies, pooling and contracts between central state and local authorities). Firstly with a description of the historical evolution of territorial organization and the birth of the current solidarity mechanisms and showing the significant existant inequalities, moreover among municipalities, to finally end up with a prospective analysis of effectiveness and defects (tax war, corruption and tax evasion) of these mechanisms designed to achieve equalization (vertical or horizontal) of public resources

Kwantowa entropia dynamiczna jest miara nieredukowalnej losowości wyników następujących po sobie pomiarów układu kwantowego, który pomiędzy dwoma kolejnymi pomiarami podlega ewolucji unitarnej. Łączna ewolucja takiego układu opisywana jest za pomocą częściowego iterowanego układu funkcyjnego (PIFS, partial iterated function system) na zespolonej przestrzeni rzutowej, zaś entropia dynamiczna wyraża się za pomocą tzw. wzoru całkowego Blackwella. Uzyskanie efektywnego wzoru na entropie dynamiczna nie sprawia trudności jedynie w sytuacji, gdy pomiar składa się z operatorów o rzędzie jeden. W pierwszej części rozprawy badamy entropie dynamiczna względem pomiarów rzutowych (PVM; projection valued measure), które zawierają operatory o rzędzie większym niż jeden. Najprostszym przypadkiem tego problemu jest układ trójwymiarowy oraz pomiar złożony z dwóch rzutowań (o rzędach jeden i dwa). Przypadek ten był badany przez Crutchfielda i Wiesner dla pewnego konkretnego operatora unitarnego oraz dwóch pomiarów. W rozprawie podajemy klasyfikacje wszystkich tego typu układów trójwymiarowych: wyróżniamy osiem typów łańcuchów Markowa, które mogą zostać wygenerowane w przestrzeni stanów kwantowych, po czym dla każdego typu wyprowadzamy efektywny wzór na entropie dynamiczna oraz entropie nadwyżkowa. W drugiej części rozważamy pojecie kwantowej entropii dynamicznej niezależnej od pomiaru. Wielkość ta jest zdefiniowana jako maksimum kwantowej entropii dynamicznej (względem pomiaru) po klasie pomiarów złożonych z rzutowań jednowymiarowych (rank-1 PVM), którym odpowiadają bazy ortonormalne przestrzeni zespolonej. Wyróżniamy klasę operatorów chaotycznych, czyli operatorów o maksymalnej entropii. Korzystając z pojęcia zespolonej macierzy Hadamarda, podajemy warunek konieczny na chaotyczność, który wyraża się w języku śladu i wyznacznika operatora. Dla wymiarów dwa i trzy ten warunek jest również wystarczający, co pozwala na obliczenie objętości zbioru operatorów chaotycznych w grupie unitarnej (względem miary Haara), a także, w wymiarze dwa, średniej wartości kwantowej entropii dynamicznej. Uzyskujemy także efektywny warunek konieczny (w języku śladu) na chaotyczność operatora w wymiarze piec. Układy wyżej wymiarowe rozważane są w sytuacji wielu kubitów (układów dwuwymiarowych), z których każdy podlega lokalnej ewolucji opisywanej tym samym operatorem unitarnym. Chaotyczność tego operatora okazuje się być warunkiem koniecznym i wystarczającym osiągania przez cały układ maksymalnej entropii dynamicznej. Drugim analizowanym przypadkiem jest układ złożony z jednego kubitu o nietrywialnej ewolucji unitarnej oraz towarzyszących mu kubitów pomocniczych (o ewolucji trywialnej). Pokazujemy, ze takie rozszerzanie układu o pomocnicze kubity prowadzi do spadku entropii dynamicznej (unormowanej liczba kubitów) oraz wyznaczamy granice entropii dynamicznej przy liczbie kubitów pomocniczych dążącej do nieskończoności - granica ta okazuje się być zawsze dodatnia. Wyróżniamy także klasę uporczywie chaotycznych operatorów unitarnych jako tych, które są chaotyczne pomimo obecności dowolnie wielu pomocniczych kubitów, oraz podajemy charakteryzacje operatorów uporczywie chaotycznych w wymiarach dwa i trzy. Kwantowa entropie dynamiczna niezależna od pomiaru można zdefiniować także jako supremum entropii dynamicznej względem pomiaru po szerszej klasie tzw. pomiarów uogólnionych, którym odpowiadają miary półspektralne (POVM; positive operator valued measure). Wykazujemy, ze w wymiarze dwa maksymalizacja (odpowiednio znormalizowanej) entropii po zbiorach: mniejszym, rank-1 PVM-ów, i większym, rank-1 POVM-ów, daje ten sam wynik.
Quantum dynamical entropy measures the irreducible randomness in the sequences of outcomes generated by a repetitively measured quantum system that between two consecutive measurements is subject to unitary evolution. Joint evolution of such a system can be described by a Partial Iterated Function System (PIFS) acting on a complex projective space and its dynamical entropy is given by the so-called Blackwell integral formula. It is only in the case of measurements consisting exclusively of rank-1 operators that a closed-form expression for quantum dynamical entropy can be fairly easily derived. In the first part of the dissertation we study quantum dynamical entropy with respect to projective measurements (PVMs) that contain projectors of ranks higher than one. The simplest case of this problem is a three-dimensional quantum system measured with a PVM consisting of two projectors, one of which has rank two and the other has rank one. This case was investigated by Crutchfield & Wiesner, who analysed a specific unitary operator with respect to two measurements. We provide a classification of all such three-dimensional systems, identifying eight types of Markov chains that they can generate in the space of quantum states and then deriving for each chain type efficient formulae for quantum dynamical entropy and excess entropy. In the second part we consider the notion of quantum dynamical entropy independent of measurement. This quantity is defined as the maximum of quantum dynamical entropy (with respect to a measurement) over the class of rank-1 PVMs, which correspond to orthonormal bases of the underlying complex space. We distinguish the class of chaotic unitary operators as those unitaries that attain the maximal value of quantum dynamical entropy. Employing the notion of a complex Hadamard matrix, we derive a necessary condition for chaoticity in terms of the trace and determinant of a unitary. In dimensions two and three this condition is sufficient as well, which allows for the calculation of the volume of chaotic unitaries in the unitary ensemble (with respect to the Haar measure) and, in dimension two, the average value of quantum dynamical entropy. We also obtain an effective necessary trace condition for chaoticity in dimension five. Higher dimensional systems are studied in the particular case of several qubits that are all subject to the (local) action of the same unitary. We prove that this unitary is chaotic if and only if the dynamical entropy of the composite system is maximal. We also analyse the case of non-trivial unitary dynamics affecting one qubit, while the remaining ancillary qubits are governed by the trivial dynamics. We show that quantum dynamical entropy (per one qubit) eventually decreases (i.e., when sufficiently many ancillary qubits have been taken into account) and we compute its limit as the number of ancillary qubits grows to infinity - this limit turns out to be strictly positive. Furthermore, we distinguish the class of stubbornly chaotic unitaries as those that are chaotic despite the presence of arbitrarily many ancillary qubits. We establish a necessary trace condition for a unitary to be stubbornly chaotic and characterise stubbornly chaotic unitaries in dimensions two and three. Quantum dynamical entropy independent of measurement can be also defined as the supremum of quantum dynamical entropy with respect to a measurement over the bigger class of generalised measurements, which correspond to semispectral measures (POVM; positive operator valued measure). We prove that in dimension two the maximisation over the bigger set of rank-1 POVMs leads to the same result as the maximisation over the smaller set of rank-1 PVMs.

The purpose of this thesis is to describe and explain the origins of centra 1 i sed unitary con st itut i ona l forms adopted at independence, with speci a 1 reference to the pre-independence period of colonial rule and the states of Botswana, Zimbabwe and Namibia. Since the states of the world are either unitary or federal, an attempt is made to distinguish the unitary constitutional form from federation by contrasting both concepts. The three states under study are identified as centralised and unitary by referring to political, historical, legal, administrative and fiscal criteria. The theoretical and practical origins and explanations for the adoption of unitary constitutional forms in the European and African context are explained. First, the theoretical origins of monism, pluralism, dualism, absolutism and sovereignty and the thoughts of a number of classical theorists are discussed. Next the practical origins, the statements and perceptions by members of African nationalist elites supportive of unitary states in Africa in the colonial and early post-colonial period are referred to, in partial exp 1 anat ion for the adoption of this con st itut i ona 1 form. British constitutional practices and precedents are also discussed. Further, to explain the origins of the centralised unitary state in Africa, the three case studies of Botswana, Zimbabwe and Namibia come under discussion. A four stage conceptual scheme devised by Etzioni and modified for the purpose of this thesis is utilised to analyse and explain the origins of the centralised unitary state in the three case studies of Botswana, Zimbabwe (xii) and Namibia. A variety of factors both historical and contemporary, internal and external to these countries are identified and analysed. These factors include amongst others, early settlement patterns and confiicts, British colonial practices and precedents, the perceptions and ambitions of nationalist movements and elites, relationships with neighbouring states, the climate of opinion, and the requirements of nation-building and political stability. The thesis is concluded by comparing the experiences of the three countries and, setting out several inductive propositions determining under which conditions these states adopted centralised unitary constitutional forms in preference to decentralised ones, federation or partition. Finally, the thesis is concluded by referring in a Postscript to the postindependence constitutional reassessment in the three countries concerned, the constitutional reassessment process in Africa in general, literature references to this process, and the prospects for constitutional reform on the continent.
Political Science
D. Lit. et Phil. (Politics)

M.Ing.
A steady-state model was developed to predict the performance of the highpressure side' of vapour-compression air-conditioning systems. The model consists of two segments; the compressor model and condenser model. The compressor model consists of a single empirical equation, for reciprocating compressors, operating with R-22, and having a cooling capacity from 2.6 to 3.5 kW. An important advantage of the approach is that the compressor performance indexes are based on operating conditions. The condenser model displays an exact method to determine physical dimensions of heat exchangers, and a simple, accurate manner to calculate the heat transfer variables. The correctness of the condensing temperature is obtained by an iterative procedure, using terms from both the compressor and condenser studies. The feasibility of the proposed model is demonstrated via a comparison with experimental data and a simulation study. Results indicate a good correlation between the mathematical model and its counterparts.

Dopo più di quarant’anni di tentativi tesi alla realizzazione di un titolo di protezione brevettuale “comunitario”, nel 2012 sono stati emanati due regolamenti, il n. 1257/2012 e il n. 1260/2012, attuativi di una cooperazione rafforzata tra ventisei Stati membri dell’Unione europea: essi creano un brevetto europeo con effetto unitario e ne disciplinano il regime di traduzione applicabile. L’anno successivo, venticinque Stati membri hanno firmato un accordo istitutivo del Tribunale unificato dei brevetti. I summenzionati strumenti normativi costituiscono il c.d. “pacchetto brevetti”, che entrerà in vigore una volta che almeno tredici Stati membri, tra cui Germania, Francia e Regno Unito, avranno ratificato l’Accordo. Rispetto al panorama attuale, caratterizzato da una frammentazione normativa e giurisdizionale, tale nuova architettura porterà indubbiamente notevoli vantaggi. Da un lato, infatti, i regolamenti europei introducono un “nuovo brevetto” che estende la sua efficacia oltre i confini nazionali; la portata della protezione e gli effetti saranno infatti uniformi in tutto il territorio degli Stati membri partecipanti. Dall’altro, il Tribunale unificato, competente a giudicare quasi tutte le controversie in materia brevettuale, si sostituirà ai giudici nazionali, garantendo l’uniformità della giurisdizione e delle decisioni. Tuttavia, il risultato ottenuto con il “pacchetto brevetti” non sembra essere adeguato agli obiettivi di unitarietà che le istituzioni europee e gli Stati membri si erano prefissati. Si tratta infatti di un quadro normativo complesso, che combina il diritto dell’Unione europea, il diritto internazionale (in particolare l’Accordo sul Tribunale unificato e la Convenzione sul brevetto europeo), e il diritto nazionale degli Stati membri, a cui gli atti citati rinviano in diverse occasioni, e che istituisce due strumenti, il brevetto europeo con effetto unitario e il Tribunale unificato dei brevetti, dalla natura assai controversa. Per tale ragione, la nuova normativa solleva molteplici questioni di natura costituzionale, in ordine alla compatibilità del nuovo sistema con l’ordinamento giuridico dell’Unione europea. Uno dei profili problematici di particolare interesse riguarda la cooperazione rafforzata in tema di tutela brevettuale unitaria, che sembra essere stata instaurata per eludere il dissenso di Italia e Spagna in relazione al regime linguistico applicabile. Inoltre, nei due regolamenti europei manca una vera e propria disciplina sostanziale, sollevando pertanto dei dubbi sull’effettiva “unitarietà” del nuovo brevetto. Infine, alcune caratteristiche del Tribunale unificato, quali la sua particolare struttura, il riparto interno delle competenze, il regime linguistico e la previsione di un periodo transitorio in cui è possibile ancora adire il giudice nazionale, si pongono in contrasto con il fine di unificazione giurisdizionale. A tali considerazioni si aggiunge che la decisione del Regno Unito di uscire dall’Unione europea potrebbe compromettere l’entrata in vigore del “pacchetto brevetti”. Obiettivo del presente lavoro è quello di analizzare in modo organico l’intera disciplina, nell’ottica di verificarne l’effettiva compatibilità con l’ordinamento dell’Unione europea. Solamente attraverso un approccio sistematico fondato sui principi e sugli strumenti dell’UE, si possono superare le attuali criticità che emergono dal “pacchetto brevetti”, nell’ottica di un effettivo miglioramento di tale nuova disciplina e del conseguente raggiungimento di una reale unitarietà nella tutela brevettuale.

La prima parte dello studio propone un quadro della situazione politica, economica e soprattutto finanziaria dell’Italia unita, cercando di individuare le ragioni pratiche degli interventi attuati rispetto all’asse ecclesiastico. Successivamente viene presa in considerazione la legislazione ecclesiastica postunitaria, ricostruendo in maniera analitica le procedure e le disposizioni previste per l’applicazione sul territorio nazionale. Viene analizzato in maniera sistematica su fonti reperite presso archivi di Stato di diverse città situate nei territori sottoposti ad indagine, corrispondenti alla regione Emilia-Romagna, la rilevanza delle dinamiche innestate dalle pratiche di alienazione dei beni ecclesiastici coinvolti nelle liquidazioni postunitarie. Attenzione particolare è stata infatti prestata ai profili degli acquirenti dei beni liquidati, al rapporto con le dinamiche agricole del tempo e dei luoghi, al risultato strettamente finanziario conseguito con l’intera operazione.
The first part of the study offers a framework of political, economic and especially financial of united, trying to identify the practical reasons of the actions taken with respect to the axis ecclesiastical. It is then considered ecclesiastical legislation unification, rebuilding an analytical procedures and the arrangements for the application throughout the country. It is analyzed in a systematic way on sources obtained from state archives of several cities located in the territories under investigation, corresponding to the region of Emilia-Romagna, the importance of the dynamics grafted from the practices of alienation of church property involved in 800's liquidations. Special attention was paid to the fact profiles of buyers of assets liquidated, the relation with the dynamics of agricultural time and place, to strictly financial results achieved with the whole operation

Measures of workload have been developed on the basis of the various definitions, some are designed to capture the multi-dimensional aspects of a unitary resource pool (Kahneman, 1973) while others are developed on the basis of multiple resource theory (Wickens, 2002). Although many theory based workload measures exist, others have often been constructed to serve the purpose of specific experimental tasks. As a result, it is likely that not every workload measure is reliable and valid for all tasks, much less each domain. To date, no single measure, systematically tested across experimental tasks, domains, and other measures is considered a universal measure of workload. Most researchers would argue that multiple measures from various categories should be applied to a given task to comprehensively assess workload. The goal for Study 1 to establish task load manipulations for two theoretically different tasks that induce distinct levels of workload assessed by both subjective and performance measures was successful. The results of the subjective responses support standardization and validation of the tasks and demands of that task for investigating workload. After investigating the use of subjective and objective measures of workload to identify a universal and comprehensive measure or set of measures, based on Study 2, it can only be concluded that not one or a set of measures exists. Arguably, it is not to say that one will never be conceived and developed, but at this time, one does not reside in the psychometric catalog. Instead, it appears that a more suitable approach is to customize a set of workload measures based on the task. The novel approach of assessing the sensitivity and comprehensive ability of conjointly utilizing subjective, performance, and physiological workload measures for theoretically different tasks within the same domain contributes to the theory by laying the foundation for improving methodology for researching workload. The applicable contribution of this project is a stepping-stone towards developing complex profiles of workload for use in closed-loop systems, such as human-robot team interaction. Identifying the best combination of workload measures enables human factors practitioners, trainers, and task designers to improve methodology and evaluation of system designs, training requirements, and personnel selection.
Ph.D.
Doctorate
Industrial Engineering and Management Systems
Engineering and Computer Science
Modeling & Simulation; Engineering

The coding and feedback inaccuracies of the channel state information (CSI) in limited feedback multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) wireless systems can severely impact the achievable data rate and reliability. The CSI is mathematically represented as a Grassmann manifold or manifold of unitary matrices. These are non-Euclidean spaces with special constraints that makes efficient and high fidelity coding especially challenging. In addition, the CSI inaccuracies may occur due to digital representation, time variation, and delayed feedback of the CSI. To overcome these inaccuracies, the manifold structure of the CSI can be exploited. The objective of this dissertation is to develop a new signal processing techniques on the manifolds to harvest the benefits of MIMO wireless systems. First, this dissertation presents the Kerdock codebook design to represent the CSI on the Grassmann manifold. The CSI inaccuracy due to digital representation is addressed by the finite alphabet structure of the Kerdock codebook. In addition, systematic codebook construction is identified which reduces the resource requirement in MIMO wireless systems. Distance properties on the Grassmann manifold are derived showing the applicability of the Kerdock codebook to beam-forming and spatial multiplexing systems. Next, manifold-constrained algorithms to predict and encode the CSI with high fidelity are presented. Two prominent manifolds are considered; the Grassmann manifold and the manifold of unitary matrices. The Grassmann manifold is a class of manifold used to represent the CSI in MIMO wireless systems using specific transmission strategies. The manifold of unitary matrices appears as a collection of all spatial information available in the MIMO wireless systems independent of specific transmission strategies. On these manifolds, signal processing building blocks such as differencing and prediction are derived. Using the proposed signal processing tools on the manifold, this dissertation addresses the CSI coding accuracy, tracking of the CSI under time variation, and compensation techniques for delayed CSI feedback. Applications of the proposed algorithms in single-user and multiuser systems show that most of the spatial benefits of MIMO wireless systems can be harvested.
text

With the establishment of the Directorate of Special Operations (Scorpions), the Asset Forfeiture Unit (AFU), the Special Investigating Unit (SIU) and the Departmental Investigating Unit (DIU), questions were asked as to whether this is a creation of new units of the Police Service. These questions were exaggerated by the fact that the media uses the term "Scorpions" whenever the Scorpions, the AFU, SIU and the DIU perform their functions. South African legislation that governs organised crime does not demarcate activities to be dealt with by the SAPS, AFU, DIU, Scorpions and the SIU. The Constitution of South Africa lays down the objects of the police, but it is silent about the objectives of the Scorpions, AFU, SIU, DIU and other investigative institutions except that it only mentions the creation of a single National Prosecuting Authority (NPA). A literature study was used as the basis for this study. In addition, unstructured interviews and observation were used to gather evidence from the relevant stakeholders. An analysis of the SAPS Detective Service, the Special Investigating Unit (SIU), the Scorpions, the Departmental Investigating Unit (DIU) of the Department of Correctional Services and the Asset Forfeiture Unit (AFU), was done in order to establish the overlapping of functions. Indeed, overlapping was discovered between the Scorpions and the SAPS Detective Service, the AFU and the SIU, as well as between the SAPS and the DIU. In order to make a proper finding, an analysis was done of anti-corruption agencies in Botswana, Nigeria, Malawi and Hong Kong. The findings indicate that the better way of fighting corruption, fraud, economic and financial crimes, is through the establishment of a single agency that will work independently from the police, with a proper jurisdiction.
Criminology
D.Litt. et Phil.(Police Science)

Il commercio dei prodotti agroalimentari ha assunto oggi una dimensione globale, che pone una serie di questioni su cui è necessario riflettere. Una di queste riguarda la sicurezza alimentare intesa nell'accezione di food safety, ossia come il diritto di ogni individuo a consumare cibo sano e sicuro. La sicurezza alimentare implica l'assenza di elementi estranei che sono riconducibili ai residui dei trattamenti antiparassitari, veterinari, contaminanti ambientali o ancora l'assenza di adulterazioni nel processo di produzione, che possono comportare un rischio per la salute dei consumatori. La tesi analizza le principali dinamiche internazionali relative all'attuale commercio dei prodotti agroalimentari, focalizzando l'attenzione sulla questione della sicurezza alimentare, che da un lato deve garantire senza compromessi la tutela di tutti i consumatori, e dall'altro però, le misure adottate non devono costituire inutili ostacoli commerciali per le imprese alimentari esportatrici. L'analisi inizia dagli accordi nati nell'ambito della WTO, con la firma del Trattato di Marrakech nel 1994, con lo scopo di favorire gli scambi commerciali internazionali attraverso una maggiore armonizzazione delle differenti normative di riferimento. Per quanto riguarda specificamente la sicurezza alimentare si fa riferimento all'Accordo SPS sulle misure sanitarie e fitosanitarie e al Codex Alimentarius, che hanno lo scopo di creare un sistema di norme internazionali valido all'interno dei paesi membri della WTO per tutelare la salute dei consumatori e garantire pratiche eque nel commercio degli alimenti. Dal contesto multilaterale della WTO si procede ad analizzare il ruolo degli accordi bilaterali o regionali, nati in seguito alla crisi del multilateralismo, iniziata con il round di Doha nel 2001e dovuta principalmente all'eterogeneità delle posizioni dei Paesi membri. In particolare nell'ambito degli accordi bilaterali si fa riferimento al partenariato transatlantico sul commercio e gli investimenti (TTIP) recentemente negoziato tra UE e USA, e fermo per ora a tale fase. Si tratta di un accordo di libero scambio volto ad abbattere molte barriere commerciali esistenti tra le due sponde dell'Atlantico, con particolare riferimento a quelle non tariffarie consistenti in divergenze normative che ostacolano le esportazioni, tra cui vanno sicuramente ricomprese le misure sanitarie e fitosanitarie, che si sono rivelate le questioni maggiormente dibattute nel corso delle trattative del TTIP, offrendo lo spunto per analizzare in chiave comparatistica le due diverse tradizioni giuridiche di food safety, delineate attraverso la tematica degli OGM, dove emerge la distanza dell'approccio giuridico tra le due potenze transatlantiche. L'uso delle moderne tecniche di ingegneria genetica in campo alimentare è stato uno dei temi particolarmente discussi nell'ambito delle negoziazioni; gli OGM erano già stati oggetto di una controversia tra Europa e USA nell'ambito della WTO. In ogni caso il TTIP, nonostante il suo fallimento, segna comunque la volontà delle due potenze di trovare una base normativa comune. L'ultima parte della tesi riguarda invece l'evoluzione della sicurezza alimentare in Cina, che grazie alla rapida crescita economica degli ultimi anni, si attesta ad essere una delle potenze protagoniste degli scambi commerciali mondiali, completando in tal modo il quadro internazionale di riferimento. L'introduzione nel 2009 della prima legge sulla sicurezza alimentare, poi modifica nel 2015, rappresenta un primo avvicinamento ai sistemi normativi occidentali. L'analisi delle diverse normative di food safety nel contesto europeo, statunitense e cinese mostra come la globalizzazione economica abbia determinato anche una globalizzazione giuridica o meglio un progressivo allineamento dei diversi sistemi normativi. La necessità di facilitare gli scambi commerciali per competere a livello mondiale ha favorito l'avvicinamento dei vari ordinamenti giuridici. Pertanto si assiste a una sorta di "contaminazione legislativa" estranea alla politica commerciale comune della WTO, ferma da tempo ad una fase di completa stagnazione. In particolare per quanto riguarda il settore alimentare si auspica che il progressivo avvicinamento dei sistemi normativi sul tema della sicurezza alimentare possa favorire la nascita di una food law unitaria a livello globale, che sappia rispondere alle esigenze economiche - commerciali della libera circolazione dei prodotti, e contemporaneamente garantire la tutela di tutti i consumatori, assicurando un elevato livello di qualità e sicurezza.